Chapt 8

Keflaio 8
QWROI ME ESWTERIKO
GINOMENO
8.1 Eisagwg
Wc gnwst, nac grammikc qroc V orzetai pnw se kpoio sma K kai qarakth-
rzetai ap do prxeic, thn prsjesh (addition),
+ : V V ;! V (u v) 7! u + v
pou enai eswterik prxh, kai to bajmwt arijmhtik pollaplasiasm (scalar
multiplication),
: V K ;! V (u ) 7! u
pou enai exwterik prxh.
Mporome epshc na eisaggoume na eswterik pollaplasiasm,
h i : V V ;! K (u v) 7! hu vi
me ton opoo antistoiqzoume na zegoc dianusmtwn tou V se na arijm tou s-
matoc K . Pardeigma miac ttoiac prxhc enai to eswterik ginmeno1 (inner
R
product) pou orsame qro n. To eswterik ginmeno twn u v n me 2R
u = (u1 u2 un) kai v = (v1 v2 vn)
orzetai wc exc:
X
n
hu vi = ui vi 2 R :
i=1
Me th bojeia tou eswteriko ginomnou, orzontai pol shmantikc metrikc nnoiec,
pwc to mkoc diansmatoc, h apstash metax do shmewn, h gwna metax do
dianusmtwn ka.
1 Upenjumzoume thn parxh enallaktikn rwn sth bibliografa gia to eswterik ginmeno ston
Rn: bajmwt ginmeno (scalar product) kai ginmeno teleac (dot product).
1
2 Keflaio 8. QWROI ME ESWTERIKO GINOMENO
Sto keflaio aut, ja orsoume genik thn nnoia tou eswteriko ginomnou se
aujareto grammik qro V kai sth sunqeia ja eisaggoume tic nnoiec tou mkouc
kai thc orjogwnithtac. Ja asqolhjome tso me pragmatikoc so kai me miga-
R C
dikoc grammikoc qrouc, V ( ) V ( ). 'Otan mia prtash kalptei kai tic do
periptseic (genik, h pragmatik perptwsh enai eidik perptwsh thc migadikc),
R C
ja qrhsimopoiome to sumbolism V (K ), pou K = . Tloc prpei na epishm-
noume ti kurwc mac endiafroun peperasmenodistatoi grammiko qroi, pwc oi
M
K n kai mn (K ). Merik jewrmata tou kefalaou den isqoun se apeirodista-
touc qrouc, pwc o C (K )a b] kai aut ja upogrammzetai safc stic diatupseic
twn jewrhmtwn autn.
8.2. H nnoia tou eswteriko ginomnou 3
8.2 H nnoia tou eswteriko ginomnou

Gia lgouc kajar didaktikoc ja dsoume prta ton orism tou eswteriko ginme-
nou se pragmatik grammik qro kai sth sunqeia to geniktero orism gia migadik
grammik qro.
Orismc 8.2.1
Kalome eswterik ginmeno (inner product) bajmwt ginmeno (scalar
product) se na pragmatik grammik qro V (R) mia apeiknish thc morfc
h i : V V ;! R
h opoa gia kje u v w 2 V kai 2 R qei tic akloujec idithtec:
(A1) hu ui 0
(A2) hu ui = 0 =) u = 0
(A3) (i) hu + v wi = hu wi + hv wi
(ii) hu v i = hu v i
(A4) hu v i = hv ui
O arijmc hu v i kaletai eswterik ginmeno bajmwt ginmeno twn u
kai v .
Parathrseic
1. H idithta A1 enai gnwst wc idithta thc jetikthtac (positivity property)
thc jetikc orisimthtac (positive de niteness). Lme ti to eswterik gin-
meno enai jetik orism
no (positive de nite). H idithta A3(i) kaletai idi-
thta thc prosjetikthtac (additivity property) en h A3(ii) anafretai wc
omogenc idithta (homogeneity property). Oi do sqseic sthn A3 grfontai
suqn maz wc exc:
hu + v wi = hu wi + hv wi u v w 2 V 2 R : (8.1)
H A3 kaletai tte grammik idithta (linear property). Tloc, h A4 kaletai
summetrik idithta (symmetric property).
2. Se poll bibla, h A2 grfetai me dipl sunepagwg:
hu ui = 0 () u = 0 :
To ti mwc h u=0 sunepgetai thn hu ui=0 den enai aparathto afo aut
prokptei ap thn A3. Epeid
hu ui = hu ui 8 2 R
0
gia u= qoume
h0 0i = h0 0i 8 2 R =) h0 0i = h0 0i 8 2 R =)
(1 ; ) h0 0i = 0 8 2 R =)
h0 0i = 0 : (8.2)
3. Oi idithtec A1 kai A2 mporon na sunduaston wc exc:
hu ui > 0 8u 2 V n f0g :
4. Ektc ap to sumbolism h i, sunantome epshc sthn bibliografa kai llouc,
pwc oi:
h j i ( ) ( j ) ( ) kai
O teleutaoc sumbolismc (dhl. h telea ) kal enai na apofegetai gia na
mhn uprqei kndunoc sgqushc me to sunjh to bajmwt pollaplasiasm.
5. 'Ena eswterik ginmeno pou giau 2 V ikanopoie th sunjkh
hu vi = 0 8v 2 V =) u = 0
kaletai mh ekfulism
no (non-degenerate).
To eswterik ginmeno orzetai anloga kai se migadik grammik qro, V ( ), C

me mnh diafor to ti h summetrik idithta A4 antikajstatai ap th suzug
summetrik idithta (conjugate symmetric property):
hu vi = hv ui u v 2 V (C) :
Enai faner ti h suzugc summetrik idithta perilambnei wc eidik perptwsh th
summetrik idithta se pragmatikoc grammikoc qrouc. Sunepc, o orismc pou
akolouje apotele genkeush tou Orismo 8.2.1.
Orismc 8.2.2
Kalome eswterik ginmeno bajmwt ginmeno ermitian ginmeno
(Hermitian product) akma monadiao eswterik ginmeno (unitary inner
product) se na migadik grammik qro V (C) mia apeiknish thc morfc
h i : V V ;! C
h opoa gia kje u v w 2 V kai 2 C qei tic akloujec idithtec:
(A1) hu ui 0
(A2) hu ui = 0 =) u = 0
(A3) (i) hu + v wi = hu wi + hv wi
(ii) hu v i = hu v i
(A4) hu v i = hv ui
O arijmc hu v i kaletai eswterik ginmeno bajmwt ginmeno ermi-
tian ginmeno akma monadiao eswterik ginmeno twn u kai v .
Orismc 8.2.3
(a) 'Enac grammikc qroc V (K ) efodiasmnoc me eswterik ginmeno h i
lgetai qroc me eswterik ginmeno qroc eswteriko ginom
nou (in-
ner product space) kai sumbolzetai me (V ). h i
'Enac pragmatikc grammikc qroc efodiasmnoc me eswterik ginmeno
kaletai pragmatikc qroc me eswterik ginmenoa (real inner product
space).
'Enac migadikc grammikc qroc efodiasmnoc me eswterik ginmeno
kaletai migadikc qroc me eswterik ginmeno (complex inner product
space).
(b) 'Enac peperasmenodistatoc pragmatikc qroc me eswterik ginmeno
kaletai eukledeioc qrocb (Euclidean space).
'Enac peperasmenodistatoc migadikc qroc me eswterik ginmeno kale-
tai monadiaoc qroc (unitary space) ermitianc qroc (Hermitian space)
migadikc eukledeioc qroc.
a O orismc autc enai sqedn perittc sta ellhnik . Ton dnoume mwc gia lgouc plhr-
thtac maz me ton antstoiqo agglik ro.
b Prosoq: Tso sthn ellhnik so kai sthn agglik bibliografa, oi orismo twn eukle-
deiwn kai twn monadiawn qrwn dnontai suqn qwrc thn apathsh oi qroi auto na enai
peperasmenodi statoi.
Sunjh eswterik ginmena se grammiko c qrouc

Ta eswterik ginmena pou ja oriston pio ktw anafrontai wc ta sunjh esw-
terik ginmena (standard inner products) stouc antstoiqouc grammikoc qrouc.
1. Qroc n R
'Estw ta diansmata u=(u1 u2
un) kai v=(v1 v2 vn) tou Rn. To snh-
jec eswterik ginmeno orzetai wc exc:
X
n
hu vi = ui vi : (8.3)
i=1
An jewrsoume ta diansmata tou Rn wc n 1 pnakec, mporome epshc na
gryoume
X
n
hu vi = ui vi = uT v = vT u : (8.4)
i=1
H apdeixh ti h pio pnw prxh ikanopoie tic sunjkec tou Orismo 8.2.1 enai
R
arket apl. Smfwna me ton Orism 8.2.3, o n efodiasmnoc me to snhjec
eswterik ginmeno enai eukledeioc qroc distashc n. Sthn agglik ku-
rwc bibliografa anafretai kai wc eukledeioc n-qroc (Euclidean n-space)
akma wc kartesianc qroc (Cartesian space). To snhjec eswterik gin-
meno (3) suqn kaletai eukledeio ginmeno.
Ston R, to eswterik ginmeno tautzetai me to sunjh pollaplasiasm:
hx yi = xy x y 2 R :
2. Qroc nC
To snhjec eswterik ginmeno ston Cn orzetai wc exc:
X
n
hu vi = ui vi u v 2 Cn : (8.5)
i=1
Jewrntac ta diansmata tou Cn wc n 1 pnakec, qoume
X
n
hu v i = ui vi = vu (8.6)
i=1
pou v o anastrofosuzugc tou v , v =vT . O Orismc 8.2.2 epalhjejetai
ekola. O (Cn h i) enai monadiaoc qroc distashc n.
To eswterik ginmeno ston C
tautzetai me ton pollaplasiasm migadiko
arijmo me to suzug enc llou:
hz1 z2i = z1 z2 z1 z2 2 C :
3. Qroc Mmn ( )R
Sto qro twn pragmatikn m n pnakwn, h sqsh
hA B i = tr(B T A) A B 2 Mmn (R) (8.7)
orzei na eswterik ginmeno. Ap ton orism tou pollaplasiasmo pinkwn,
brskoume ti
X
m ! X
m X
n
hA B i = tr(B T A) = tr bki akj = aij bij : (8.8)
k=1 nn i=1 j =1
H epaljeush tou Orismo 8.2.1 enai apl kai afnetai san skhsh.
M R h i
O ( mn ( ) ) enai eukledeioc qroc distashc mn.
4. Qroc Mmn (C)
H sqsh
X
m X
n
hA B i = tr(B A) = aij bij A B 2 Mmn (C) (8.9)
i=1 j =1
pou B o anastrofosuzugc tou B , orzei to snhjec eswterik ginmeno ston
Mmn (C). H epaljeush tou Orismo 8.2.2 enai apl kai afnetai san skhsh.
O (Mmn (C) h i) enai monadiaoc qroc distashc mn.
5. Qroc C (R)a b]
Ston pragmatik grammik qro C (R)a b] twn pragmatikn sunartsewn pou
enai suneqec sto a b], h sqsh
Zb
hf gi = f (t) g(t) dt f g 2 C (R)a b] (8.10)
a
orzei na eswterik ginmeno. Parathrome ti
Zb
hf f i = a
f 2(t) dt 0
opte h sunjkh A1 tou Orismo 8.2.1 ikanopoietai.

