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Procedia Engineering 49 (2012) 152 – 160

Evolving Energy-IEF International Energy Congress (IEF-IEC2012)

Design and modeling of a greenhouse for a remote region in Nepal

Seona Candya*, Graham Moorea, Peter Freereb
a
Department of Infrastructure Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
b
World Vision Australia, Burwood Victoria, Australia
Elsevier use only: Revised 24th July 2012; accepted 27th July 2012

Abstract

Food insecurity arises in circumstances where individuals or families cannot meet their most basic need for food. This problem is
particularly common in remote mountain areas where the shortage of arable land and a harsh climate make it impossible to produce a
sufficient quantity and diversity of food throughout the year. This investigation forms part of a project to improve food security using
solar technology in Humla, an impoverished mountain region in Nepal. In similar locations, increased food production and preservation
have been achieved using solar greenhouses and dryers. However, a systematic approach, where these technologies are used in a
complementary way to supply the shortfall in food and address nutritional deficiencies has not been attempted. This paper describes the
selection, construction and testing of an existing greenhouse design in Humla. An initial design selection was devised that was based on
existing high altitude greenhouses but modified to incorporate locally available materials. A TRNSYS model was then created and
validated from measured data. The model has then been used to explore methods to improve the performance and reduce costs of the
basic design and further adapt it to the local climate.

© 2012 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of the International
© 2012 The
Energy Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of the International Energy Foundation
Foundation
Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.
Keywords: greenhouses; food security; mountain regions; Nepal; simulation

1. Introduction

Nepal is the poorest country in South Asia, with 38% of the population living below the poverty line [1]. The country is
characterised by low levels of development and high dependence on subsistence agriculture and imported goods. The
combination of low agricultural productivity, land constraints, natural hazards and high population growth causes short and
long term food insecurity, particularly in rural areas. According to a recent survey by the Food and Agriculture Organisation
(FAO), 42 out of the 75 districts in Nepal were considered to be in food deficit [2], where the amount of food available does
not meet the needs of the population.
One such district is Humla, a remote, impoverished, mountainous region in the north-west corner of the country.
Agriculture is difficult due to steep slopes and bad soil, and long, harsh winters reduce the growing season for fresh
vegetables to just three or four months per year. Due to lack of road infrastructure and mountainous terrain, it is
prohibitively expensive or impossible to import additional supplies. Some food aid is provided by international agencies, but
in recent times has been reduced due to rising regional food and fuel prices [3], [4]. As a result, the people living in this
region experience high levels of chronic malnutrition and micro-nutrient deficiencies [5].
According to a recent nutritional evaluation by Action Contre le Faim (ACF) [6], both the anaemia and night-blindness
prevalence of 23.5% and 2.1% respectively were sufficiently high to be considered a public health problem. Anaemia and
night-blindness are indicators of deficiencies in iron and vitamin A respectively. Micro-nutrient deficiencies such as these

* Corresponding author
E-mail address: seonacandy@gmail.com

1877-7058 © 2012 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of the International Energy Foundation
Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license. doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2012.10.123
 Seona Candy et al. / Procedia Engineering 49 (2012) 152 – 160 153

have serious affects on intellectual development and the immune system, which have ramifications for socio-economic
development and productivity [7].
In some mountain regions in Nepal and nearby India, solar greenhouses have been used to grow out of season crops and
increase food availability in winter [8]. These designs have been developed over a ten-year period through community based
pilot programs. Although this method produces successful designs, it requires a long time-frame and long periods spent in
remote areas. This paper describes the selection, construction and performance of an existing high altitude greenhouse
design for use in Humla, built with the assistance of local NGO Rural Integrated Development Services (RIDS). It explores
how accurately it can be modelled with limited data in non-ideal circumstances to determine if simulation can be used in
place of a pilot program to refine the design for this area. It forms part of an on-going research project related to using the
combination of two solar technologies, greenhouses and solar dryers, to improve food security in Humla. Firstly, an
overview of design selection process is discussed. Following this, the construction process for the selected design is
outlined. Experimental results from the winter in 2010 are then presented. Finally, the simulation model is outlined, along
with results from performance improvements, with a particular focus on air temperature.

