Photo Geology Final PDF

1.
INTRODUCTION
Photogeology is the interpretation of the geological and geomorphological features as well as

various lithofacies on the aerial photographs. Some other terms such as "aerogeology" and
"airgeology" are also used.
Aerial photographs are a source of geological information that may be unobtainable

elsewhere. An aerial photograph is the picture of the ground surface taken from the air with a
camera pointing downward.
The study of the aerial photographs can't substitute the field investigations but rather it helps
and contributes to them. The advantages of the study of the aerial photographs can be listed as
follows:
a. it saves time
b. it provides to observe a larger area
c. it has more detailed ground surface than maps
d. photographs can be studied anytime and at anywhere
e. studies carried out on the photographs are cheaper than studies in the field
f. studies carried out on the aerial photographs are easier than studies in the field
The only disadvantage of the aerial photographs is the absence of the topographic contours
and the geographic names.
2. STEREOSCOPY
2.1. Stereoscopic Vision
The act of perception is a mental process; the mind invents a model to fit the data with which
it has been provided. If Fig. 2.1A, is looked at persistently, it will appear as a book-like object
alternately opened towards and away from the observer. The mind has insufficient data to decide
between these two possibilities. Such illustrations are known as alternating figures. As soon as extra
data are added to the illustration to make one interpretation more probable than another, the observer
tends to see it in that way. Thus in Fig.2.1B, the addition of pages and a table top make the illustration
appear permanently as a book opened away from the observer.
A B
Figure 2.1
3 İleri Fotojeoloji Ders Notları, Kadir Dirik, 2006

The strength of the three-dimensional effect is the resultant of all the data presented to the
mind. A simple experiment may convince the reader this. If a number of objects on a table are looked
at with only one eye, after a short time, the field of view appears flat. If then the head is moved from
side to side, an increase in the apparent solidity of the field of view occurs. The effect of moving the
head from side to side is to provide the mind with additional data; these extra data lead to the
production of a three-dimensional, rather than two-dimensional, mental model.
The factor that produces the strongest three-dimensional effect is stereoscopic vision.
Stereoscopic vision depends upon having two view-points (the eyes), set about 6.3 cm apart in the
head; this distance is known as the eye base.
2.2. Stereoscopes
Two photographs of the same terrain, but taken from different camera stations, generally
permit three-dimensional viewing and are said to comprise a stereoscopic pair, also commonly
referred to as a stereo pair. Normally a stereoscopic pair is considered to be made up of any two
successive photographs along the flight line (a line on a map representing the track of the aircraft).
Stereoscopic pairs typically are viewed under a stereoscope, a device constructed to force each eye to
look essentially straight down and along lines that are parallel or nearly so. In stereoscopic viewing
the lines of sight do not converge as they do in the normal viewing of any nearby object.
There are two basic types of stereoscopes. These are simple lens or pocket stereoscopes and
the mirror stereoscopes.
2.2.1 Lens stereoscope
The lens stereoscope consists of two lenses mounted in a simple frame supported by short
legs (Figure 2.2). The best separation for corresponding points of detail on a stereopair, is slightly less
than the eye-base of the observer, about 5.72 cm. To view such photographs with a lens stereoscopes
therefore, it is necessary to overlap them until the corresponding photographic images are at a suitable
separation. When this done, a strip about 5.72 cm wide may be viewed stereoscopically. To view the
whole overlap it is necessary to band back the edge of the overlapping photograph.
The lens stereoscope is advantageous to the field geologist because of its compactness and
small size. Lens stereoscopes commonly magnify (usually two times) the photographic image and
thus are helpful in viewing details of terrain. The principal disadvantage: photographs must be
positioned in an overlapping position and as a result the edge of one photograph must be flipped or
turned up in order to view some parts of the stereoscopic model. The entire model cannot be viewed
at any one time.
Figure 2.2. Diagram showing eye base (interpupillary distance) and the separation of
photographs in stereoscopic viewing with a lens stereoscope.

2.2.2. Mirror stereoscope
Mirror stereoscope is illustrated in figure 2.3; their optical system is as shown in figure 2.4.
Light rays coming from the photographs are reflected first by large, surface-silvered mirrors set at 45
to the horizontal and then again by small mirrors set parallel to the larger ones. After reflection by the
small mirrors, the rays are parallel to their original direction, but are separated by a distance
determined by the separation of the small mirrors.
It can be seen that, with this system the separation of the photographs, when they are set up for
stereoscopic viewing, is determined by the separation of the large mirrors (20-25 cm).
The optical distance between the eyes and the photographs consists of the sum total of the distances
between the eyes and the small mirrors, the small mirrors and the large mirrors and the photographs;
it is thus very great compared with that for lens stereoscope. A stereopair viewed from such a distance
would appear very small. To overcome this, lenses are inserted between the eyes and small mirrors. If
higher magnification is required, binoculars may be inserted between the lenses and the eyes.
Figure 2.3. Diagram showing eye base, effective eye base, and separation of photographs in
stereoscopic viewing with mirror stereoscope.
Figure 2.4.
The optical distance between the eyes and the photographs consists of the sum total of the
distances between the eyes and the small mirrors, the small mirrors and the large mirrors and the
photographs; it is thus very great compared with that for lens stereoscope. A stereopair viewed from
such a distance would appear very small. To overcome this, lenses are inserted between the eyes and
small mirrors. If higher magnification is required, binoculars may be inserted between the lenses and
the eyes.

The mirror stereoscope has the advantage of allowing the entire stereoscopic model to be
viewed at one time. But they, in contrast to lens stereoscopes, generally are not readily carried around
on field traverses. Most mirror stereoscopes are equipped with auxiliary lenses in a binocular
attachment that permits image magnification of several times. But magnification is itself of limited
use because enlargement of the photographic image merely enhances the graininess which is present
in all photographs. When magnification is greater than 4X, the grain of the emulsion may become
conspicuous.
2.3. Radial displacement due to relief
Because of terrain relief, the images of ground positions are shifted or displaced, in the
central projection of an aerial photograph. If a photograph is truly vertical, the displacement of
images is in a direction radial from the photograph center. This displacement is called the radial
displacement due to relief. Radial displacement due to relief is also responsible for scale differences
within any one photograph, and for this reason a photograph is not an accurate map (Figure 2.5).
In an orthographic projection the true map position of some point A on the terrain appears at
A', directly below point A as shown in Fig.2.5(a); the true map position of some point B is at B'
directly above B. The difference in height between points A and B does not affect the map distance
between them.
In the central projection characteristics of the vertical aerial photograph the map position of
terrain point A does not appear at A' but rather at A" as shown in Fig.2.5(b). Point A has been
displaced radially outward. On the photograph (negative or print) the image of terrain point A appears
at a" rather than its correct position at a'. The distance from a' to a" is the radial displacement due to
relief. Similarly, point B will be displaced inward on the film or print with respect to its correct
relative map position; and point C will have no radial displacement due to relief at the selected datum.
Points above the selected datum are thus displaced outward and points below the datum are displaced
inward.
Figure 2.5. Diagram showing

comparative positions of
features as correctly
plotted in the orthographic
projection of a map (a) and
as displaced in the central
projection of a vertical
aerial photograph (b).