An Z b
hf f i = f 2(t) dt = 0
a
tte epeid h f enai suneqc sto a b] kai f 2 (x) 0 gia x 2 a b], h f
enai
anagkastik h mhdenik sunrthsh, pwc apaite h sunjkh A2. Oi idithtec
A3 kai A4 apodeiknontai ekola me thn bojeia twn idiottwn tou orismnou
oloklhrmatoc.
C
6. Qroc C ( )a b]
To snhjec eswterik ginmeno sto migadik grammik qro C ( C)a b] orzetai
ap thn
Zb
hf gi = f (t) g(t) dt f g 2 C (C)a b] : (8.11)
a
Pardeigma 1
Gia to eswterik ginmeno twn dianusmtwn u=(1 2 0 ;4) kai v=(1 2 3 0) tou R4
parnoume:
hu vi = h(1 2 0 ;4) (1 2 3 0)i = 1 1 + 2 2 + 0 3 + (;4) 0 = 5 :
Pardeigma 2
'Eqoume dh anafrei ti sna grammik qro mporome na orsoume perisstera
ap na eswterik ginmena. Ja dexoume ti h prxh
hu vi = 2 u1v1 ; u1v2 ; u2v1 + u2v2
orzei na eswterik ginmeno ston R2 .
A1: hu ui = 2 u21 ; 2 u1u2 + u22 = u21 + (u1 ; u2)2 0
A2: hu ui = 0 =)2 u1 = u2 = 0 =) u = 0
A3: Gia u v w 2 R parnoume
hu + v wi = 2 (u1 + v1)w1 ; (u1 + v1)w2 ; (u2 + v2)w1 + (u2 + v2)w2 =)
hu+v wi = (2u1w1 ;u1w2 ;u2w1 +u2w2)+(2v1w1 ;v1w2 ;v2w1 +v2w2) = hu wi+hv wi
Gia 2 R qoume epshc
hu vi = 2 (u1)v1 ; (u1)v2 ; (u2)v1 + (u2)v2 =)
hu vi = (2 u1v1 ; u1v2 ; u2v1 + u2v2) = hu vi
A4: hu vi = 2 v1u1 ; v2u1 ; v1u2 + v2u2 = hv ui
Afo ikanopoie tic sunjkec A1-A4 tou Orismo 8.2.1, h prxh h i orzei na
eswterik ginmeno ston R2 .
Pardeigma 3
To eswterik ginmeno tou prohgomenou paradegmatoc mporome na to gryoume
wc exc: " #" #
hu vi = u1 u2] ;21 ;11 v1 = uT Av
v2
pou " #
A = ;21 ;11 :
Epshc, mia llh paratrhsh enai ti mporome na gryoume to snhjec eswterik
R
ginmeno ston n wc exc:
hu vi = uT Iv u v 2 Rn : (8.12)
Me aform autc tic parathrseic, ac jewrsoume thn apeiknish
hu vi = uT Av u v 2 Rn (8.13)
pou A 2M R
nn ( ). Ja brome tic idithtec pou prpei na qei o A gia na enai h
pio pnw apeiknish eswterik ginmeno ston n . R
2R
H A3 ikanopoietai ap kje n n pnaka A afo gia kje u v w n
hu + v wi = (u + v)T Aw = (uT + vT ) Aw = uT Aw + vT Aw = hu wi + hv wi
kai gia kje 2 R
hu vi = (u)T Av = uT Av = hu vi :
Gia na ikanopoietai h A4 prpei na isqei
hu vi = hv ui () uT Av = vT Au :
Epeid
uT Av = (uT Av)T = vT AT (uT )T = vT AT u
h A4 ikanopoietai an o A enai summetrikc, an dhlad AT =A. Gia na ikanopoiontai
oi A1 kai A2 arke na isqei
uT Au > 0 8u 6= 0 : (8.14)
'Opwc ja dome sth sunqeia tou kefalaou, pnakec pou ikanopoion thn pio pnw
sunjkh kalontai jetik orism
noi.
Me anlogo trpo, brskoume ti h apeiknish
hu vi = uAv u v 2 Cn (8.15)
enai eswterik ginmeno ston Cn an o A 2 Mnn (C) enai ermitianc (A =A) kai
uAu > 0 8u =6 0: (8.16)
Pardeigma 4
Gia to eswterik ginmeno twn dianusmtwn u=(3 1 + i) kai v=(2 ; 3i i) tou C2
qoume:
hu vi = h(3 1+ i) (2 ; 3i i)i = 3(2 ; 3i) + (1+ i) i = 3(2+3i) + (1+ i)(;i) = 7 + 8i:
Pardeigma 5
'Estw w 2 C (R)a b] mia sunrthsh me thn idithta
w(x) > 0 8x 2 a b] :
H sqsh
Zb
hf gi = w(t) f (t) g(t) dt f g 2 C (R)a b] (8.17)
a
orzei na eswterik ginmeno ston C (R)a b]. H w(x) kaletai sunrthsh brouc
(weight function) tou eswteriko ginomnou.
Pardeigma 6
'Estw V nac peperasmenodistatoc grammikc qroc kai A=fw1 w2 wng mia
diatetagmnh bsh tou. An u v V me 2
u = a1w1 + a2w2 + + anwn
kai
v = b1w1 + b2w2 + + bnwn
tte h prxh
X
n
hu vi = ai bi (8.18)
i=1
orzei na eswterik ginmeno ston V . H apdeixh enai apl. Enai epshc faner
R
h analoga me to snhjec eswterik ginmeno ston n . H (8.18) enai aplc to
eswterik ginmeno twn dianusmtwn twn suntetagmnwn twn u kai v wc proc th
bsh A.
Pardeigma 7
'Estw Pn o qroc twn pragmatikn poluwnmwn bajmo mikrterou sou me n. An
p(x) = a0 + a1 x + + an xn kai q(x) = b0 + b1 x + + bn xn
tte apodeiknetai ekola ti h sqsh
X
n
hp q i = ai bi (8.19)
i=0
orzei na eswterik ginmeno ston Pn .
Pardeigma 8
To uposnolo H twn pragmatikn akoloujin faig me thn idithta
1
X
a2i < 1
i=1
apotele apeirodistato grammik qro kai kaletai qroc Hilbert
(Hilbert space)
R
l2-qroc. Ston H eisgoume, katanaloga proc ton n , to eswterik ginmeno
1
X
hfaig fbigi = ai bi : (8.20)
i=1
Epeid to pio pnw jroisma sugklnei apoltwc, to eswterik ginmeno enai kalc
orismno.
H prtash pou akolouje sunoyzei tic basikc idithtec tou eswteriko ginomnou.
Prtash 8.2.4
Sna qro me eswterik ginmeno (V (K ) h i) isqoun ta exc:
h i h i h i
(i) u v + w = u v + u w u v w 2V.
h i h i
(ii) u v = u v u v V K . 2 2
h i
(iii) u v + w = u v + u w h i h i u v w 2 V 2 K .
(iv) u h 0i h0
= u = 0 u V. i 2
(v) h0 0i
= 0.
(vi) * +X
m X
m
i ui v = i hui vi ui v 2 V i 2 K :
i=1 i=1
(vii) * +
X
n X
n
u j uj = j hu vj i u vj 2 V j 2 K :
j =1 j =1
(viii)
*X
m X
n + X
m X
n
i ui j uj = i j hui vj i ui vj 2 V i j 2 K :
i=1 j =1 i=1 j =1
Apdeixh
(i) u v w 2 V qoume
Gia
hu v + wi = hv + w ui = hv ui + hw ui = hv ui + hw ui = hu vi + hu wi :

(Qrhsimopoisame th suzug summetrik idithta A4, thn A3 kai idithtec twn mi-
gadikn.)
2 2
(ii) Gia u v V kai K qoume
hu vi = hv ui = hv ui = hv ui = hu vi :
(iii) Prokptei apl ap tic (i) kai (ii).
(iv) hu 0i=hu 0ui= 0hu ui=0. 'Omoia brskoume ti h0 ui=0.
Enallaktik apdeixh: Ap thn (i) qoume:
hu v + 0i = hu vi + hu 0i =) hu vi = hu vi + hu 0i =)
hu 0i = 0 8u 2 V :
(v) Prokptei amswc ap thn (iv) jtontac u=0. Shmeinoume ti apodexame dh
thn h0 0i=0 sthn perptwsh pragmatiko grammiko qrou me eswterik ginmeno.
(vi) 'Amesh genkeush thc grammikc idithtac A3.
(vii) 'Amesh genkeush thc (iii).