2. Design Selection

The combination of high solar intensity due to altitude and latitude and cold agricultural conditions make the use of
greenhouse technology an attractive option in Humla. Lack of other resources, extreme weather and inaccessibility, restrict
what can feasibly be constructed and maintained. There is little technological development, no electricity or running water
and a predominance of manual labour. Figure 1 shows conditions in a typical Humla village.
The high altitude greenhouse design developed by Groupe Energies Renouvelables, Environnement et Solidarités (GERES)
[8], in partnership with the Ladakh Environment and Health Organisation (LEHO), for use in Ladakh, India, has been
designed to withstand high snowfall and very low temperatures and to be affordable for local farmers. The main aims were
to allow an increase in production to two harvests per year and to limit food shortages during the winter [9]. According to
Stauffer [10], green leafy vegetable production in winter can be up to 50 kg per month for a 50 m2 greenhouse, which is
considered sufficient to feed a family and also to generate additional income.
The basic GERES/LEHO greenhouse design for Ladakh consists of a structure with solid walls on the north, east and
west sides, a glazed south sloping face and a sloping roof facing north (Figure 2). The glazing is single layer UV stabilized
polyethylene (PET) and angled in such a way to transmit the maximum amount of solar radiation to the interior. The angle
of the lower section is 50º or more from the horizontal to transmit solar radiation in the early morning or late afternoon
when the sun is low in the sky. The angle of the upper section is 20º or more to transmit midday solar radiation and allow
small amounts of snow to slide off.

Fig. 1. A typical village in Humla (photo S Candy).

The walls are composed of three layers: an outer load bearing wall built with mud brick, rammed earth or stone; a thinner
inner wall used to store heat during the day and release it at night, also built from mud brick, rammed earth or stone; and an
insulating layer of materials like straw, sawdust or dry grass in between. The roof on the north side is constructed from
154 Seona Candy et al. / Procedia Engineering 49 (2012) 152 – 160

layers of wooden sticks, straw and soil. This solid construction is intended to limit heat loss and is tilted at an angle of 35º to
avoid shading in winter and reduce the interior volume.
Ventilation is provided with a door and a window on opposite walls and roof ventilators that are manually operated. Both
the door, window and ventilator shutters are constructed using a thick frame and thin outer sheets of plywood, with dry
grass again being used as insulation in the middle. The greenhouse floor is dug out to 15cm below the outside surface level
to improve plant growth by trapping carbon dioxide and to provide additional thermal insulation.
LEHO estimates that cost of construction of these greenhouses is approximately 25,000 Indian Rupees (approximately
40,000 NRp or $470 AUD). The GERES design is the most widely used high altitude design, with dissemination not only in
Ladakh, but also in mountain regions of Mustang in Nepal, Wakhan district in Afghanistan, and Qinghai province in China,
where the original Ladakh design has been adapted to local conditions.
Fuller et al. [11] investigated an experimental solar greenhouse in Simikot that was similar in design to the Ladakh
greenhouse but with only single masonry walls and a shallower angle for the glazing. The initial evaluation found that the
greenhouse air temperature range on a typical January day was between 2ºC overnight and 26ºC in the middle of the day
and soil temperatures at 200mm below the surface do not fall below 9ºC. Garzoli [12] recommends that an air temperature
range of 10 32ºC is suitable for growing most crops in a greenhouse and Maynard and Hochmuth [13] recommend soil
temperatures between 7 - 24ºC for germination of cold season crops. The temperature range in the existing Humla
greenhouse indicates that the soil is warm enough to allow germination, but that more thermal mass is needed to regulate the
greenhouse air temperature overnight. The double walls in the GERES design provide this extra mass, without differing too
much in terms of design and construction materials from the greenhouse that has already been constructed and operated in
Humla. Based on thermal performance, durability and success in other mountain areas, the GERES design is considered
suitable for Humla.

Fig. 2. Solar greenhouses in Ladakh (photos S Candy).

3. Construction of Humla Greenhouse

According to the published GERES construction manual [8], the 1A design would be most suitable for the Humla climate
based on temperature data collected by Fuller et al. [11]. This design (shown in Fig. 2) is intended to be built on a flat
surface in a cold climate with minimum winter temperatures of more than -10 ºC. To adapt this design for Humla, a number
of changes were necessary related to materials, size, ventilation and glazing.