On any one photograph the amount of displacement due to relief increases with increasing
distance from the center point and with increasing difference in elevation between any point
and the selected datum reference (Figure 2.6).
Figure 2.6. Diagram showing relative radial displacement of terrain features on a photograph. For
points of equal elevation (A and B) radial displacement is greater for a point farther from
the photograph center. For points of different elevation, but equal distance from the
photograph center (A and C), radial displacement is greater for a point of higher elevation.

3. AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS
3.1. Types of aerial photographs
The aerial photographs are classified on the basis of: Optical axis position, scale and film
used.
3.1.1. Types of the photographs on the basis of optical axis position

Basic definitions:
Optical axis (OA): is a line passing through the camera lens and being at right angle to the
camera film (Figure 3.1).
Vertical axis (LP): is a line passing through the camera lens and parallel to the earth's
gravity. So it is perpendicular to the ground surface (Figure 3.1).
Pointing (sighting) angle: is the angle between the optical axis (OA) and the ground
surface which is a horizontal plane (Figure 3.1).
Nadir: is the point on the terrain vertically beneath the center of the camera lens.
Figure 3.1. Relationship between the camera and the ground surface

The aerial photographs are grouped into two, on the basis of optical axis position (Figure 3.2):
a. Vertical aerial photograph
b. Oblique aerial photograph
a. Vertical aerial photographs are taken by the camera pointing vertically downward.
Therefore the optical axis is perpendicular to the ground surface. In fact, the optical axis is not exactly
vertical. There is a tilt of 1°-2°.
b. Oblique aerial photographs are taken by the camera which has the optical axis being
oblique to the ground surface. The angle which is called pointing or sighting angle ranges from 20°
to 60°. There are two types of oblique aerial photographs: Low oblique and high oblique aerial
photographs.
Low oblique aerial photographs: S is between 30°-60°
High oblique aerial photographs: S is between 20°-30°
Figure 3.2.

The comparison of vertical and oblique aerial photographs:
a. No (or less) distortion on vertical, but quite large distortion on oblique ones (Figure 3.3).
b. The front edge is the same in both, but back edge is different (in oblique greater) (Figure 3.4, 3.5).
c. The vertical photographs cover less area than oblique, that depends on the amount of sighting
angle. With a less angle the larger area will be taken.
d. The horizon is generally seen on oblique photographs but not on vertical ones (Figure 3.4).
e. Oblique aerial photographs are not suitable to get 3-D view because of the scale difference between
the front and back edges. Therefore, generally the oblique aerial photographs are used to study gentle
dipping features such as unconformities and thrust.
f. Oblique aerial photographs are used to illustrate the reports to show the route of the proposed roads,
while the vertical ones are used mainly for photogrammetry and photointerpretation.
Figure 3.3

Figure 3.4. (A) The geometry of high oblique photograph. The optical axis is sufficiently inclined to permit the
photography of horizon. The nadir point N is not photographed. (B) A high oblique “photograph” of a
square ground grid. The ground squares are equal to those shown in Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.5. (A) The geometry of a low oblique photograph. Compare with Figures 3.3A and 3.4A. Camera
height H and focal length f are same in all three illustrations. Equal ground distances AG, GK,
etc. appear as unequal image distances ag, gk, etc. on the low oblique photographs. The nadir
point n is shown on the photograph. (B) a low oblique photograph of a square ground grid. The
ground surfaces are equal to those shown in Figures 3.3B and 3.4B

3.1.2. Types of aerial photographs on the basis of scale
a. large scale aerial photographs (1/5.000 to 1/10.000)
b. medium scale aerial photographs (1/10.000 to 1/20.000)
c. small scale aerial photographs (1/20.000 to 1/60.000)
d. very small scale aerial photographs ( 1/60.000)
The photographs used mostly are at the scale of 1/35.000, with a size of 18X18 cm.
The size of the photograph can not be greater than 25X25 cm, because stereographic viewing
is only possible for these size.
3.1.3. Types of aerial photographs on the basis of film used
a. Panchromatic black and white photographs

b. Infra-red black and white photographs
c. Infra-red colored photographs
Black and white photographs are taken with a minus blue filter eliminating the scattering
effect of the haze, and hence good quality photograph with high degree of resolution is obtained. This
type of aerial photographs are also called "conventional black and white photographs". They are
mainly used for mapping.
Colored photographs, on the other hand have some advantages over the first ones when they
are used for special purposes such as to detect the mineralization zones. However, some details of the
surface can not be resolved clearly on these photographs. Colored photographs have a common usage
in forestry and pollution studies.
Figure 3.6. The photomosaic of the region (left figure) and radar image of the same region (right figure)

Figure 3.7. Examples of aerial photographs

Figure 3.8. Types of remote sensing imagery

3.2. Uses of aerial photographs
Vertical aerial photographs are mostly used for two purposes, namely "photogrammetry" and
"photointerpretation".
Photogrammetry is a science branch dealing with surveying and mapping using the aerial
photographs. It is also used for drawing the contour maps and road schemes.
Photointerpretation, on the other hand, is the study of the character of the ground surface
using the aerial photographs. It has been widely applied to many branches of science and engineering
including: geology, civil engineering, pedology, hydrology, military science, land use, geography,
forestry, and archeology.
It is widely applied to civil engineering problems, site investigations, route planning and
reconnaissance studies.
In geology the photointerpretation is applied to: stratigraphy, structural geology, tectonics,
sedimentology, geomorphology, glacial geology,
The widest application is in aerial geological mapping.
3.3. Informations printed on aerial photographs
A photograph contains the following information (Figure 3.9).
a. Fiducal (collimation) mark. These marks are used to determine the principal point (fiducal center)
of the photograph. The principal point is the geometric center of a photograph. It is the intersection
point of two straight lines joining pairs of opposite fiducal marks. Because of 60% overlap of the
photographs every principal point lies on an adjacent photograph. These points are called 'conjugate
principal point' or 'transferred principal point' (Figure 3.10). Therefore each photograph contains
one principal point and two conjugate points.
b. Serial number. All the photographs included in the same strip along the flight lines have a number
called 'serial number'. Serial numbers are recorded at the end of each strip in the flight index or flight
plan (Figure 3.11).
c. Film (or photograph) number. All the photographs taken from the airplane are numbered
separately. These numbers are called 'film number'.
Serial number and film numbers are recorded side by side on each photograph.
In a flight index, on the other hand, the serial number is recorded at the end of each strip,
while the film numbers are recorded in brackets on the flight index (Figure 3.11).
d. Focal length (or principal distance) 'f'. It is the distance between the film used and lens of
camera (Figure 3.12),and it is recorded automatically on the film during exposure.
The modern cameras have a focal length of 152 mm.
e. Camera number. It is the number of the camera, which takes the picture. It is also printed
automatically on the photograph.
f. Clock. It shows the time, when the picture was taken. The time interval between two successive
photographs is used to determine the speed of the airplane.
g. Date. It shows the day, month and the year when the photograph was taken.
h. Altimeter. It shows the flight height from the mean sea level.
g. Spirit level. It shows tilting . The tilt is the deviation of vertical axis, when the plane is not
horizontal because of some effect, such as wind.