(viii) Prokptei apl ap tic (vi) kai (vii). 2
Ap th suzug summetrik idithta A4 (Orismc 8.4.2) parathrome ti gia kje
u 2 (V h i)
hu ui = hu ui
h
kai epomnwc u u i2R
. Aut llwste uponoetai ap th sunjkh jetikc orisim-
h
thtac A1 tou Orismo 8.2.2. Gia to mh arnhtik arijm u u dnoume to akloujo i
orism.
Orismc 8.2.5
h i
'Estw (V (K ) ) qroc me eswterik ginmeno. Kalome nrma (norm)
m
tro mkoc (length) thn apeiknish :V jj jj ;! R
pou orzetai ap th
sqsh
jjujj = hu ui1=2 u 2 V : (8.21)
Lme ti h nrma jj jj pargetai ap to eswterik ginmeno h i.
Parathrseic
1. Ant tou jj jj
, sth bibliografa qrhsimopoietai epshc kai o sumbolismc j j.
Epshc, sta ellhnik sunantome touc rouc norm kai stjmh.
2. 'Opwc ja dome sto edfio 8.4, den enai aparathto o V na enai efodiasmnoc
me eswterik ginmeno gia na orsoume mia nrma.
Sth sunqeia parajtoume tic nrmec pou prokptoun ap ta sunjh eswterik
ginmena pou orsame sthn arq tou edafou. Autc enai epshc sugkentrwmnec
ston Pnaka 8.1.
Sunjeic nrmec se grammiko c qrouc

1. Qroc n R
H nrma pou antistoiqe sto snhjec eswterik ginmeno,
"X
n #1=2
jjujj = ui
2
u = (u1 un) 2 Rn (8.22)
i=1
enai gnwst wc eukledeia nrma. Enai ekolo na dome ti ston R3 h nrma
q
jjujj = u21 + u22 + u23
paristnei thn apstash tou shmeou u=(u1 u2 u3) ap thn arq enc orjog-
niou sustmatoc suntetagmnwn , isodnama, to mkoc tou diansmatoc u. H
nrma (8.22) enai mia genkeush thc nnoiac tou mkouc ston n . R
Pnakac 8.1 Sunjh eswterik ginmena kai antstoiqec nrmec.
X
n
1: Rn hu vi = ui vi = uT v = vT u
i=1
"X
n #1=2
jjujj = ui2
i=1
X
n
2: Cn hu vi = ui vi = vu
i=1
"X
n #1=2
jjujj = juij 2
i=1
X
m X
n
3: Mmn (R) hA B i = tr(B T A) = aij bij
i=1 j =1
q 2m n 31=2
XX
jjAjj = tr(AT A) = 4 aij 5
2
i=1 j =1
X
m X
n
4: Mmn (C) hA B i = tr(B A) = aij bij
i=1 j =1
2m n 31=2
q XX
jjAjj = tr(AA) = 4 jaij j25
i=1 j =1
Zb
5: C (R)a b] hf gi = a
f (t) g(t) dt
"Z b
#1=2
jjf jj = a
f (t) dt
2
Zb
6: C (C)a b] hf gi = f (t) g(t) dt
a
"Z b
#1=2
jjf jj = a
jf (t)j dt 2
Shmewsh: Oi orismo stouc pragmatikoc qrouc Rn, Mmn(R) kai (R) ] enai profanc C a b
eidik c periptseic twn orismn stouc antstoiqouc migadikoc qrouc Cn , Mmn (C) kai (C) ]. C a b
Ston R, h nrma tautzetai me thn apluth tim:

p
jjxjj = hx xi1=2 = x2 = jxj x 2 R :
'Etsi, h nrma ston Rn apotele genkeush thc apluthc timc gia pragmatikoc
arijmoc.
2. Qroc Cn
"X
n #1=2
jjujj = juij 2
u = (u1 un) 2 Cn : (8.23)
i=1
H nrma tou z 2 C tautzetai me to mtro tou:
q
jjzjj = hz zi 1=2
= jzj2 = jzj z 2 C :
3. Qroc Mmn (R)
2 m n 31=2
q XX 2 5
jjAjj = tr(AT A) = 4 aij A 2 Mmn (R) : (8.24)
i=1 j =1
4. Qroc Mmn (C)
2m n 31=2
q X X
jjAjj = tr(AA) = 4 jaij j25 A 2 Mmn (C) : (8.25)
i=1 j =1
5. Qroc C (R)a b]
"Z b #1=2
jjf jj = a
f (t) dt
2
f 2 C (R)a b] : (8.26)
6. Qroc C (C)a b]
"Z b #1=2
jjf jj = jf (t)j2 dt f 2 C (C)a b] : (8.27)
a
Pardeigma 1
H sunjhc nrma tou u=(1 ;2) tou R2 enai h
q p
jjujj = 12 + (;2)2 = 5 :
Ston dio qro apodexame ti h prxh
hu vi = 2 u1v1 ; u1v2 ; u2v1 + u2v2
orzei na eswterik ginmeno. H nrma pou pargetai ap aut to eswterik gin-
meno enai h q q
jjujj = 2u21 ; 2u1u2 + u22 = u21 + (u1 ; u2)2 :
Qrhsimopointac aut th nrma brskoume gia to u=(1 ;2):

q p
jjujj = 12 + (;3)2 = 10 :
y
1
jjujj = 1 q
jjujj = 3 u21 + u22
p x
1= 3
q
Sqma 8.1. O monadiaoc kkloc pou orzetai ap th nrma jjujj= 3 u21 + u22
ston R2.
Pardeigma 2
(a) Dexte ti h prxh
hu vi = 3 u1v1 + u2v2
orzei na eswterik ginmeno ston R2 .
(b) Na breje h nrma pou pargetai ap to pio pnw eswterik ginmeno.
(g) Sqediste ton monadiao kklo pou orzetai ap thn pio pnw nrma.
(a) Ja dexoume ti isqoun oi idithtec A1-A4 tou Orismo 8.2.1.

A1 h i
: u u = 3 u21 + u22 0
A2 h i
: u u =0 = ) )
u1 = u2 = 0 = u = 0
A3 : Gia u v w2R 2 parnoume
hu+v wi = 3(u1+v1)w1+(u2+v2)w2 = (3u1w1+u2w2)+(3v1w1+v2w2) = hu wi+hv wi:

Gia 2 R qoume epshc
hu vi = 3 (u1)v1 + (u2)v2 = (3 u1v1 + u2v2) = hu vi

A4: hu vi = 3 v1u1 + v2u2 = hv ui
(b) q
jjujj = hu ui1=2 = 3 u21 + u22 :
(g) Jtontac jjujj=1 qoume
3 u21 + u22 = 1 :
p
O monadiaoc kkloc antistoiqe se lleiyh me xonec 1= 3 kai 1 (bl. Sqma 8.1).
Pardeigma 3
Gia th sunjh nrma tou u=(2 + 3i 1 ; 2i) 2 C2, qoume
q p p
jjujj = j2 + 3ij2 + j1 ; 2ij2 = 13 + 5 = 18 :
Pardeigma 4
'Estw o pnakac 2 3
1 + i i 2 i
A = 64 2 2 ; i 0 75 2 M33(C) :
1 1 + 3i 3
Gia th sunjh nrma tou A parnoume
p
jjAjj = 2 + 1 + 4 + 4 + 5 + 0 + 1 + 10 + 9 = 6 :
Pardeigma 5
Gia th sunjh nrma thc migadikc sunrthshc
f (x) = ei mx 2 C (C)0 2]

pou m akraioc, qoume:
Z 2 1=2 Z 2 1=2 Z 2 1=2 p
jjf jj = hf f i1=2 = 0
ei mx ei mx dx =
0
ei mx e;i mx dx =
0
dx = 2:
8.3 H anis thta Cauchy-Schwarz
H anisthta Cauchy-Schwarz enai ap tic shmantikterec anisthtec kai enai pol
qrsimh se polloc kldouc twn majhmatikn. Anafretai kai wc anisthta tou
Schwarz, kurwc sth Germanik bibliografa, wc anisthta tou Cauchy2, kurwc sth
Gallik bibliografa, kai wc anisthta tou Bunyakowsky, kurwc sth Rwsik biblio-
grafa.
Prtash 8.3.1 (Anisthta Cauchy-Schwarz)

'Estw (V h i) nac qroc me eswterik ginmeno. Gia kje u v 2 V isqei
hu vi2 hu ui hv vi (8.28)
isodnama
jhu vij jjujj jjvjj : (8.29)
H isthta isqei tan kai mno tan ta u kai v enai grammikc exarthmna.
Apdeixh
Gia v=0, h (2) isqei san isthta afo hu 0i=0 kai jjujj jjvjj=jjujj 0=0. An tra
v 6= 0 , jewrome to eswterik ginmeno
D E
A = ujjvjj2 ; hu viv ujjvjj2 ; hu viv 0 (i)
(lgw thc jetikthtac tou eswteriko ginomnou). Gia to A qoume diadoqik:
D ED E
A = ujjvjj2 ujjvjj ; ujjvjj2 hu viv
2
D E
+ hu viv ujjvjj ; hhu viv hu vivi
2
= jjvjj4hu ui ; jjvjj2 hu vi hu vi
; hu vi jjvjj2 hv ui + hu vihu vi hv vi
= jjvjj4 jjujj2 ; jjvjj2 hu vi hu vi
; jjvjj2hu vi hu vi + jjvjj2 hu vi hu vi
= jjvjj4 jjujj2 ; jjvjj2 hu vi hu vi
= jjvjj4 jjujj2 ; jjvjj2 jhu vij2
= jjvjj2 jjujj2 jjvjj2 ; jhu vij2 :
2 O G lloc majhmatikc Augustin-Louis Cauchy (1789-1857) sugkatal getai stouc megalterouc
majhmatikoc lwn twn epoqn. 'Egraye 7 bibla kai perisstera ap 700 rjra me j mata aplouc
touc kl douc twn majhmatikn. 'Ejese tic b seic thc sgqronhc migadikc an lushc, kai eqe sh-
mantik sumbol sthn kumatik, th jewra elastikthtac, th jewra orizousn, th jewra idiotimn,
th mel th sunjwn kai merikn diaforikn exissewn, th jewra twn om dwn metaj sewn, kai th
jemelwsh tou majhmatiko logismo. 'Orise tic akoloujec pou f roun to nom tou. Eisgage ton
ro orzousa (determinant) kai to sumbolism diplo dekth gia ta stoiqea pin kwn. Anak luye ton
upologism orzousac wc an ptugma algebrikn sumplhrwm twn. Parousase pol pio prin (1821)
ap touc Bunyakovsky (1859) kai Schwarz (1884) thn anisthta Cauchy-Schwarz kai rise prtoc to
mkoc kai to embadn wc oloklhrmata.
8.3. H anisthta Cauchy-Schwarz 17
Epeid A 0 kai v 6= 0,
jhu vij2 jjujj2 jjvjj2 =) jhu vij jjujj jjvjj :
Ja dexoume tra ti h isthta sthn (i) isqei tan kai mno tan ta u kai v enai
grammikc exarthmna. Enai profanc ti an v = kai A=0, tte (giat?)6 0
ujjvjj2 ; hu vi v = 0 u = hjjuvjjv2i v :
=)
Afo to u enai bajmwt pollaplsio tou v , ta u kai v enai grammikc exarthmna.
Antstrofa, an u=v , 2 C, tte
ujjvjj2 ;hu viv = v jjvjj2 ; hv viv = v jjvjj2 ; hv vi v = v jjvjj2 ; v jjvjj2 = 0
kai tsi A=h0 0i=0. 2
Gia mia diaforetik apdeixh thc anisthtac Cauchy-Schwarz, bl. Prblhma 8.8.
Pardeigma 1
Jewrome to qro Rn efodiasmno me to snhjec eswterik ginmeno. An
u = (a1 a2 an) kai v = (b1 b2 bn ) 2 Rn
tte ap thn anisthta Cauchy-Schwarz brskoume th gnwst anisthta
"X
n #2 (X
n ) (X
n )
ai bi ai
2
bi
2
: (8.30)
i=1 i=1 i=1
Paromowc, an u v 2 Cn , brskoume thn
n 2 ( n ) (X )
X ai bi X jaij2
n
jbij :
2
(8.31)
i=1 i=1 i=1
Isqei fusik kai h
n 2 ( n ) (X )
X ai bi X jaij2
n
jbij :
2
(8.32)
i=1 i=1 i=1
Pardeigma 2
Gia to qroC (R)a b], efodiasmno me to snhjec eswterik ginmeno, h anisthta
Cauchy-Schwarz parnei th morf
"Z b #2 Zb Zb
f (t) g(t) dt f 2(t) dt g2(t) dt (8.33)
a a a
h opoa enai mia pol gnwst idithta thc oloklrwshc.
Ston Pnaka 8.2 fanontai oi anisthtec pou prokptoun me efarmog thc anis-
thtac Cauchy-Schwarz stouc kuriterouc qrouc pou mac apasqolon me to snhjec
eswterik ginmeno.
Pnakac 8.2 Anisthtec pou prokptoun me efarmog thc anisthtac