3.1. Materials

Instead of mud brick, dry stone construction, rendered with mud, was used as this is the traditional method in Humla
(Fig. 3a). As a result it was necessary to increase the width of the walls to 30cm for stability.
possible to put insulation throughout the walls. Figure 4 shows the sections that could be insulated with straw. Since
plywood is virtually unobtainable in Nepal, galvanized iron sheets were used instead on the outside of the door, window and
roof ventilators (Fig.3b). The wooden layer of the roof was constructed from rough wooden planks rather than sticks (Fig.
3c). Sticks are in short supply because they are already being gathered by local villagers as firewood.
 Seona Candy et al. / Procedia Engineering 49 (2012) 152 – 160 155

Fig. 3. a) Dry stone wall b) Door construction c) Roof building

3.2. Size

Changes were made to the size of the cross section of the greenhouse due to constraints with construction materials (Fig.
4). Locally available planks are shorter than specified for the roof in the GERES design, so it was shortened by 15 cm. This
lowered the highest point of the roof from 2.05 m to 1.9 m and reduced the angle of the upper section of the glazing from
20° to 15°. The sheets of UV resistant PET available were narrower than that specified in the GERES manual, so the width
of the greenhouse along the north-south axis had to be reduced by one metre. Due to thicker inner walls, the inside growing
area was also reduced. Overall, the outside footprint of the greenhouse was 5 m x 10 m (50 m2) and the inside area was 34
m2 (4 m x 8.5 m). With allowance for paths between beds, the effective growing area was 25 m2.

Fig. 4. Diagram of Humla greenhouse (without glazing) with dimensions and insulation inside double walls.

3.3. Ventilation and Glazing

Based on the thermal evaluation of the existing Humla greenhouse by Fuller et al. [11], double glazing has been added to
the greenhouse to reduce heat loss during the night. To counteract any subsequent temperature rises during the day, extra
ventilation flaps have been added in the front corners of the greenhouse (Fig. 5).
156 Seona Candy et al. / Procedia Engineering 49 (2012) 152 – 160

Fig. 5. a) Outside Humla greenhouse b) inside Humla greenhouse

3.4. Cost

The greenhouse required one month for construction and, where possible, materials were sourced locally. Materials that
were not available locally, such as hinges, paint, wire and galvanised iron sheets were sourced in Nepalgunj and transported
by air to Humla. The UV stabilized plastic sheets had been purchased from India and transported to Nepal. The summary of
construction costs is shown below in Table 1.

Table 1. Breakdown of construction costs for Humla greenhouse (9

Item Amount Unit cost (NRp) Total cost (NRp)

Excavation - - 6000
Stone 4 charta 6000 per charta 24000
Wood (rough) 51 planks 50 per plank 2550
Wood (cut) 26.6 ft3 150 per ft3 3990
Wood (beams) 6 beams 150 per beam 900
2 2
Plastic sheet 110 m 23 per m 2530
External materials - - 10759
Transportation costs 107 kg 80 per kg 8560
Carpentry / Masonry 28 days, 2 workers 500 per worker per day 28000
Total 87289

The total cost of construction was approximately $1000 AUD. This is significantly more than a local family could afford. It
is clear that the two largest contributors to overall cost are skilled labour and stone. Stone was recommended as an
alternative to mud brick in the GERES construction manual, however the higher cost of this building material was not
considered. In Humla, it is necessary to chip stone manually from nearby cliffs for construction, which significantly
increases the costs. This aspect was not considered in existing literature and construction manuals and has implications for
the appropriateness of the design in the Humla context. It must be noted that if the structure were to be self-built by farmers,
the costs would be reduced significantly. Local unskilled labour has a monetary value of 150 NRp / worker / day (P Freere,
2012, pers. comm., 26 July), however more labour time would most likely be required.

4. Measurement

Various thermal performance data was collected from the greenhouse from December 2009 to March 2010. Total solar
radiation on the horizontal plane outside the greenhouse was measured using an unshielded photoelectric pyranometer
(Pacific Systems Pty. Ltd., SolData SPC80 SN 243, spectral range 300-2800 nm). Ambient temperature and relative
humidity were also measured with a battery powered data logger (Onset Corp., Hobo H8 Series) located adjacent to the
greenhouse. Another battery-powered data logger (Onset Corp., Hobo U12-012 Series) was used to measure internal
greenhouse air temperature and humidity, placed halfway up the centre support pole of the greenhouse. Soil temperatures at
200 and 400 mm depth, and just below the surface inside the greenhouse were also measured in the centre of the greenhouse
 Seona Candy et al. / Procedia Engineering 49 (2012) 152 – 160 157

with TMC-HD temperature sensors connected to a battery powered data logger (Onset Corp., Hobo U12-006 Series). These
devices were cross-calibrated against each other at the start of the experiments.