Figure 3.9. A schematic aerial photograph showing the information printed on it.
Figure 3.10.
Figure 3.11.

Figure 3.12.
3.4. Taking aerial photographs

3.4.1. Principles.
The photographs are generally taken in spring or autumn, when the ground is not covered by
vegetation. The pictures are taken at series of parallel lines so that it provides overlapping in order to
obtain stereoscopic viewing.
When two pictures of the same area, taken from two different positions, are studied
simultaneously with a stereoscope, a solid model of the ground can be seen. This solid model is called
'stereomodel'. Two adjacent photographs are called 'stereopair'.
Figure 3.13

Figure 3.14
Figure 3.15.
Consider figure 3.13, which represents a vertical section in the line of fight of the plane. A
photograph taken from Air Station 1 (L1) covers the ground A-K. The plane flies to Air Station
2(L2), and photograph 2 is taken, which covers the ground G-T. The ground G-K, known as the
overlap, is thus represented on both photographs.
The amount of overlap depends on the air base B, which is the distance between the air stations. If
the overlap were 50 per cent, G-K would be half G-T, when photograph 3 was taken from Air Station
3, the new overlap would be K-T; thus the whole of the area covered by photograph 2 would appear
on two photographs and could be viewed stereoscopically using first photographs 1 and 2 and then 2
and 3. If the overlap were less than 50 per cent there would be a gap in the center of photograph 2,
which was not included in either overlap, and which could not be viewed stereoscopically; to avoid
this, an overlap of 60 per cent is usually aimed at.

If the overlap is 60 per cent, every point on the ground is represented on at least two consecutive
photographs; it is therefore possible to divide the photography into two sets of photographs, each of
which covers the whole area; one set will consist of photographs 1,3,5, etc., and the other of
photographs 2,4,6,etc. Either set can be referred to as a set of alternate photographs; the other set is
then referred to as the conjugate photographs.
To photograph a large block of ground, it is necessary to fly a number of parallel strips; these must
overlap laterally to ensure that no area between them is left unphotographed. This lateral overlap,
known as side-lap, is usually about 30 per cent. If the terrain is flat, a smaller side-lap of (say) 20 per
cent would be suitable (figure 3.16, 3.17); but if the terrain is mountainous, and particularly if the
photographs are likely to be required for mosaicing, a larger side-lap would be desirable.
3.4.2. Errors in flying
Ideally each flight line is a straight course and each photograph has 60% overlap and 30%
sidelap (figure 3.14, 3.15). But this is not always achieved and some errors occur, because of cross
winds other problems of aircraft navigation. These errors are namely: Crab, drift, tilt and differential
overlap.
3.4.2.1. Crab
It occurs when the plane is corrected for the wind effects but the camera left unoriented
(figure 3.14). The resulting photographs will not be parallel to the correct flight course. But the actual
and correct flight courses will coincide.
3.4.2.2. Drift.
If the plane is affected by cross winds and no correction is made for the wind effect, drift
occurs (figure 3.14). The edges of the photographs remain parallel to the correct flight course, but the
plane drifts further from its course.
3.4.2.1. Tilt
It occurs when the plane is not horizontal at the time of exposure. Stereoscopic viewing will
be difficult and forms, produced on the stereoscopic image will be unreal. In extreme cases tilt effect
shows rivers flowing uphill.
Tilt angle is the deviation angle between the horizontal surface and the flight line, measured
on the vertical section (Figure 3.15). On the other hand, drift and crab angles are deviations measured
on the horizontal plane.
Fig.3.16.

Figure 3.17.
Figure 3.18. Apart from distorsions in scale due to varying elevations of the surface, the main distortions
in aerial photographs are due to tilting of the aircraft, (a) and (b), so that the view is slightly
oblique. Convection cells in the atmosphere may cause the aircraft to change altitude so that
adjacent images have different scales (c).
3.4.2.4. Differential overlap

It is caused by the speed of the plane. If the plane is not adjusted to the time interval between
the exposures, the resulting overlaps will be either small or great. In both case an ideal stereo-viewing
can not be obtained.
These affects can be overcome by modern navigational devices.

3.5. Handling of aerial photographs
We can come-across with two main problems during the studies on the aerial photographs: 1)
to determine which photographs are required for the study area, 2) how to select quickly, the
particular photographs required for a study from a large collection.
The first of these problems is solved by the use of either a 'cover diagram', 'print laydown', 'photo
index' or 'mosaics'.
In order to solve the second problem, it is necessary to file the photographs according to a definite
system. If all photographs for the area are numbered in a consistent manner, it is possible, and very
convenient, to store them in a pile in strictly numerical order. For instance, if all the photographs are
marked with flight and serial numbers, they are obviously amenable to filing in strict numerical order.
3.5.1. Cover diagram.
A cover diagram shows the approximate latitude and longitude of the area covered by each
strip of photography; the photograph numbers are recorded at either end of each strip on the diagram,
so that it is possible to estimate the approximate serial number of the photograph corresponding to
any point within the strip.
3.5.2. Print laydown
A print laydown consists of a single photograph of the alternate prints of the original
photographs, which have been laid down in approximately their correct relative positions. Print
laydowns are of great value to geologists because they:
a. give him a "bird's eye" view of the area
b. indicate areas of particular interest
c. show the access routes to these special areas
d. indicate the most probable positions of outcrops
e. simplify the planning of traverse
f. indicate the serial numbers of the photographs required for a particular traverse, or for any
particular area under discussion
g. simplify the selection of camp sites
h. provide illustrative material for scientific papers, and committee discussions.
3.5.3. Photo index.
A photo index is very similar compilation to the print laydown, in which all the prints are laid
down before being photographed. The photograph serial numbers are printed at the end of each strip
of photography on the print laydown, and on each photograph of the photo index. Print laydowns or
photo indexes of an area enable the serial number of the photograph corresponding to any particular
part of the area to be determined instantaneously; they are therefore much more useful than cover
diagrams.
3.5.4. Mosaics.
The more advanced and attractive form of print laydown is uncontrolled mosaic. The
differences between mosaic and print laydown:
a. In mosaic all photographs (not only alternate) are stuck down with glue. In print laydown
they were attached.
b. In mosaic all the corners and edges are cut away before sticking, so that only the central
portion of each photograph is used.
c. The serial numbers, like in print laydown, are printed at the end of each strip.
d. Mosaic, as an advantage over the others, seems to be a continuous photograph.

3.5.5. Flight index.
Flight index is a sketch map showing the flight lines, their senses, photograph serial numbers,
film numbers and the main geographic features such as highways, towns, lakes, large rivers etc
(figure 3.19).
Preparation of flight index, showing the outline of the photographs on a plan is very useful before
starting to study on the aerial photographs. On the flight index aerial photographs are arranged in the
same manner as they were taken by the plane. Flight lines are also plotted and labeled with the
photograph serial number. On the other hand, the individual exposures or individual photograph
numbers are marked on the flight lines and the sense of flight lines are indicated. The major
geographic features such as villages, roads, etc. are also marked on the flight index to show the
relative position of the photographs to such known features.
Figure 3.19
Requirements for Stereoscopic Viewing:

1) proper spacing of exposures during flight of the aircraft (60% overlap, 20-30% sidelap),
2) proper spacing of photograph in viewing (separation is about 5.7-6.0 cm for lens stereoscope, 20-
25 cm for mirror stereoscope),
3) proper orientation of photographs in viewing (Figure 3.20),
4) the ability of observer to view the photographs at close range along essentially parallel lines of
sight, either with or without the aid of stereoscope.