Cauchy-Schwarz me to snhjec eswterik ginmeno stouc antstoiqouc qrouc.
"X
n #2 (X
n ) (X
n )
1: Rn ai bi ai
2
bi
2
ai bi 2 R
i=1 i=1 i=1
X 2 ( n ) (X )
2: Cn n ai bi X jaij2
n
jbij 2
ai bi 2 C
i=1 i=1 i=1
n 2 ( n ) (X )
X ai bi X jaij 2
n
jbij 2
ai bi 2 C
i=1 i=1 i=1
3: Mmn (R) tr2(B T A) tr(AT A) tr(B T B )
4: Mmn (C) jtr(B A)j2 tr(AA) tr(B B )

"Z b #2 Zb Zb
5: C (R)a b] f (t) g(t) dt f 2(t) dt g2(t) dt
a a a
Z b 2 Z Z
6: C (C)a b] f (t) g (t) dt b jf (t)j2 dt b jg (t)j2 dt

a a a
Shmewsh: Oi anisthtec stouc pragmatikoc qrouc Rn, Mmn(R)

kai C ( R) ] enai pro-
a b
fanc eidik c periptseic twn anisottwn stouc antstoiqouc migadikoc qrouc Cn, Mmn(C) kai
C
C ( ) a b].
Pardeigma 3
Gia to qro C (C)a b], efodiasmno me to snhjec eswterik ginmeno, ja dexoume
ti Z b
f (t) dt (b ; a) M M = max jf (x)j :
a ab]
H anisthta Cauchy-Schwarz parnei th morf

Z b 2
f (t) g (t) dt Z b jf (t)j2 dt Z b jg (t)j2 dt =)

a a a
Z b 2 Z Z
f (t) g (t) dt b M 2 dt b jg (t)j2 dt :
a a a
Jtontac g =1 brskoume ekola th zhtomenh sqsh.
H prtash pou akolouje sunoyzei tic basikc idithtec thc nrmac.
Prtash 8.3.2
h i
'Estw (V ) nac qroc me eswterik ginmeno kai h nrma jj jj=h i1=2.
2
Gia kje u v V kai 2C
isqoun ta aklouja:
(B1) jj jj
u 0 (jetikthta)
(B2) jj jj
u =0 = u= . ) 0
(B3) jj jj j j jj jj
u = u (omog neia omogenc idithta).
(B4) Trigwnik anisthta (triangle inequality)
jju + vjj jjujj + jjvjj : (8.34)

Apdeixh
B1-B2: Prokptoun ekola ap ton orism thc nrmac kai tic idithtec tou eswte-
riko ginomnou.
B3:
jjujj2 = hu ui = hu ui = jj2 jjujj2 =) jjujj = jj jjujj :
B4:
jju + vjj2 = hu + v u + vi = hu ui + hu vi + hv ui + hv vi
= jjujj2 + hu vi + hu vi + jjvjj2 = jjujj2 + 2 Rehu vi + jjvjj2
jjujj2 + 2jhu vij + jjvjj2 :
(Qrhsimopoisame basikc idithtec twn migadikn3.) Me thn anisthta Cauchy-
Schwarz parnoume
jju + vjj2 jjujj2 + 2 jjujjjjvjj + jjvjj2 = (jjujj + jjvjj)2 =)
jju + vjj jjujj + jjvjj :
3 An z 2 C, tte z + z =2Rez kai Rez jz j.
Enai faner ti h isthta isqei an u=0 v=0. Isqei epshc an v =u me >0,
opte
jju + vjj = jju + ujj = jj(1 + ) ujj = j1 + j jjujj = 1 jjujj + jjujj =)
jju + vjj = jjujj + jjujj = jjujj + jjvjj :
2
Parathrome ti
jj ; ujj = j ; 1j jjujj = jjujj :
J]Jv
u + v jju + vjj jjujj + jjvjj
*J
u
Sqma 8.2. H trigwnik anisthta ston R3.
H anisthta (8.34) onomzetai trigwnik anisthta giat ston 3 aut angetai R
sth gnwst prtash pou lei ti to mkoc miac pleurc enc trignou enai mikrtero
ap to jroisma twn mhkn twn do llwn pleurn (Bl. Sqma 8.2).
Ap thn trigwnik anisthta prokptoun ekola h
jju ; vjj jju ; wjj + jjv ; wjj u v w 2 V (8.35)
kajc kai h antstrofh trigwnik anisthta4 (reverse triangle inequality)
j jjujj ; jjvjj j jju ; vjj u v 2 V : (8.36)
H apdeixh twn (8.35) kai (8.36) afnetai wc skhsh.
Prtash 8.3.3 Nmoc tou parallhlogrmmou (parallelogram law)

An (V h i) nac qroc me eswterik ginmeno kai u v 2 V , tte

jju + vjj2 + jju ; vjj2 = 2 jjujj2 + jjvjj2 : (8.37)
Apdeixh
Gia kje u v 2 V qoume:
jju + vjj2 = hu + v u + vi = jjujj2 + 2 Rehu vi + jjvjj2
jju ; vjj2 = hu ; v u ; vi = jjujj2 ; 2 Rehu vi + jjvjj2 :
Prosjtontac tic pio pnw sqseic parnoume thn (8.37). 2
Ston Pnaka 8.3 sugkentrsame basikc anisthtec kai isthtec pou isqoun sna
qro me eswterik ginmeno kai thn antstoiqh nrma.
4H antstrofh trigwnik anisthta anaf retai epshc kai wc trigwnik anisthta proc ta ktw.
Pnakac 8.3 Basik c idithtec thc nrmac jj jj=h i1=2 se qrouc me eswterik
ginmeno.
(V h i) kai jj jj = h i1=2 u v w 2 V , 2 K
B1 Jetikthta: jjujj 0
B2 jjujj = 0 () u = 0
B3 Omogenc idithta: jjujj = jj jjujj
B4 Trigwnik anisthta: jju + vjj jjujj + jjvjj
jju ; vjj jju ; wjj + jjv ; wjj
Antstrofh trigwnik anisthta: j jjujj ; jjvjj j jju ; vjj
Anisthta Cauchy-Schwarz: jhu vij jjujj jjvjj
Nmoc tou parallhlogrmmou: jju + vjj2 + jju ; vjj2 = 2 (jjujj2 + jjvjj2)
22
8.4 Qroi me nrma

Sna grammik qro den enai aparathto na qoume orsei eswterik ginmeno gia
na orsoume mia nrma. 'Eqoume ton pio ktw orism:
Orismc 8.4.1
Kalo
me nrma (norm) pnw ston grammik qro V (K ) mia apeiknish thc
morf c jj jj : V ;! R h opoa, gia kje u v 2 V kai 2 K , ikanopoie tic
akloujec sunj kec:
(B1) jjujj 0 (jetikthta).
(B2) jjujj = 0 =) u = 0.
(B3) jjujj = jj jjujj (omogenc idithta).
(B4) jju + v jj jjujj + jjv jj (trigwnik anisthta).
'Enac grammikc qroc V (K ) efodiasmnoc me mia nrma jj jj lgetai qroc
me nrma (normed space) kai sumbolzetai me (V (K ) jj jj).
Parathrseic
1. Sthn ellhnik bibliografa, gia to qro me nrma qrhsimopoio
ntai epshc oi
roi nnormoc, normarismnoc stajmhtc qroc.
2. Se poll bibla, h B2 grfetai wc ex c:
u =0
jj jj () u = 0:
'Omwc to ti jj0jj=0 den enai aparathto afo
prok
ptei ap thn B3:
0 =
jj jj j j jj 0jj K = 8 0 =
2 ) jj jj j 0jj
j jj 8 K = 2 )
(1 ;j ) 0 = 0 K =
j jj jj 8 2 ) jj jj0 = 0:
3. H sunj kh B1 mpore na paralhfje afo
prok
ptei ap tic B2-B4. 'Opwc
dexame pio pnw jj0jj=0 kai tsi
jju + ( u) = 0 :
; jj
Me thn trigwnik anisthta B4 qoume

u +
jj jj jj ; u jj 0
kai me thn omogen idithta B3,
u +
jj jj j; 1 u j jj jj 0 = ) 2 u jj jj 0 = ) jj ujj 0:
4. 'Opwc edame sto edfio 8.3, ap thn trigwnik anisthta prok
ptei e
kola h
enallaktik thc morf
u
jj ; v jj jj u ; w + v
jj jj ; w u v w V
jj 2 (8.38)
kajc kai h antstrofh trigwnik anisthta
j jj u v
jj ; jj jj j jj u ; v u v V :
jj 2 (8.39)
8.4. Qroi me nrma 23
5. O prosektikc anagnsthc ja qei parathr sei ti oi idithtec B1-B4 enai

akribc autc pou apodexame sthn Prtash 8.3.2. 'Enac qroc eswteriko
ginomnou (V h i) enai eidik perptwsh qrou me nrma afo

sto eswterik
ginmeno antistoiqe h nrma
1=2
jj jj = h i :
To antstrofo den isq
ei pnta. 'Enac qroc me nrma (V jj jj) ston opoo
isq
ei h idithta tou parallhlogrmmou enai qroc eswteriko
ginomnou afo
oi prxeic
u v = 14