5. Results

The data collected has been analysed to reveal key greenhouse performance data. Figure 7 illustrates the typical daily
behaviour of the greenhouse in terms of temperature and relative humidity in January and includes ambient temperatures.
Overnight minimum temperatures range from 2 3°C and occur at approximately 7 am each day. On average, between
sunset and sunrise, the greenhouse air temperature is approximately 3.5°C above the average outside ambient temperature of
1.2°C. An exception to this is on the 17 January when the greenhouse vents were left open all night and the inside
temperature was equal to the ambient temperature. The sun first shines on the greenhouse at approximately 8 am, when it is
no longer in the shadow of a nearby mountain. The outside ambient and greenhouse air temperatures start to rise soon
afterwards. During the daytime the average greenhouse air temperature is approximately 14.3°C above the average outside
air temperature of 7.4°C, with a peak of between 32 - 40°C at approximately 2.30 pm. The exception to this is on the 13
January when the weather was cloudy and solar radiation low. On this day, the average temperature difference between
inside and outside is 5.5°C. The soil temperature at 250mm below the surface ranges between 9 -12°C. On a sunny day, the
average greenhouse relative humidity is nearly 51%, approximately 15 percentage points above the ambient level.
Horizontal solar radiation on a sunny day is around 13 MJ m-2.
Over the winter from December 2009 to March 2010, various crops were successfully grown in the Humla greenhouse.
These included spinach, swiss chard, cauliflower and carrot. On average, approximately 7 kg of green leafy vegetable and 5
kg of cauliflower were harvested each month, along with less than 1kg of carrot. This is an improvement on previous
conditions, where no vegetables were available, however it falls short of the 50 kg/month of green leafy vegetables
produced in greenhouses in Ladakh.
Figure 7 indicates that the greenhouse daytime air temperatures are far too high, exceeding the recommended limit of
32°C [12]. The overnight air temperatures drop below 10 °C overnight and on cloudy days. The soil temperatures are
sufficient for seed germination according to Maynard and Hochmuth [13] because they are within the range of 7 - 24°C.
Although vegetables could be produced in these conditions, results from greenhouses in other areas suggest that
improvements in the thermal performance of the greenhouse such as reducing the maximum daily temperature and
increasing the overnight minimum would beneficial to crop growth and productivity.

45 100

40 90

35 80
Greenhouse
Air
Relative Humidity (%)

30 70
Temperature
Temperature (degC)

25 60 Ambient
Temperature
20 50
Soil
temperature at
15 40
250mm
Relative
10 30
Humidity

5 20

0 10
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
-5 0

Date

Fig. 7. Typical daily greenhouse temperature and relative humidity levels in January 2010.

6. Simulation model

According to Fuller et al. [11] numerous dynamic thermal models have been developed to investigate the thermal
performance of greenhouses. Most of these are in industrialised countries and have been developed for glasshouse
structures. The proposed Humla greenhouse design has more similarities with a traditional building due to its masonry walls
used to passively regulate temperature with thermal mass. Cropping levels will also be low compared to modern greenhouse
practice. For the above reasons, a building model, Type 56 in the solar simulation program TRNSYS, was used to
investigate the thermal performance of the greenhouse rather than a specialist glasshouse model. This model allows the user
to define a building of any size or shape with user-supplied parameters to define material properties and dimensions.
158 Seona Candy et al. / Procedia Engineering 49 (2012) 152 – 160

Schedules can be used to determine inputs at specified times. A radiation processor within TRNSYS uses horizontal

6.1. Model Description

The main user supplied parameters in the TRNSYS Type 56 model include material properties, infiltration, ventilation
schedules and humidity gains from plants. The material properties of greenhouse materials were mainly sourced from
literature and are listed in Table 2. Material properties for clay were used for the rendering on the stone walls and material
properties for straw bale were used for the straw insulation in between the double walls.

Table 2. Material properties used in simulation model

Material Density Specific Heat Conductivity Reference

Capacity (W/mK)
(kg/m3)
(kJ/kgK)
Wood (pine) 400 1.30 0.10 [17]
Earth 1300 0.88 1.20 [18]
Granite 2640 0.82 3.00 [16]
Dry stone wall 1584 0.82 0.83 (estimated)
Clay 1500 1.80 1.50 TRNSYS library
Straw bale 60 0.60 0.07 [19]
Plant canopy (spinach) 899 2.1 0.35 [20] & [21]