Figure 3.20. Arranging photograhs for
viewing with lens stereoscope. (A)
Mark principal point of each
photograph (x1 and y2). (B) Transfer
principal points y1 and x2. (C)
Establish line through principal point
transferred (conjugate) principal
points of each photographs. (D)
Adjust lines to single control line
(VW), separation to be determined by
eye base and instrument used.

5. PHOTOINTERPRETATION IN GEOLOGY
5.1. Fundamentals of photointerpretation
Basics problems of photogeologic interpretation are:

1. A given feature is viewed on aerial photographs; what is it?
2. How was the structure produced? (structure, history, and erosion or deposition)
3. What is the geologic significance of the feature?
To answer these questions the following procedure may be followed:
A. Geographic and geologic locations. Recognizing the general geographic and geologic location of
a project area, limits the types of feature which could be present. Once the area is defined, the
structure and rock types can usually be determined. For example, in an area in SW New Mexico,
sedimentary and crystalline rock units would be expected. Thrust faulting would not be expected in
stable basin and shelf areas.
B. Literature survey. Research into literature, before a photogeologic study is undertaken, will
determine the general sequence of rock units and their types if published data are available. Some of
the major tectonic elements can also be learned. Published geomorphic information should be studied.
C. Climate of the past and present. Weathering will affect the rocks in different climates. For
example, carbonate rocks are easily dissolved in the humid climates, in the arid climates they stand
out as ridges.
In addition to these general considerations, specific topographical form, photographic characteristics,
vegetation, location and relation to other objects are used in the identification and interpretation of
features seen on aerial photographs.
When analyzed within the above framework, 1) shape, or form, 2) tonal and textural relations, and 3)
drainage will permit recognition, delineation and analysis of the geologic features within most
photogeologic project areas. Photointerpretation involves observing certain tones, shapes, and other
characteristics of photographic images and determining their geologic significance by a combined
deductive or inductive reasoning.
5.2. Essential interpretation elements in photointerpretation
Essential interpretation elements in photointerpretation are: tone, texture and pattern, shape or
form, and drainage.
5.2.1. Tone
Photographic tone is a measure of the relative amount of light reflected by an object and
recorded on a black and white photograph. Photographic tones are usually shades of gray, but may be
black or white.
Photographic tone is a useful interpretation element. Three aspects of tone used in
photointerpretation are (Table 1):
1. Relative tonality (white, light gray, dull gray, dark gray or black)
2. Uniformity of tone (uniform, mottled, banded, scrabbled)
3. Degree of sharpness of tonal variations (sharp, gradual)

TABLE 1. THE RELATION OF TONE TO SOIL OR ROCK CHARACTERISTICS
Tone Property Soil or rock properties
A. Tone variation
White : Well drained, coarse, dry soil materials e.g. sand or gravel.
Light gray : Soils of mainly coarse textures mixed with some fines. contain little
organic matter.
Dull gray : Generally fine material with good profile development and organic
content. Poor drainage.
Dark gray : Poor internal drainage and/or, a water table near the surface. Organic
or Black content is high. Fine textures predominant.
B.Tone Uniformity
Uniform : Typified by, continental alluvium, lake beds and thickly bedded
sedimentary rocks; indicate uniform soil texture and moisture conditions.
Mottled : Significant changes in soil moisture and/or texture within short

distances. Darker tones indicate depressions, lighter tones slightly drier
areas. Coastal plains, till plains, limestone in humid climates and
infiltration basins in terraces, flood plain or outwash all typically exhibit
mottled tone.
Banded : In areas of linear shaped differences in soil or rock texture and

drainage or moisture availability. In transported soil landforms, banded
tones indicate wet and dry areas and are associated with meander scrolls
in flood plains, ancient outwash channels, ripple marks in lake beds,
linear sand dunes and interbedded sedimentary rocks or highly foliated
metamorphic rocks.
Scrabbled : Common in arid regions of alkali deposits. The pattern is irregular,

blocky and fine textured. Young volcanic lavas might have the same
tone.
C. Sharpness of tone boundary
Sharp, distinct : Indicate quick changes in moisture content. Related to coarse soils of
high permeability. Drainage is rapid, causing low areas near the water
table to be wet and higher areas dry.
Gradual, fuzzy :Light and dark tones with fuzzy, indistinct gradual boundaries indicate
fine- textured soils and gradual changes in moisture content.
Dark gray-black : red marls, red sandstone, lava of basic or intermediate composition, basics,
ultrabasics, conglomerates with dark components, coal, asphaltic layers, peat.

There are two main factors affecting gray tone namely, terrain factors and external factors.
5.2.1.1. Terrain factors affecting gray tone

Usually tone and texture are products of numerous independent and dependent variables.
Three major elements of the ground surface are bedrock, soil and vegetation. Some physical
characteristics of those elements such as color directly determine the tone. Other elements which are
dependent on the physical characteristics of the bedrock and soil are topography and moisture
content. Moisture also determines the density of vegetation. Important terrain factors affecting gray
tone are: a) bedrock color, b) outcrop surface, c) orientation of the surface, d) soil and mantle, e)
moisture, f) vegetation.
a) Bedrock color. The color of a particular rock unit will produce a distinctive photographic
tone. Color of a rock depends on color components, sandstone, for example, may be light gray,
brown, dark red-brown or dark gray. In general, a rough generalization of rocks with respect to tone
is:
White to light gray: sand bar, shifting dune sands, coral sand, evaporites, gravel banks, granular
deposits, some limestones, snow and ice.
Light gray : quartzite, sandstone
Medium gray : dolomite, limestone, gypsum, clay, shales, granitoid family (acidic rocks)
An abrupt change in tonality is usually a change in lithology, but may be due to changes in rock
composition or water content. Weathering can produce tonal variations of the same rock unit in
different areas.
b. Outcrop surface. Some rocks are weathered and eroded into smooth, uniform slopes and
surfaces. Others, perhaps as a result of jointing, fracturing, or bedding separation, or combinations of
these, appear as a blocky, irregular, or grooved features. The more regular exposed surfaces are
recorded as lighter and more uniform photographic tones. The more irregular surfaces, especially if
the scale of irregularities is small, will tend to produce darker tones. This is due to the fact that an
extremely irregular surface affords numerous possibilities for local shadows which effectively reduce
the total amount of light which could be reflected to the camera.
c. Orientation of surface. A slope or escarpment which lies in a shadow is noticeably darker
than one exposed squarely to the sun's rays. Naturally, a rock unit exposed on two such surfaces
would be recorded with contrasting tones. Nevertheless, in many areas the topographic relief, the
orientation of topographic features, and the latitude are such that some shadows will always be
present. A photogeologist must be able to work with shadows.
d. Soils and mantle. The term mantle is usually applied to any layer of unconsolidated rock
material that lies on consolidated bedrock. Mantle may consist of particles of the underlying rock,
either weathered or unweathered, and may be of any grain size or combination of grain sizes. It may
also consist of materials transported from one place and deposited in another, by wind, running water,
ice, or gravity.
Mantle formed in situ may be called residual mantle. That brought into an area from another
area may collectively be called transported mantle.
Mantle which is in any way modified, altered, or weathered by chemical, physical, or
biological processes or agents, is called soil. Soils developed in residual mantle are thought of as
residual soils. Soils which have developed and have been moved by any agent may, also be called
transported soil. Variations of tone in residual soils may reflect variations in the physical
characteristics of bedrock. Variations in soil color, composition and texture are often apparent on
aerial photographs. One of the advantages of photogeologic mapping over field mapping is that