h i jju+v jj
2
; jj u ; v 2
jj
an V =V (R), kai
u v = 14 u + v 2
h i
h i jj u v 2 + i u + iv 2
jj ; jj u iv 2
; jj jj jj ; jj ; jj
an V =V (C), apotelo
n eswterik ginmena stouc antstoiqouc qrouc1 .
6. An mia apeiknish ikanopoie tic idithtec B1, B3 kai B4 all qi kat angkh
th B2, tte aut onomzetai hminrma (seminorm). Mia hminrma epitrpei thn

parxh kai llwn dianusmtwn u 2 V , ektc tou mhdeniko
, pou ikanopoio
n thn
jjujj=0.
'Opwc ja do
me pio ktw, sna qro mporo
me na orsoume pollc diaforetikc
nrmec tic opoec diakrnoume qrhsimopointac diaforetiko
c upodektec. Uprqoun
dhlad pollo trpoi gia na metr soume to m koc enc dian
smatoc ap touc opo-
ouc epilgoume kat perstash ton pio bolik. Sth sunqeia, ja orsoume nrmec
dianusmtwn (ston K n ), pinkwn (ston Mmn ) kai sunart sewn (ston C (K )a b]).
Ston qro K n mporo

me na orsoume thn p-nrma gia 1 p < 1 :
" n #1=p
X p
jj u jj p = jui j u Kn : 2 (8.40)
i=1
Endiafrousec enai oi eidikc periptseic
n
X
jj ujj1 = jui j (8.41)
i=1
"n #1=2
X
jju2 = jj ui j j
2
(8.42)
i=1
jj jju 1 = 1max u :
in i
j j (8.43)
Oi nrmec jj jj1, jj jj2 kai jj jj1 kalo
ntai na-nrma, d
o-nrma kai peiro-
nrma, antstoiqa. Anafrontai epshc wc l1, l2 kai l1 ( L1 , L2 kai L1 ) nrmec.
1H apdeixh afnetai san skhsh. Prosoq: den enai tetrimmnh!
24
(1, 0) (1, 1)
(1, 0) (1, 0)
(−1, −1)
S1 S2 S1
Sqma 8.3. Oi monadiaoi kkloi S1, S2 kai S1.
Apodeikn
etai e
kola ti oi nrmec autc ikanopoio
n tic apait seic tou Orismo
8.4.1. Eidik gia th 2-nrma parathro

me ti enai h nrma tou K n pou orzetai ap
to s
nhjec eswterik ginmeno:
jj jj2u = u u = (uT u)1=2 u

h i 2 Rn (8.44)
kai
u
jj jj2 = u u = (uu)1=2 u Cn :
h i 2 (8.45)
H 1-nrma kaletai epshc ajroistik nrma. Enai pol
qr simh se probl mata
ektimhtik c sth Statistik kajc kai sth jewra proseggsewn. H 2-nrma kaletai
epshc eukle deia nrma kai sumbolzetai kai me jj jjE . Aut qei apodeiqje qr simh
se probl mata beltistopohshc. H 1-nrma kaletai epshc nrma meg stou (max
norm) akma omoimorfh nrma (uniform norm) kai enai qr simh kurwc gia thn
apdeixh jewrhmtwn s
gklishc, sth jewra stoqastikn anelxewn kai th s
gklish
algorjmwn.
Sth genik perptwsh (1 < p < 1, p 6=2) h apdeixh ti h jj jjp apotele nrma
enai mh tetrimmnh. Aut den mac enoqle idiatera afo
oi periptseic pou mac
endiafroun enai oi p=1, 2 kai 1. Mporo
me na do
me mia gewmetrik ermhnea gia
tic treic autc nrmec, an jewr soume touc monadiaouc kklouc
n o
Sp = x R2 : x p = 1 : 2 jj jj
Oi monadiaoi k
kloi S1, S2 ka S1 fanontai sto Sq ma 8.3.
Pardeigma
Gia to u=(1 2 0 1) R4 parnoume:
; 2
u1= 1 + 2 +0+ jj jj j j j j j; 1 =4
j
p p
u
jj jj2 = 1+4+0+1= 6
u
jj jj 1 = max 1 2 0 1 = 2
f g
'Ena klasik apotlesma gia thn p-nrma ston Rn enai h anisthta H

older2:
uT v u 1 + 1 = 1:
p jjujjq (8.46)
j j jj jj
p q
H anisthta Cauchy-Schwarz enai profanc mia shmantik eidik perptwsh thc ani-
sthtac Holder:
j uT v j jj u u :
jj2 jj jj2 (8.47)
Dnoume qwrc apdeixh to pio ktw shmantik jerhma3 .
Prtash 8.4.2
'Olec oi nrmec ston Rn enai isod
namec (equivalent), dhl. an jj jj kai jj jj
enai nrmec ston Rn , tte gia kje u 2 Rn uprqoun jetikc stajerc c1 kai
c2 ttoiec ste:
c1 u
jj jj jj jj u c2 u :
jj jj (8.48)
Gia pardeigma, an u 2 Rn qoume:

u u1 n u 2 (8.49)
p
jj jj2 jj jj jj jj
u1 u2 n u 1 (8.50)
p
jj jj jj jj jj jj
u1
jj jj jj jju1 n u 1:
jj jj (8.51)
H apdeixh twn pio pnw sqsewn af netai wc skhsh.
Oi nrmec pnaka enai pol

qr simec sthn arijmhtik grammik lgebra. Afo
o Mmn enai ismorfoc me ton K mn , o orismc thc nrmac pnaka prpei na enai
isod
namoc me ton orism thc nrmac dian
smatoc. Oi pio qr simec nrmec pnaka
enai h nrma Frobenius4 (Frobenius norm),
2 31=2
X m X n
A
jj F
jj = 4 jaij j 5
2
A 2 M mn (K ) (8.52)
i=1 j =1
h opoa enai h nrma pou orzetai ap to s
nhjec eswterik ginmeno ston M mn ,
kai h p-nrma,
jjA p = sup Au
jj
u
p
A jj jj
2 M mn (K ) kai u Kn :
2 (8.53)
u6=0 p jj jj
2O Germanc algebristc Otto Ludwig H older (1859-1937) asqoljhke kurwc me th jewra omdwn.
Anakluye th gnwst anisthta to 1884 kai eisgage thn nnoia thc omdac paragntwn (factor
group) to 1889.
3 Gia thn apdeixh apodeiknoume prta ti h nrma jj jj ston n enai suneqc sunrthsh. K
4 H nrma Frobenius anafretai merikc forc kai wc eukledeia nrma pnaka (Euclidean matrix
norm). H jj jjF enai parmoia me thn eukledeia dianusmatik nrma jj jj2 all den epgetai ap
aut. Gi aut to lgo, o roc nrma Frobenius enai protimteroc.
26
Parathro
me ti mia p-nrma pnaka orzetai me bsh mia dianusmatik nrma. Lme
ti h p-nrma pnaka enai upotetagmnh (subordinate norm) sthn dianusmatik p-
nrma epagmenh (induced norm) ap thn dianusmatik p-nrma. Ston Mnn , h
p-nrma kaletai epshc telestik nrma nrma telest (operator norm) akma
fusik nrma pou antistoiqe sth dianusmatik nrma p-nrma. Ant thc (8.53), gia
th p-nrma pnaka qrhsimopoietai epshc h isod
namh kfrash:
A
jj jjp = sup Au p A
jj jj 2 M mn (K ) kai u Kn :
2 (8.54)
jjujj=1
H nrma Frobenius qei merikc qr simec idithtec kai upologzetai pol
e
kola.
Epeid mwc den enai upotetagmnh se dianusmatik nrma, h qr sh thc se kpoiec
efarmogc mpore na odhg sei se anakrib apotelsmata.
Se arket bibla grammik c lgebrac arijmhtik c anlushc, blpoume suqn

na xeqwrist orism thc nrmac tetragwniko pnaka. Stic tsseric sunj kec tou
Orismo
8.4.1 prostjentai llec d
o oi opoec exasfalzoun thn isodunama tou
Mnn me ton dianusmatik qro K
n2 :
Orismc 8.4.3
Kalo
me nrma (tetragwniko
) p naka (matrix norm) mia apeiknish thc mor-
f c jj jj : Mnn ;! R, h opoa, gia kje A B 2 Mnn (K ), 2 K kai
u 2 K n, ikanopoie tic akloujec sunj kec:
(B1) jjAjj 0
(B2) jjAjj = 0 =) A = O
(B3) jjAjj = jj jjAjj 2 K
(B4) jjA + B jj jjAjj + jjB jj
(B5) jjA B jj jjAjj jjB jj
(B6) H jj jj kai h nrma jj jj tou K n pou qrhsimopoietai gia ton orism thc
prthc enai sumbibastc (compatible),
Au
jj jj jj A u :
jj jj jj
Parathrseic
1. Apeikonseic pou ikanopoio
n mno tic B1-B4 kalo
ntai genikeumnec nrmec
p naka.
2. H sunj kh B5 kaletai pollaplasiastik trigwnik anisthta (multiplica-
tive triangular inequality).
Sth sunqeia ja dexoume ti h nrma Frobenius kajc kai h p-nrma ikanopoio
n
lec tic sunj kec tou Orismo
8.4.3. Eidik h p-nrma ikanopoie thn B6 ex orismo
afo
gia u 6= 0
A jjAu pjj
=
p
jj jj
up
jj jj
)
jj Au jj p jj A jj p jjujjp (8.55)
kai gia u=0 isq
ei amswc h isthta.
Nrma Frobenius
B1-B4: Oi sunj kec B1-B4 ikanopoio
ntai afo
h jj jjF antistoiqe sto s
nhjec
eswterik ginmeno tou Mnn (K ). (Ja mporo
same epshc na parathr soume ti h
jj jj
2
F enai antstoiqh thc eukledeiac nrmac ston K n .)
B5: Gia kje A B 2 M nn (K ) parnoume:

n ! 2 2 31=2
X Xn X n Xn
AB = aik bkj = 4 aik bkj 5 :
jj jjF
k=1 F i=1 j =1 k=1
Qrhsimopointac thn anisthta (8.32) parnoume
2 ) 31=2
Xn X n (Xn ) ( n
X
jjAB jjF 4 j aik j
2
jbkj j
2 5
= )
i=1 j =1 k=1 k=1
" n n #1=2 2 n n 31=2
XX XX
jj AB jj F jaik j
2 4 jbkj j 5
2
=
)
i=1 k=1 j =1 k=1
AB
jj jjF jj A jj F B F:
jj jj
B6: H F enai epshc sumbibast me thn eukledeia nrma tou K n . Pragmatik,

jj jj
gia kje A 2 Mnn (K ) kai u 2 K n qoume

n ! 2 2 31=2
X Xn Xn
jjAujj2 =
aik uk = 4 aik uk 5 =)

i=1 k=1
k=1 2
" n ( n ) ( n ) # 1 =2
X X X
jjAujj2 jaik j juk j =)
2 2
i=1 k=1 k=1
" n ( n ) #1=2 " n #1=2
X X X
jjAujj2 jaik j juk j =)
2 2
i=1 k=1 k=1
jjAujj2 jjAjjF jjujj2 : (8.56)
'Ara h jj jj F enai nrma s
mfwna me ton Orism 8.4.3.
p-nrma
Ja dexoume prta ti h p-nrma pnaka enai peperasmnh. Bsei thc Prtashc 8.4.2,
uprqoun stajerc c1 c2 >0 ttoiec ste gia kje u 2 K n
c1 u
jj jj2 jj u jj p c2 u 2 :
jj jj (i)
28
Enai faner ti isq

ei epshc
c1 Au jj jj2 jj Au jj p c2 Au 2 :
jj jj (ii)
Ap tic (i) kai (ii) parnoume
jj Au p jj c2 Au 2 jj jj
up
jj jj

c1 u 2 jj jj
kai, lgw thc (8.56),

Au p
jj jj c2 A :
F
up
jj jj

c1 jj jj
'Ara loipn h p-nrma pnaka enai peperasmnh.