Assumptions were made regarding the material properties of the dry stone walls. Initially the materials properties for granite
were used for the stone walls, but preliminary results showed that the model had too much thermal capacitance. Dry stone
walls can have between 20-40% of their volume as air pockets or voids [14], which will affect their density and
conductivity. The specific heat capacity is assumed not to be affected because the thermal capacity of air is negligible
compared to the thermal capacity of stone. Overall heat capacity will be reduced, but that would be accounted for by the
reduction in density. Based on the observations of construction in Humla, it is assumed that the walls consist of 40% voids,
therefore the density has been reduced by 40%. No data could be found for conductivity of dry stone walls with 40% voids,
however specifications for aircrete blocks with 70% air pockets and the same specific heat capacity as stone, stated a
conductivity value of 0.15 W/mK [15]. Therefore it was assumed that the conductivity of the dry stone walls was between
the value for aircrete and that of granite, which was found to be 3.0 W/mK [16].
The Window 5 program was used to create a glazing model for the greenhouse. It is a publicly available computer
program for calculating total window thermal performance indices (i.e. U-values, solar heat gain coefficients and visible
transmittances) and can be used to create new window types for the TRNSYS window library. Although a double layer of
UV stabilized PET film was used on the experimental greenhouse, the glazing was modelled with a double layer of normal
PET film and a 100 mm air gap. Since the greenhouse had been in operation for a year prior to the experimental data being
collected, this was done to account for degradation of the plastic over that time.
The plant canopy was modelled as an additional horizontal surface to account for radiation and convection heat transfer,
with thermal properties shown in Table 2. Transpiration and respiration from the plants was modelled as an additional
humidity gain in the greenhouse air. For greenhouse crops, the formula most currently used for transpiration prediction is
based on a simple linear correlation with solar radiation [22] [23]. A linear coefficient of 0.0001 and a constant of 0.15 were
found to approximate the inside humidity well. An infiltration rate of 1.0 volume air change per hour is reasonable for a
PET-covered greenhouse [11], with an additional 0.01 kg/h when the vents were open between 9 am and 4 pm.

6.2. Model Validation

Fig. 8 and 9 show the comparison of measured and simulated results for the greenhouse air temperature and relative
humidity respectively. There is a good agreement between daytime conditions, but more discrepancy overnight. The largest
difference in temperature occurs on January 16-17 overnight and on the 18 January during the day. It was mentioned
previously that on this night the vents were left open on the night of 16 January, and higher than normal winds occurred on
the 18 January, which were not accounted for in the ventilation schedule in the model. All other simulated temperatures are
within 2-3°C of the measured data. The simulated relative humidity remains within 5-10 % RH of the measured data.
 Seona Candy et al. / Procedia Engineering 49 (2012) 152 – 160 159

6.3. Performance Improvement reducing wall thickness

Since the sealed dry stone walls contain air pockets and have in-built insulation, the model was used to test the effect of
reducing the walls to a single layer, removing the straw insulation. The results in Fig. 10 show that there is very little
difference between the double and single wall scenarios. This would have a significant effect on the overall cost of the
greenhouse, reducing materials and construction time. Wall construction comprised approximately 70% of skilled labour
time, so a reduction in wall thickness by 50% would reduce the overall costs of construction by 21,800 NRp, or
approximately 25%.
45
40
35
Ambient
30 temperature
Temperature (degC)

25
Measured
20 Greenhouse
temperature
15
Simulated
10 greenhouse
temperature
5
0
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
-5
Date

Fig. 8. Comparison of measured and predicted greenhouse air temperatures

100

90

80 Ambient relative
(%)

humidity
(degC)

70
humidity

60 Measured
Greenhouse relative
Temperature

humidity
50
Simulated
Relative

40 greenhouse relative
humidity
30

20
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Date

Fig. 9. Comparison of measured and predicted greenhouse relative humidity

45
40
35
30 Greenhouse
Temperature (degC)

temperature -
single walls
25
20
15 Greenhouse
temperature -
10 double walls

5
0
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Date

Fig. 10. Simulated results with single and double walls.

6. Conclusion
The outcome of this investigation shows that the GERES design is appropriate for and can be constructed in Humla. The
high cost results show, however, that this design is not ideal. These suggest that changes to the greenhouse construction and
160 Seona Candy et al. / Procedia Engineering 49 (2012) 152 – 160

operation that improved performance without increasing, or preferably decreasing costs would make this design more
appropriate for use in Humla. The development of a validated simulation model allowed design changes to tested without
needing to construct another prototype. Results showed that the thickness of the walls could be reduced from a double to a
single layer, with little change in the performance
decreases the overall cost significantly by 25%. This simulation model will be used to trial other design modifications with
the aim to reduce the overall cost of the greenhouse while maintaining adequate performance for crop production, making
the design more accessible and appropriate for use in Humla.

7. References

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