completely covered and obscured bedrock units can be differentiated since residual soil reflect the
bedrock characteristics. However, soils may not always reflect underlying rock characteristics.
Climate, time and general geographic conditions may combine to produce uniform soils which does
not reflect the underlying bedrock characteristics or variations.
e. Moisture. The relative amount of moisture in the soil or mantle, and in some cases in the
bedrock, frequently produces noticeable variations in tonal intensity on aerial photographs. The effect
is sometimes direct and sometimes indirect. Relatively dray areas tend to appear a lighter gray,
whereas the more nearly saturated areas tend to be darker. This is the direct effect of moisture
content.
The indirect effect principally involves vegetation. In areas consistently arid or semiarid, a
sparse growth of grasses, shrubs, and trees may be present. In extremely arid areas, little or no
vegetation can exist. In humid areas a greater density of vegetation growth is possible. These
variables produce pronounced effects in tonal variations.
Even the same area can show tonal variations depending on the variations in temperature and
precipitation. There two factors which determine the moisture content of soils: depth of water table
and grain size.
In general coarse grained rocks or soils appear in lighter tones, because capillary zone is
much narrower than in fine grained rocks or soils. Under similar conditions a shale will appear darker
than a sandstone or gravel because it holds more water.
Tonal variations due to moisture change will be sharp in a coarse-grained material. Whereas
in a fine grained soil the tonal variations due to the changes in moisture content will be gradual.
f. Vegetation. Vegetation may obscure significant geologic relations or it may be useful in
the detection and mapping of geology. Two factors, namely color and shadows determine the tone
produced by vegetation. These in turn are determined by various properties, e.g. spacing of the
individual plants or trees, density of trees, type of trees, etc. Vegetation is controlled to a greater
extent by the climate and soil type.
Vegetation displays a definite geologic preference or selectivity. This may be due to
topographic, soil, or moisture factors. In many cases, where the mineral content of the rock influences
the composition, texture and other characteristics of the soil, a definite correlation between the
vegetation and rock type can be established. Certain plants or trees may grow on certain soils. Type
and density of vegetation is also influenced by the magnitude and orientation of slope which
contribute to tonal quality resulting from differences in light intensity, e.g. different growths on north
and south sides of hill. Slope magnitude is mostly a function of bedrock type and structure. Bedrock
may determine slope; slope may influence soil development; bedrock may influence soil composition;
soil and slope may influence vegetation; and only differences in vegetation may be noted on the aerial
photograph.
Sinkholes in limestones appear darker as a result of concentration of silty and clayey
materials leached from the carbonate rock and different type of vegetation growing on them. Faults
and joints may be indicated by the alignment of dark toned spots which correspond to vegetation.

5.2.1.2. External factors affecting gray tones
A. Technical factors: 1. Characteristics of the material and equipment

2. Techniques of exposures
3. Techniques of processing
B. Climatic factors: 1. Regular variations in the nature of daylight

2. Haze, mist, and clouds; reduction of contrast
3. Seasonal variations; surface moisture
5.2.2. Texture and pattern

Texture was defined as the frequency of tone change within the image and it is produced by
the aggregation of unit features which are too small to distinguish individually on the photographs.
Therefore the scale of photograph is important for the textural studies. The texture that shows
differences because of the tone change of the image is called photographic texture.
Density of a drainage network or the relative spacing of streams is called drainage texture.
Topographic texture is used to describe the degree of dissection of the land surface. In general fine
grained materials such as shales, have a fine surface texture, whereas coarse grained materials such as
gravel have a rough or coarse surface texture.
Pattern is the orderly arrangement of geologic, topographic and vegetation features. This
arrangement is generally a two dimensional or plan view arrangement of features. If the features, that
make up the pattern are too small to identify (because of the scale of the photograph) they may then
form a photographic texture. Patterns resulting from particular distribution of gently curved or
straight lines are common and are of structural significance. They may represent faults, joints, dykes
or bedding. A single line or lineation is also an illustration of pattern and may result from an orderly
arrangement of stream segments, trees, depressions or other features.
Drainage patterns are important in the geologic interpretation of aerial photographs; they
may reflect underlying structure or lithology. Vegetation patterns may reflect structural features or
lithologic character of the rock types.
Soil pattern used in engineering geology refers to the combination of surface expressions,
such as landforms, drainage characteristics, and vegetation, that are used in the interpretation of
ground conditions.
5.2.3. Shape or form
Shape or form is an important factor in geologic interpretation of photographs. Numerous
geologic features can be identified primarily by their shape alone. Some examples are alluvial fans,
sand dunes, glacial deposits, volcanoes (constructional land-forms, formed by deposition), and strike
ridges, zigzag or parallel-subparallel valleys and ridges, linear valleys and ridges (erosional
landforms, formed by erosion of existing bedrocks).
Differential erosion is considered the first key to bedrock identification and interpretation on
aerial photographs. In any area subjected to prolonged erosion (principally by running water),
resistant rock may be expected at or near the surface of higher topography, with less resistant rocks in
lower topographic position (i.e., sandstone ridges and shale valleys) (Figure 5.1).
Dykes may extend across an area, either as prominent wall-like ridges or as continuous or
discontinuous trench-like depressions. Their positive or negative expression is a function of their
resistance to erosion and weathering relative to that of the surrounding rock. Similarly, sills may

produce benches along the sides of escarpment or valley walls. Some veins which are composed
largely of resistant minerals, such as quartz, may be traced across an area of less resistant rock by
their positive topographic expression. Conversely, veins consisting largely of nonresistant minerals
may be eroded easily and appear as linear depressions or trenches.
A series of plunging folds, involving strata of various relative resistance, is frequently
represented by zigzag valleys and ridges. Where the folds do not plunge, parallel or sub-parallel
valleys and ridges are found.
Volcanic necks or plugs, the resistant solidified central cores of maturely eroded volcanoes
forms high topography above the less resistant country rock.
In some areas, isolated mountain masses may be observed to stand above former ancient
erosional surfaces or peneplanes because of their greater resistance to weathering and erosion. These
isolated remnants, called monadnocks.
Figure 5.1. Composite block diagram showing several examples of correlation between rock resistance and differential
erosion. LM, lava-capped mesa; FLS, fault-line scarp; OFLS, obsequent fault-line scarp; T, trench; R, ridge.
FS (fault scarp) is an exception. Recent faulting has raised nonresistant shale above adjacent resistant
conglomerate (Miller , 1981).
Intrusive rocks may stand topographically higher than the country rock into which they were
emplaced (Figure 5.1. ‘R’). If they are made of less resistant components, they may appear on aerial
photographs as trench, circular, oval, or irregular shaped depressions.
Since fault zones and major fracture zones are frequently extensively ruptured and deformed
and hence more susceptible to erosion, they may be detected by noting the presence of linear valleys
or lowlands.
5.2.4. Drainage
Since erosion, transportation, and deposition by running water occur in most areas, a study
and understanding of stream activity and resulting landforms is essential in photogeologic analysis.
The important aspects of drainage are:
1. Genetic classification of streams; the relation of a stream to original slope, underlying bedrock, and
structure.
2. The stage of development of a stream
3. Drainage patterns
4. Detailed drainage (or erosional) characteristics
5. Stage of landmass dissection