'Eqontac dh dexei ti h B6 ikanopoietai, ja epalhje
soume tra tic idithtec
B1-B5 tou Orismo
8.4.3.
B1: Enai profan c ap ton orism thc p-nrmac pnaka.
B2: An jjAjjp=0, tte
sup Au p = 0 = Au = 0 u K n = A = O :
jj jj
u6=0 u p
) 8 2 )
jj jj
B3: Gia kje K , 2
A p = sup Au up
p
= sup Au p = sup Au p = A :
jj
up
jj
p
jj jj jj jj
u6=0 u p
jj jj j j j j j j jj jj
u6=0 u6=0 jj jj jj jj jj jj
B4: Epeid h (dianusmatik ) p enai nrma ston K n kai ikanopoie thn trigwnik
jj jj
anisthta,
(A + B ) u
jj p
jj = Au + Bu jj jj p jj Au p + Bu p :
jj jj jj
Ap thn (8.55) qoume

jj (A + B ) u jj p jj A jjp jjujjp + B jj jj p jjujjp
kai, gia u = 0, 6
(A + B ) u
jj jj p
Ap+ B = A + B) A p + B p:
p p
up jj jj
jj jj jj jj ) jj jj jj jj jj jj
B5: Lgw thc (8.55),

(AB ) u
jj p
jj = A (Bu)
jj jj p jj A p jjBujjp
jj jj A jj p jjB jjp jjujjp
kai gia u=0
6
(AB ) u p
A p jjBujjp = AB A p jjBujjp :
jj jj
p
up jj jj
jj jj ) jj jj jj jj
Gia p=1,2 kai 1 qoume tic pio sunhjismnec p-nrmec pnaka. Gia thn 1- kai thn
1-nrma enc pnaka A 2 Mmn mporo
me na dexoume ti:
m
X
jj A 1 = 1max
jj
j n
j aij j (8.57)
i=1
n
X
A
jj jj 1 = 1max
im
j aij :
j (8.58)
j =1
H 1-nrma enai to mgisto kat st lh jroisma twn aplutwn timn twn stoiqewn
tou pnaka kai giaut kaletai nrma sthln (column norm) kai sumbolzetai me
jj jjc . H 1-nrma enai to mgisto kat gramm jroisma twn aplutwn timn twn
stoiqewn tou pnaka kai giaut kaletai nrma grammn (row norm) kai sumbol-
zetai me jj jjr . Enai idiatera qr simh sthn melth thc s
gklishc apeiroginomnwn
kajc kai dunmewn stoqastikn pin kwn. Upenjumzoume ti nac pragmatikc
n n pnakac A enai stoqastikc an enai mh arnhtikc (aij 0 8i j ) kai an
n
X
aij = 1 8i:
j =1
Parathro
me ti tte A
jj jj 1=1.
Gia thn 2-nrma periorizmaste se tetragwniko
c pnakec A 2 Mnn . H kfrash
pou parnoume apaite gnseic thc jewrac idiotimn me thn opoa ja asqolhjo
me
sto epmeno keflaio. Gia qrh thc autonomac thc paragrfou parajtoume ed to
sqetik apotlesma kai kpoiouc s
ntomouc orismo
c. Kalo
me fsma (spectrum)
to s
nolo twn idiotimn tou A kai to sumbolzoume me (A). To mgisto mtro twn
idiotimn tou A to kalo
me fasmatik akt na (spectral radius) kai to sumbolzoume
me r (A):
r (A) = max
2(A)
: j j
Apodeikn
etai ti gia thn 2-nrma isq
ei:
q
jjA 2 = r (AA) :
jj (8.59)
H 2-nrma pnaka kaletai epshc fasmatik nrma (spectral norm). H nrma aut
qei kpoiec qr simec idithtec pou den tic qoun h 1- kai 1-nrma. Parousizei
mwc to sobar meionkthma ti den mpore na upologisje apeujeac ap ta stoiqea
tou A, afo
apaite ton upologism twn idiotimn tou.
Ja dexoume tra ti h 1-nrma enc tetragwniko
pnaka A 2 M nn dnetai ap
thn (8.57). Wc gnwst, gia th dianusmatik 1-nrma qoume
n
X
jj u1= jj j ui :j
i=1
'Etsi,

n ! n Xn n X
n
Au 1 = X a u =
X aik uk
X
aik uk =
jj jj
ik k j jj j )
k=1 1 i=1 k=1 i=1 k=1
n
X n
X n
X
Au
jj jj1 j uk j jaik j =) jj Au jj1 jj u
jj1 jaik :j
k=1 i=1 i=1
30
An tra
n
X
c = 1max
k n
aik
j j (i)
i=1
tte
Au c u = jj Au 1 jj
c:
jj jj1 jj jj1 )
u1
jj jj

Arke tra na bro

me u 2 K n ttoio ste na isq
ei h isthta. An j enai o dekthc
st lhc ston opoo sumbanei to mgisto sthn (i) kai ej enai to j -ost stoiqeo thc
sun jouc bshc tou K n , tte gia u=ej qoume jjujj1 kai
n n n
Au =
X X a u =
X
aij = c :
jj jj1
ik k j j
i=1 k=1 i=1
'Ara loipn
m
X
jjA 1 = 1max
jj
j n
j aij : j
i=1
H apdeixh thc (8.58) enai parmoia kai af netai san skhsh.
Prtash 8.4.4
'Estw oi nrmec jj jj tou Rn kai jj jj tou Rm kai o pnakac A mn (R).
2 M
Isq
ei tte
jj Au jj jj Ajj jjujj (8.60)
pou h nrma orzetai ap thn
jj jj
A = sup Au
: jj jj
(8.61)
u6=0 u
jj jj
jj jj
Lme ti h nrma enai upotetagmnh stic epagmenh ap tic dianu-
jj jj
smatikc nrmec jj jj kai jj jj .

H nrma Frobenius kajc kai oi p-nrmec (eidik gia p=1,2,1) ikanopoio
n di-
forec anisthtec pou qrhsimopoio
ntai suqn sthn arijmhtik grammik lgebra. H
apdeixh twn anisot twn pou akoloujo
n enai apl kai af netai wc skhsh:
A2 AF n A 2 (8.62)
p
jj jj jj jj jj jj
max aij A2 mn max aij (8.63)

p
j j jj jj j j
ij ij
1 A A2 m A 1
p
(8.64)
1
p
n jj jj jj jj jj jj
1 A A2 n A 1:
p
(8.65)
p
m 1 jj jj jj jj jj jj
Pardeigma
Gia ton pnaka 2 3
6
2 2 47
;
A= 4 0 5 35
2 1
; 2
brskoume tic nrmec
jjA 1 = max 8 8 5 = 8
jj f g
A 1 = max 4 8 9 = 9
jj jj
p
f g
p
jjA F = 22 + 22 + 42 + 0 + 52 + 32 + 22 + 12 + 22 = 67
jj
32
Prtash 8.4.5
Gia kje nrma ston M
nn isqoun ta exc:
(a) I 1.jj jj
(b) An o A 2M
nn e nai antistr
yimoc, tte
jjA;1jj jjjjAI jjjj :

(g) Gia kje p naka A 2 Mnn kai k 2 N isqei
jjAkjj jjAjjk :
Apdeixh
(a) jjI jj = jjI I jj jjI jj jjI jj =) jjI jj 1.
(b) Epeid AA;1=I ,
qoume
jjAA;1jj = jjI jj =) jjAjj jjA;1jj jjI jj =) jjA;1jj jjjjAI jjjj :
6 O. 'Ara jjAjj > 0.)
(Epeid o A e nai antistr
yimoc, A =
(g)
jjAk jj = jjAk;1 Ajj jjAk;1jj jjAjj = jjAk;2 Ajj jjAjj jjAk;2jj jjAjj2 :
Suneq zontac br skoume th zhtomenh sq
sh. 2
E nai ekolo na dome ti gia kje p-nrma p naka isqei
jjI jjp = 1 :
'Etsi, an o A 2 Mnn e nai antistr
yimoc, pa rnoume
jjAjjp jjA;1jjp 1 :
Orismc 8.4.6
'Estw mia p-nrma ston M
nn . Kalome dekth katstashc (condition num-

ber) tou n n p naka A ton arijm
= jjAjjp jjA;1jjp : (8.67)
O de kthc katstashc e nai de kthc thc eustjeiac enc grammiko n n sustma-

toc kai prosdior zei thn axiopist a thc arijmhtikc tou ep lushc (p.q. me th m
jodo
Gauss). An o e nai mikrc, l
me ti to ssthma e nai kal c katstashc (well-
conditioned system). An o e nai pol megalteroc tou 1, tte to ssthma jewre tai
astaj
c kak c katstashc1 (ill-conditioned or badly conditioned system).
1 Tso sthn agglik so kai sthn ellhnik bibliografa, blpoume suqn ton prosdiorism kalc
kakc katstashc na apoddetai ston antstoiqo pnaka kai qi sto ssthma, to opoo den enai
akribc.
33
Ston qro C (R)a b] or zontai (metax llwn) oi exc shmantik

c nrmec:
Zb
jjf jj1 = a
jf (t)j dt (8.68)
"Z #1=2
b
jjf jj2 = a jf (t)j dt 2
(8.69)
jjf jj1 = tmax
2ab]
jf (t)j : (8.70)
E nai faner ti h jjjj
2 prokptei ap to snhjec eswterik ginmeno ston C (R)a b].
H jj jj
1 l
getai ep shc nrma megstou (max norm).
Pardeigma
Gia thn f (x)=cos x sto disthma 0 ], br skoume tic nrmec
Z Z =2
jjf jj1 = 0
j cos tj dt = 2 cos t dt = 2
0
Z 1=2 r
jjf jj2 = 0 j cos tj2 dt = 2
jjf jj1 = tmax
20]
j cos tj = 1
Erthsh: ti ekfrzoun gewmetrik oi jj jj1 kai jj jj1?
Oi diforec nrmec pou or same m
qri stigmc sunoy zontai ston P naka 8.4.
Me th bojeia thc nrmac, eisgetai h

nnoia thc apstashc d metax do stoi-
qe wn enc qrou me nrma.
Orismc 8.4.7
An (V jj jj)
nac qroc me nrma kai u v 2 V , tte o arijmc
d(u v) = jj u ; vjj (8.71)
onomzetai apstash (distance) twn u kai v .
An h nrma prokptei ap eswterik ginmeno, apodeiknetai ekola ti

h i1=2
d(u v) = jjujj2 ; 2 Re hu vi + jjvjj2 : (8.72)
Pardeigma
H apstash metax twn u v 2 R3 e nai
q
d(u v) = jj u ; vjj = (u1 ; v1)2 + (u2 ; v2)2 + (u3 ; v3)2 :
Aut e nai fusik h gnwst ap thn Analutik Gewmetr a apstash do shme wn
ston R3. Epeid aut antistoiqe sth do-nrma, sumbol zetai ep shc me d2 .
34
Pnakac 8.4 Nrmec se diforouc grammikoc qrouc.
1: K n "n #1=p
X
p;norm jjujjp = juijp 1p<1
i=1
n
X
jjujj1 = juij
i=1
"n #1=2
X
Euclidean jjujj2 = hu ui1=2 = juij2
i=1
jjujj1 = 1max ju j
in i
2: Mmn (K )
2 31=2
q Xm X
n
Frobenius jjAjjF = hA Ai1=2 = tr(AA) = 4 jaij j25
i=1 j =1
m X
X n
jjAjj = jaij j
i=1 j =1
p;norm jjAjjp = sup jjjjAu jjp 1 p < 1
u6=0 ujjp
m
X
jjAjj1 = 1max
j n
jaij j
q
i=1
jjAjj2 = r (AA) A 2 Mnn
Xn
jjAjj1 = 1max
im
jaij j
j =1
3: C (K )a b]
Zb
jjf jj1 = a
jf (t)j dt
"Z #1=2
b
jjf jj2 = hf f i1=2 = a
jf (t)j2 dt
jjf jj1 = tmax
2ab]
jf (t)j
Shmewsh: Ta eswterik ginmena enai ta sunjh stouc antstoiqouc q rouc.

35
Sth genikterh per ptwsh tou qrou K n ,

qoume
n
X
d1 = jj u ; vjj1 = jui ; vij (8.73)
vi
uX
un
d2 = jj u ; vjj2 = jui ; vij2
t (8.74)
i
d1 = jj u ; vjj1 = 1max ju ; vij
in i
(8.75)
Pardeigma 1
;3) tou R3,
qoume:
Gia ta diansmata u=(1 2 3) kai v =(2 0
d1 = jj u ; vjj1 = jj(2 0 ;3)jj1 = 2q+ 0 + 3 = 5

p
d2 = jj u ; vjj2 = jj(2 0 ;3)jj2 = 22 + 0 + (;3)2 = 13
d1 = jj u ; vjj1 = jj(2 0 ;3)jj1 = maxf2 0 3g = 3
Pardeigma 2
2
'Estw ti h u C (R)a b] e nai h akribc lsh miac sunjouc diaforikc ex swshc
kai u 2
C (R)a b] h pros
ggis thc me kpoia arijmhtik m
jodo, gia pardeigma
twn peperasm
nwn stoiqe wn. H apstash d1 twn u kai u ,
Zb
d1 = jj u ; ujj1 = j u ; uj dt (8.76)
a
e nai m
tro tou arijmhtiko sflmatoc.
Prtash 8.4.8
An d h apstash s
na qro me nrma (V jj jj), tte gia u v w 2 V isqoun
oi exc idithtec:

(G1) d(u v ) 0 (jetikthta)
(G2) d(u u) = 0
(G3) d(u v ) = d(v u) (summetr a)

(G4) d(u v ) d(u w) + d(v w) (trigwnik anisthta)
Apdeixh
Oi idithtec G1-G4 prokptoun ekola ap ton Orism 8.4.1 thc nrmac jj jj. Gia
pardeigma, gia thn G3
qoume
d(u v) = jju ; vjj = jj(;1) (v ; u)jj = j ; 1j jjv ; ujj = jjv ; ujj = d(v u)
en gia thn G4 mporome na gryoume:
d(u v) = jju ; vjj = jj(u ; w) + (w ; v)jj jju ; wjj + jjv ; wjj =)

36
d(u v) d(u w) + d(v w) :

2
Parathr seic
1. H isthta sthn G1 isqei an kai mno an u=v :
d(u v) = 0 () u = v :
2. Genik, mia apeiknish d : V !
V R pou ikanopoie tic sunjkec G1-G4 tou
Orismo 8.4.8 e nai mia metrik (metric). 'Enac qroc efodiasm
noc me mia
metrik kale tai metrikc qroc (metric space). E nai faner ti oi qroi me
nrma eswterik ginmeno e nai metriko qroi.
Orismc 8.4.9
'Estw (V h iv ) kai (W h iw ) qroi me eswterik ginmeno. Kalome iso-
metrik emfteush (isometric embedding) thn apeiknish T 2 L(V W ), an
hT (u) T (v)iw = hu viv 8u v 2 V : (8.77)
Oi isometrik
c emfuteseic apotelon mia pol periorism
nh klsh grammikn
apeikon sewn, pwc fa netai kai ap tic protseic pou akoloujon.
Prtash 8.4.10
'Estw (V h iv ) kai (W h iw ) qroi me eswterik ginmeno. An h T 2 L(V W )
e nai isometrik emfteush, tte h T e nai omal, dhl. KerT =f0g.
Apdeixh
'Estw u 2 V t
toio ste T (u)=0. Epeid h T e nai isometrik emfteush,
hT (u) T (u)iw = hu uiv =) h0 0iw = hu uiv =) hu uiv = 0 =) u = 0 :
'Ara KerT =f0g. 2
Prtash 8.4.11
'Estw (V h iv ) kai (W h iw ) qroi me eswterik ginmeno. An
dimV =dimW =n 2 N kai h T 2 L(V W ) e nai isometrik emfteush, tte
h T e nai
nac grammikc isomorfismc metax twn V kai W .
Apdeixh
fg
Ap thn Prtash 8.4.10, sungoume ti KerT = 0 . Smfwna me to Jerhma 7.3.6,
2
h T e nai amfimonosmanth. T
loc, epeid dimV =dimW =n N, h T e nai ep (Je-
rhma 7.5.5). 'Ara h T e nai
nac grammikc isomorfismc metax twn V kai W
(Orismc 7.5.3). 2
37
Pardeigma
H T 2 L(R2 R4) pou or zetai ap thn
T (u1 u2) = p1 (u1 u2 u2 u1)
2
e nai isometrik emfteush. Pragmatik, an u v 2 R2 ,
qoume:
* +
1 1
hT (u) T (v)i = p2 (u1 u2 u2 u1) p2 (v1 v2 v2 v1)
= 21 (u1v1 + u2v2 + u2v2 + u1v1) = u1v1 + u2v2 = hu vi :
Orismc 8.4.12
'Estw (V jj jjv ) kai (W jj jjw ) qroi me nrma. L
me ti oi V kai W e nai
isometriko (isometric) isometrik ismorfoi an uprqei
nac grammikc
isomorfismc T 2 L(V W ), t
toioc ste gia kje u 2 V na isqei
jjT (u)jjw = jjujjv : (8.78)
O T onomzetai tte isometra (isometry) isometrikc isomorfismc (iso-
metric isomorphism) metax twn V kai W.
Mia isometr a se eukle deio qro kale tai orjognia apeiknish (orthogonal
transformation).
H prtash pou akolouje prokptei ekola ap ta prohgomena.
Prtash 8.4.13
An (V h iv ) kai (W h iw ) e nai qroi me eswterik ginmeno me
dimV =dimW =n 2 N kai h T 2 L(V W ) e nai isometrik emfteush, tte
h T e nai
nac isometrikc isomorfismc metax twn V kai W .
E nai faner ti an oi V W e nai isometrik ismorfoi, tte

kai
jj T (u) ; T (v) jjw = jj T (u ; v) jjw = jju ; vjjv 8u v 2 V : (8.79)

Sumpera noume ti mia isometr a metax twn V kai W diathre tic apostseic.
Do isometrik ismorfoi grammiko qroi taut zontai kai wc proc ta metrik touc
stoiqe a (topologik dom).
Jerhma 8.4.14
An oi (V h iv ) kai (W h iw ) e nai peperasmenodistatoi qroi me eswterik
ginmeno, tte oi (V jjjjv ) kai (W jjjjw ), pou jjjjv =h i1v=2 kai jjjjw =h i1w=2,
e nai isometrik ismorfoi ann dimV =dimW .
38
Apdeixh
Efson oi V kai W e nai isometrik ismorfoi, e nai kai grammik ismorfoi opte
dimV =dimW (Jerhma 7.5.9). Gia to ant strofo, parap
mpoume ton anagnsth sto
bibl o tou L. Smith, Linear Algebra, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1984. 2
'Ameso prisma tou Jewrmatoc 8.4.14 e nai to akloujo:
Jerhma 8.4.15
Kje eukle deioc (ant. monadia oc) grammikc qroc me distash n 2 N e nai
isometrik ismorfoc proc ton Rn (ant. Cn ).
H shmas a tou Jewrmatoc 8.4.15 e nai pol meglh afo epitr

pei th metafor
lwn twn sumperasmtwn pou aforon sth metrik dom tou Rn (ant. Cn ) se kje
llo eukle deio (ant. monadia o) qro me thn dia distash.
Kle noume to parn edfio me

na apl orism.
Orismc 8.4.16
'Estw (V jjjj
) qroc me nrma. L
me ti to u2V e nai monadiao dinusma
jj jj
(unit vector) an u =1.
Kje mh mhdenik stoiqe o u tou (V jj jj