5.2.4.1. Genetic classification.
Streams are generally classified in the following manner (Figure 5.2): consequent,
subsequent, resequent, obsequent, insequent, superposed or superimposed and antecedent.
A consequent stream is one which develops on some initial topographic slope (Figure 5.3).
A subsequent stream is one which has developed a course adjusted along some line or zone
of least resistance (Figure 5.4).
A resequent stream is one which flows down the dip of the formation. The streams flowing
down the steep obsequent faces of the several asymmetric ridges are also classified as obsequent
streams.
An obsequent stream is one which flows in a direction opposite to the dip of the formation.
The streams flowing down the back or dip slopes of the ridges are classified as obsequent streams.
An insequent stream is one which follows a course which is apparently not controlled by
any factor of original slope, structure or rock type (Figure 5.4).
Figure 5.2. A block diagram showing an angular unconformity. A consequent stream (c) flows eastward down
the gently sloping surface (Miller, 1981).
Figure 5.3. A block diagram of the area shown in Figure 5.2. following superposition of the major consequent
stream (c) and extensive erosion. The tributary drainage is adjusted to the lithologies and structures
formerly beneath the angular unconformity. Genetic classification is based on this adjustment and
has no relation to original consequent stream direction. Symbols are as follows: c. original
consequent stream (superposed); s. subsequent stream; r. resequent stream; o. obsequent stream; i.
insequent stream (Miller, 1981)

Figure 5.4. A block diagram of a maturely eroded area of moderately complex structure. The tributary streams
can be classified with respect to structure. The master east-flowing stream is of unknown origin. It
may be suporposed from a former higher surface. It may have been antecedent, having maintained its
course during structural deformation (Miller, 1981).
A superposed (or superimposed) stream is one which has formed on one surface and
structure and has since cut down through an unconformity, to flow across lower rock units which
have a structure discordant with that above the unconformity (Figure 5.3). The materials lying above
the unconformity may either be bedrock or unconsolidated material.
Antecedent stream A stream that continued to downcut and maintain its original course as
an area along its course was uplifted by faulting or folding.
5.2.4.2. Stage of Stream development.

The following stages may be identified: initial stage, youthful stage, maturity, old age and
rejuvenation (Figure 5.5 and Table 2).
Initial stage. The initial stage of a stream is usually characterized by a lack of order and
organization. Falls, rapids, and variable stream gradients are typical. Initial drainage may develop on
uplifted coastal plains and peneplains, in glaciated plains, on young lava surfaces and volcanoes, and
on pediment surfaces.
Youthful stage. During the youthful stage, the major observable activity of a stream is that of
downcutting. The stream occupies the entire valley floor. Frequently, the valley profile is V-shaped
(Table 2) and stream course is relatively straight. Waterfalls and rapids persist well in this stage.
Mature stage. Downcutting is diminished and lateral erosion becomes dominant. Valley
floor is wider than stream channel. In full maturity, a stream flows in a well established meandering
course, sweeping back and forth across a flood plain sufficiently wide to accommodate the entire
meander belt. Early maturity is characterized by the partial development of a flood plain. In late
maturity, the flood plain is noticeably wider than the meander belt of the stream.
Old age. In old age the flood plain is so extensive that the entire meander belt has enough
room to follow a gross meander like course. Lateral erosion and point bar deposition dominates.
Oxbow lakes are common. The width of the flood plain is many times that of the meander belt and
natural levees are present along much of the stream channel.
Rejuvenation. At any time in a stream's development from one stage to the next, changes
may occur which produce a return to the dominantly downcutting youthful stage. Thus, a fully mature
stream may rapidly become incised a second time. Rejuvenation may be produced one ore more of
the following: uplift, tilting, lowering of base level, increase in a volume of stream by capture,
increase in volume through change in climate. Entrenched meanders, broad and flat peneplain (partly
dissected, relatively steep gradients are very common.

5.2.4.3. Drainage pattern
A drainage pattern may be defined as the planimetric arrangement of several streams which
are usually adjusted to certain topographic, structural, or lithologic controls. The streams which
comprise a pattern may be of any genetic type: insequent, consequent, subsequent, resequent, or
subsequent. Frequently, the noting of a stream pattern in an area is helpful in the identification and
interpretation of geologic features and structures. Similarly, the analysis and determination of genetic
type is of great importance in the evaluation of the meaning of a stream pattern.
Drainage texture refers to the frequency or density of streams and tributaries in an area. A
fine drainage texture indicates a high frequency, a coarse drainage texture refers to a low
frequency. Drainage texture is closely related to the permeability of the underlying material. Materials
with high permeability exhibit a coarse drainage texture, because most of the water drains down into
the ground and the water flowing on the surface is limited, e.g. coarse-grained sandstones, sand and
gravel, limestone. Fine-grained materials such as clay and shales have a low permeability and hence
only a very limited amount of water seeps down. sandstones, sand and gravel, limestone. Fine-grained
materials such as clay and shales have a low permeability and hence only a very limited amount of
water seeps down.
Sketches of drainage density variations.

TABLE 2. Valley development

Youthful stage
Mature stage
Old stage
Figure 5.5. Block diagrams illustrating stages in the fluvial cycle of erosion

The important drainage patterns are as follow:
Dendritic drainage pattern. This pattern resembles the complex branching of a tree and is
principally a collection of insequent streams (Figures 5.6, 5.7). Homogeneity (uniformity)-no
structural control-is characteristic. There is no line of structural weakness, and no steeply dipping,
nonresistant stratigraphic interval along which a stream can cut more rapidly than elsewhere.
Dendritic drainage pattern is to be expected in the following areas: unconsolidated sands, silts, clays,
gravels; in areas underlain by fine grained, gently sloping shales, tuffs; uniformly resistant crystalline
rocks; highly metamorphosed rocks; horizontal or nearly horizontal rocks.
The main factor influencing the development of dendritic drainage pattern is the type and the
attitude of the rock on which drainage develops. In fine grained and impermeable rocks or layers, the
pattern becomes closely spaced and more divided (ramified), whereas, in coarse grained and
permeable rocks, it becomes wide spaced and less ramified.
Modifications of dendritic drainage pattern: pincer-like drainage pattern, subparallel-dendritic
pattern, dendritic-pectinate pattern (featherlike), dendritic-pinnate.
Figure 5.6. Dendritic drainage pattern. Also called tree-like or Figure 5.7. Modification of dendritic pattern. Different designs
arborescent. Most common basic pattern. F is fine texture; develop in claystone (C), sandy or silty clay (SC), and sand
C is coarse texture. No structural control. Occurs on fine or sandstone (Ss). The difference is in shape, remification,
textured impervious material. type, texture and length of gullies. C is most remified, tree-
like, fine textured. Ss is more wide spaced. Less remified
with short straight gullies. SC is finer textured with longer
remified gullies; a type between C and Ss.
Parallel drainage pattern. Extensive unidirectional slopes, such as those along a broad
coastal plain or an elongate linear homoclinal ridge underlain by gently dipping strata or other tabular
rock, are often drained by relatively uniformly spaced parallel or subparallel streams. When such
streams constitute the principal drainage of an area, they may be referred to as forming a parallel
drainage pattern (Figure 5.12) or subparallel drainage pattern (Figure 5.13). In general, this type of
drainage pattern develops on fine textured material with steep slopes. Parallel drainage pattern is
derived from dendritic and becomes dendritic, when the slope flattens out.

Figure 5.8. Modification of dendritic pattern Figure 5.9. Subparallel-dendritic pattern
Figure 5.10. Dendritic-pectinate pattern. Figure 5.11. Dendritic-pinnate pattern.

The material is loses. The material is sandy and clayey silt
Figure 5.12. Parallel pattern Figure 5.13. Subparallel pattern

Trellis drainage pattern. This pattern in contrast to dendritic drainage pattern is controlled
structurally, and is produced in areas in which structural complexities or differences in rock resistance
have directed stream development and location along a single major trend (subsequent stream), with
smaller tributaries largely at right angles to the main units (obsequent and resequent streams) (Figure
5.14). Parallel folds of beds of different resistance, dipping sedimentary rocks generally exhibit trellis
pattern.
Rectangular drainage pattern. Rectangular drainage patterns (Figure 5.17) usually develop
along intersecting fault or joint systems. The adjusted streams or stream segments which define the
pattern are all subsequent streams. This pattern occurs in areas underlain by large bodies of
homogeneous crystalline rock, and regional plateaus underlain by horizontal or gently dipping
resistant sedimentary rocks. Adjustment along one set of joints or faults is more pronounced.
Combinations of dendritic and rectangular drainage patterns may occur in an area where the
rock mass contains widely spaced fractures.
Angular drainage pattern. Joint and fault systems rarely intersect at exactly at 90 . The term
rectangular is therefore usually extended to include large acute intersections. Angular drainage pattern
occurs when the joints or faults cross each other at an angle (Figures 5.15, 5.16).
Radial drainage pattern. Most circular or oval topographically high areas are drained by
streams which radiate outward from the central part, and flow down the flanks in all directions
(Figure 5.18). Such radially drained topographic features may be underlain by horizontal strata, by
dipping strata, by anticlinal or synclinal folds, by crystalline or sedimentary rocks, or by
unconsolidated residual or deposited materials. Radial drainage alone cannot be assumed to indicate
any particular structure.
However, many structural domes rise as topographic domes, Radial consequent drainage
develops around their flanks. Volcanoes also display radial drainage.
Annular drainage pattern. Maturely dissected domes and basins are frequently expressed
topographically by a series of concentric circular or arcuate ridges and lowlands. The lowlands, which
are developed on nonresistant beds, are usually occupied by subsequent streams. These streams, if
sufficiently well defined and restricted to the nonresistant belts, form what is called an annular
drainage pattern (Figures 5.19).
Figure 5.14. Trellis pattern Figure 5.15. Angular pattern

Figure 5.16. Angular pattern Figure 5.17. Rectengular pattern
Figure 5.18. Radial drainage pattern Figure 5.19. Annular drainage pattern
Patterns of internal drainage

The patterns of internal drainage occur in soluble rock like limestone or gypsum (sinkhole
pattern) or in insoluble porous material like sandstone or conglomerates. The sinkholes on soluble
rock have a roundish outline (Figure 5.20, 5.21). They may be round, oval or irregular curved, even
somewhat angular when fault controlled. On insoluble, granular rocks, internal drainage patterns
develop which are similar to sinkholes. They are roundish or irregular shaped depressions, where the
rainwater percolates into the porous rock beneath.

Figure 5.20. Sinkhole pattern. Figure 5.21. Drainage pattern in tropical karst.
Three different types of limestones (A,B,C)
show three types of sinkholes and dissolved
fractures.
Special patterns
Besides the basic drainage types and their modifications, special patterns are known. They are
indicative as to the material in which they develop. The following are the most common or significant
types.
The deranged pattern is a common type of combined surface and subsurface drainage of
glacial drift regions (Figure 5.24).
The dichotomic, is a pattern found on alluvial fans or on deltas. It is controlled by
depositional material. This pattern occurs in coarse granular material as shown in Figure 5.25.
Alluvials, flood-plains with meandering streams, show a pattern of meander scars and oxbow
lakes left by abandoned channels called anastomotic (Figure 5.22).
A stream pattern controlled by its own deposited load is called braided (Figure 5.23). It is
most common in broad streams which emerges abruptly from high mountains to plains.
Other special drainage patterns are: lacunate pattern(Figure 5.26) and barbed pattern
(Figure 5.27).
Figure 5.22. Anastomotic drainage pattern Figure 5.23. Braided drainage pattern

Figure 5.24. Deranged pattern develops on glacial till. Figure 5.25. Dichotomic pattern develops on
alluvial fans
Figure 5.26. Lacunate drainage pattern. Figure 5.27. Barbed pattern.
Figure 5.28. Radial, pincerlike-dendritic and annular Figure 5.29. Contorted drainage pattern.
drainage patterns on a small granitic dome.

5.2.4.4. Detailed erosional characteristics
During the course of drainage development, several factors determine the ultimate type,
density, and other characteristics of the stream systems of an area. The more significant of these are
rock type, structure, climate, and vegetation.
Resistant rocks, such as sandstones, quartzites, and conglomerates, prevent the development
of many small tributaries. Areas underlain by such rock units are usually drained by a relatively few
widely spaced, large tributary streams. Soluble rocks, such as limestones and dolomites, in humid and
semihumid climates, accommodate within themselves a large portion of the precipitation and permit
less surface runoff in the form of streams. Areas underlain by such rocks are, therefore, frequently
characterized by low drainage density and large tributaries. Conversely, such rocks as shales and
clays, being dense and impermeable, have a greater surface runoff and allow the formation and
maintenance of many closely spaced small finger-tip tributaries.
Distinct contrasts in rock type are clearly reflected in the minor drainage characteristics. A
plateau underlain by extremely resistant quartzites is easily distinguished from one underlain by either
porous limestones or dense clays. But, such differences may not be uniform over great areas, since
various climatic, topographic, soil, and vegetation factors produce variations which must be taken
into account. Within any one relatively restricted area, however, certain recognition criteria, which
are very helpful in lithologic recognition, can be established.
5.2.4.5. Stage of landmass dissection
A landmass, like a stream, may be said to pass through several stages of development from
initial form, through youth and maturity, to old age.
The initial stage of dissection of any area may be considered that stage in which drainage is
just beginning to develop or has recently developed. Much of the initial block surface remains
undissected and undrained.
The youthful stage is characterized by active stream development and dissection, though
most of the original surface remains.
The mature stage may be described as consisting of slopes, resulting from the almost
complete dissection of the original landmass. Little or no original upland surface remains.
In the old-age stage, a large number of the interfluvial spurs and divides have been removed
by erosion and much of the lower topography is adjusted to a new base level. The original upland
surface is reflected only by a relatively few remaining hills or outliers which rise above the new well-
developed lower surface.