) mpore na kanonikopoihje br skontac
to monadiao bajmwt tou pollaplsio u ^=u me R kai >0: 2
u^ = jjuujj :
To u
^ kale tai kanonikopoihm
no (normalized), en h diadikas a eresc tou kale tai
kanonikopohsh.
Pardeigma 1
Ta stoiqe a thc sunjouc bshc tou Rn e nai monadia a. Sto sump
rasma aut
katalgoume qrhsimopointac opoiadpote ap tic 1, jj jj jj jj2 kai jj jj1.
Pardeigma 2 p
Gia to u=(1 2 0 ;1) 2 R4
qoume jjujj= 6 kai
tsi to u kanonikopoie tai wc exc:
!
u^ = jjuujj = p1 p2 0 ; p1 :
6 6 6
Pardeigma 3
Gia th sunjh nrma thc f (x)=sin x 2 C (R)0 =2]
qoume
"Z
=2
#1=2 p
jjf (x)jj = 0
sin x dx2
= 2
39
kai
tsi
f^(x) = p2 sin x :
Pardeigma 4
Ja kanonikopoisoume ta stoiqe a thc sunjouc bshc tou P2 sto disthma 0 1],
ergazmenoi me th sunjh nrma jj jj
2 . Br skoume prta tic nrmec twn p1 =1, p2 =x
kai p3 =x .
2
Z 1 1=2
jjp1jj = 0
12 dx =1
2 31=2
Z 1=2
= 4 x3 5 = p1
1 3 1
jjp2jj = x2 dx
0 0 3
2 31=2
Z 1=2
jjp3jj =
1
x4 dx x 5 1
= 5 5
4 = p1
0 0 5
'Etsi ta kanonikopoihm
na diansmata e nai ta exc:
p p
p^1 = jjpp1jj = 1 p^2 = jjpp2 jj = 3 x p^3 = jjpp3jj = 5 x2
1 2 3
Pardeigma 5 - Polunuma Legendre

Oi lseic thc diaforikc exswshc Legendre,
(1 ; x2) y00 ; 2x y0 + n(n + 1) y = 0 (8.80)
kalontai sunart seic Legendre txhc n. An n=0,1,2, , oi lseic thc pio pnw
DE e nai ta polunuma Legendre pn (x) pou prokptoun ap ton tpo tou Rodrigue
pn(x) = 221n! dxdn (x2 ; 1)n : (8.81)

n
Ta prta do polunuma Legendre e nai ta p0 (x)=1 kai p1 (x)=x. Ta epmena polu-
numa mporon na upologiston me ton anadromik tpo:
(n + 1) pn+1 (x) ; (2n + 1) x pn (x) + n pn;1 (x) = 0 :
'Eqoume
tsi:
p0(x) = 1
p1(x) = x
p2(x) = 12 (3x2 ; 1)
p3(x) = 12 (5x3 ; 3x)
p4(x) = 18 (35x4 ; 30x2 + 3)
40
Gia ta polunuma Legendre isqei

Z
p2n (x) dx = 2n 2+ 1
1
(8.82)
;1
opte, or zontac th sunjh nrma sto ;1 1], pa rnoume
s
jjpn (x)jj = 2n 2+ 1 : (8.83)
Mporome tra ekola na kanonikopoisoume ta prta polunuma Legendre:
p s s
p^0(x) = 22 p^1(x) = 32 x p^2(x) = 58 (3x2 ; 1)

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Keflaio 8

Mporome epshc na eisaggoume na eswterik pollaplasiasm,

8.2 H nnoia tou eswteriko ginomnou

3. Oi idithtec A1 kai A2 mporon na sunduaston wc ex c:

To eswterik ginmeno orzetai anloga kai se migadik grammik qro, V ( ), C

Sunjh eswterik ginmena se grammiko c q rouc

opte h sunj kh A1 tou Orismo 8.2.1 ikanopoietai.

uAu > 0 8u =6 0: (8.16)

hu v + wi = hv + w ui = hv ui + hw ui = hv ui + hw ui = hu vi + hu wi :

(vii) 'Amesh genkeush thc (iii).

Sunjeic nrmec se grammiko c q rouc

Pnakac 8.1 Sunjh eswterik ginmena kai antstoiqec nrmec.

Ston R, h nrma tautzetai me thn apluth tim :

Qrhsimopointac aut th nrma brskoume gia to u=(1 ;2):

(a) Ja dexoume ti isqoun oi idithtec A1-A4 tou Orismo 8.2.1.

hu+v wi = 3(u1+v1)w1+(u2+v2)w2 = (3u1w1+u2w2)+(3v1w1+v2w2) = hu wi+hv wi:

hu vi = 3 (u1)v1 + (u2)v2 = (3 u1v1 + u2v2) = hu vi

f (x) = ei mx 2 C (C)0 2]

8.3 H anis thta Cauchy-Schwarz

Prtash 8.3.1 (Anisthta Cauchy-Schwarz)

Pnakac 8.2 Anisthtec pou prokptoun me efarmog thc anisthtac

3: Mmn (R) tr2(B T A) tr(AT A) tr(B T B )

4: Mmn (C) jtr(B A)j2 tr(AA) tr(B B )

Shmewsh: Oi anisthtec stouc pragmatikoc qrouc Rn, Mmn(R)

H anisthta Cauchy-Schwarz parnei th morf

H prtash pou akolouje sunoyzei tic basikc idithtec thc nrmac.

jju + vjj jjujj + jjvjj : (8.34)

Prtash 8.3.3 Nmoc tou parallhlogrmmou (parallelogram law)

(V h i) kai jj  jj = h i1=2 u v w 2 V , 2 K

8.4 Qroi me nrma

Me thn trigwnik anisthta B4 qoume

5. O prosektikc anagnsthc ja qei parathr sei ti oi idithtec B1-B4 enai

ginomnou (V h i) enai eidik perptwsh qrou me nrma afo

Ston qro K n mporo

8.4.1. Eidik gia th 2-nrma parathro

jj jj2u = u u = (uT u)1=2 u

'Ena klasik apotlesma gia thn p-nrma ston Rn enai h anisthta H

Gia pardeigma, an u 2 Rn qoume:

Oi nrmec pnaka enai pol

Se arket bibla grammik c lgebrac arijmhtik c anlushc, blpoume suqn

B6: H F enai epshc sumbibast me thn eukledeia nrma tou K n . Pragmatik,

gia kje A 2 Mnn (K ) kai u 2 K n qoume

Enai faner ti isq

kai, lgw thc (8.56),

'Ara loipn h p-nrma pnaka enai peperasmnh.

B3: Gia kje K , 2

Ap thn (8.55) qoume

B5: Lgw thc (8.55),

Arke tra na bro

H apdeixh thc (8.58) enai parmoia kai af netai san skhsh.

smatikc nrmec jj jj kai jj jj .

max aij A2 mn max aij (8.63)

jjA;1jj jjjjAI jjjj :

O de kthc katstashc e nai de kthc thc eustjeiac enc grammiko n n sustma- 

Ston qro C (R) a b] or zontai (metax llwn) oi exc shmantik

Me th bojeia thc nrmac, eisgetai h

An h nrma prokptei ap eswterik ginmeno, apodeiknetai ekola ti

Pnakac 8.4 Nrmec se diforouc grammikoc qrouc.

Shmewsh: Ta eswterik ginmena enai ta sunjh stouc antstoiqouc q rouc.

Sth genikterh per ptwsh tou qrou K n ,

d1 = jj u ; vjj1 = jj(2 0 ;3)jj1 = 2q+ 0 + 3 = 5

d(u v) = jju ; vjj = jj(u ; w) + (w ; v)jj jju ; wjj + jjv ; wjj =)

d(u v) d(u w) + d(v w) :

Mporome epshc na eisaggoume na eswterik pollaplasiasm,

8.2 H nnoia tou eswteriko ginomnou

3. Oi idithtec A1 kai A2 mporon na sunduaston wc exc:

To eswterik ginmeno orzetai anloga kai se migadik grammik qro, V ( ), C

Sunjh eswterik ginmena se grammiko c qrouc

opte h sunjkh A1 tou Orismo 8.2.1 ikanopoietai.

(vii) 'Amesh genkeush thc (iii).

Sunjeic nrmec se grammiko c qrouc

Ston R, h nrma tautzetai me thn apluth tim:

Qrhsimopointac aut th nrma brskoume gia to u=(1 ;2):

(a) Ja dexoume ti isqoun oi idithtec A1-A4 tou Orismo 8.2.1.

f (x) = ei mx 2 C (C)0 2]

Pnakac 8.2 Anisthtec pou prokptoun me efarmog thc anisthtac

H anisthta Cauchy-Schwarz parnei th morf

H prtash pou akolouje sunoyzei tic basikc idithtec thc nrmac.

(V h i) kai jj jj = h i1=2 u v w 2 V , 2 K

8.4 Qroi me nrma

5. O prosektikc anagnsthc ja qei parathr sei ti oi idithtec B1-B4 enai

ginomnou (V h i) enai eidik perptwsh qrou me nrma afo

8.4.1. Eidik gia th 2-nrma parathro

'Ena klasik apotlesma gia thn p-nrma ston Rn enai h anisthta H

Gia pardeigma, an u 2 Rn qoume:

Oi nrmec pnaka enai pol

Se arket bibla grammik c lgebrac arijmhtik c anlushc, blpoume suqn

B6: H F enai epshc sumbibast me thn eukledeia nrma tou K n . Pragmatik,

gia kje A 2 Mnn (K ) kai u 2 K n qoume

Enai faner ti isq

'Ara loipn h p-nrma pnaka enai peperasmnh.

B3: Gia kje K , 2

Arke tra na bro

H apdeixh thc (8.58) enai parmoia kai af netai san skhsh.

smatikc nrmec jj jj kai jj jj .

O de kthc katstashc e nai de kthc thc eustjeiac enc grammiko n n sustma-

Ston qro C (R)a b] or zontai (metax llwn) oi exc shmantik

Pnakac 8.4 Nrmec se diforouc grammikoc qrouc.

Shmewsh: Ta eswterik ginmena enai ta sunjh stouc antstoiqouc q rouc.

Sth genikterh per ptwsh tou qrou K n ,

Kje mh mhdenik stoiqe o u tou (V jj jj

Pardeigma 5 - Polunuma Legendre

Gia ta polunuma Legendre isqei