5.2.5. Gully and gully analysis
Drainage ways of the fourth order, or initial features running water cuts into consolidated or
unconsolidated material are called gullies. Like the drainage pattern of streams and tributaries, gullies
have characteristics which refer to the type of material in which they develop. The geologist will find
some valuable detail information in studying them, because it shows the type of rock in more detail.
Physical characteristics of gullies refer to the material with their length, width, depth, shape,
cross section and gradient. All those characteristics, are combinations of composition of the rock,
climate, water velocity and vegetation cover. Length of the gullies depend on age (maturity) but
material is a greater influence. In clay, shale and silt gullies are longer than in granular material as
sand, gravel or agglomerate. Width and depth depend on age and erodibility. Wide gullies are
common in arid regions, sand deserts and loess. They seem not always connected with the type of the
rock.
The cross section depends on the material. Here, the two factors are the critical height of the
gully and the shape of the bottom. Relationship between the two characteristics and the material are
complicated. The component of "softening" of the sides of the gully is less in granulars than in fine
cohesive loess or silts. Clays are softened in higher degree and will have longer, more shallow and
less steep sided gullies than granulars or silts. Bottoms on sand or gravel are more narrow than those
of shales which have a variable "soft" bottom. Sandy clay, silty or loess tend to produce broad flat
bottomed gently sloped gullies. These relationships can be summarized as follows:
A. Non-cohesive porous soils (sands, gravels)
length: short
depth: rather shallow, variable
width: variable, but rather narrow
cross-section: straight V-shaped
gradient: steep
plan: simple, direct with few short branches
B. Cohesive, low porosity material (shales, clays, marls)

length: long
depth: variable, tend to be shallow or moderate
width: variable, tend to be wide
cross-section: broad round V
gradient: uniform
plan: smoothly curving, gentle slopes with many branches
C. Intermediate material (sandy shale, silt, flysch)

length: rather long
depth: extremely variable, not shallow
width: moderate
cross-section: uniform U or V-shaped
gradient: gentle
plan: intricate branching

6. APPLICATION OF PHOTOINTERPRETATION TO GEOLOGY
Two types of geologic information can be obtained from aerial photographs: structural and
lithologic. The kinds and amounts of information that could be obtained from aerial photographs
depend primarily on: 1) type of terrain, 2) climatic environment, 3) stage of the geomorphic cycle.
1. Areas underlain by sedimentary rocks yield more information than areas underlain by igneous
and metamorphic rocks. Because the sedimentary rocks have strongly differing physical character-
istics, whereas plutonic rocks are relatively homogeneous over wide areas. Metamorphic rocks may
show the least amount of information from aerial photographs.
2. Arid and semi-arid regions will yield the greatest amount of geologic information compared to
the tropical regions. The arid and semi-arid regions might also show a greater number of significant
plant-rock associations than other climatic areas, because weathered material in the arid and semi-arid
regions is not excessively leached and a close relation of soil to parent rock formation exists. As a
result of difference in vegetation growing on soils, closely associated to the bedrock, mapping of
different rock types is possible in these areas. This association is less developed in tropical areas
where rainfall is abundant. Aerial photographs yield more structural information in areas where
vegetation cover is dense and superficial deposits is wide-spread.
3. During the mature stage of geomorphic cycle, at which time streams show their greatest
adjustment to and reflection of structure, the amount of structural information will be greater.
Factors affecting the photographic appearance of rocks
Most photogeologic studies are designed to compile a geologic map of lithologic units and
structures. The factors which affect the photographic appearance of a rock:
1. Climate
2. Vegetation cover
3. Soil cover
4. Absolute rate of erosion
5. Relative rate of erosion
6. Color and reflectivity
7. Composition
8. Physical characteristics
9. Depth of weathering
10. Structure
11. Texture
12. Factors inherent in the type and conditions of photography.
Use of aerial photographs in geology
1. Outline the structure and structural relationship in an area
2. Outline the stratigraphic succession
3. Preparation of a geologic map
4. Measurements of stratigraphic sections
5. Measurements of dip and strike and thickness of formations
6. Inferences about rock types present in the area.

6.1. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS (INTERPRETATION)
The photogeologic interpretation of the planar structures like bed, foliation, joint and fault is
termed as structural analysis.
6.1.1. Bedding
In structural analysis, to follow a resistant bed or complex is usually not difficult. The
position of a bed in relation with the horizontal is called an ATTITUDE. The position of a tilted bed
can be determined by the DIP and the STRIKE. The DIP is the direction of the maximum slope. It is
the angle between the surface plane of bedding at its greatest value in degrees and the horizontal. It is
a line the runoff takes flowing down the bedding plane. The horizontal line which can be constructed
at right angles to the dip direction is the STRIKE. It can be said that the strike line is parallel to the
intersection of the bedding plane with a horizontal surface (Figure 6.1).
Figure 6.1. Relation between strike-dip-bedding plane and talus. The talus tends to reduce
the angle of sloping. E-E is the edge or rim of a hard bed, usually marked on aerial
photographs.
In the aspect of photointerpretation, the beds can be classified into three groups on the basis of dip
amount:
1. horizontal and gentle dipping beds,
2. medium dipping beds,
3. steep and vertical dipping beds.
6.1.1.1. Horizontal and gentle dipping beds.
In deed, there are no perfectly horizontal beds. So, the beds with a very gentle dipping slope, not
exceeding one degree is considered to be horizontal. Beds, having one to five degree dip amount are
named as horizontal beds. Generally, alluvial deposits, terraces, talus and undisturbed deposits may
display horizontal bedding. The appearance of a landscape with horizontal and low dipping beds is
that of a CANYON-MESA type (Figure 6.2). The hills when isolated have the form of a flat table
mountain or MESA. The valleys are deep dissected cut-in CANYONS. The slope of a mesa or sides
of a canyon are step-like. The hard beds, like sandstone or limestone, form near perpendicular cliffs,
the softer shales (or thin sandstone thick shale intercalations) form slopes.

Figure 6.2. Relation of attitude of resistant beds to landform. Hard beds form a mesa when horizontal, a
dipslope or cuesta when tilted, and a hogback when in steep attitude. Ss is a subsequent or
strike controlled stream; Sf a fault controlled stream; Rs a resequent stream, and Ob an
obsequent stream.
The conspicuous photographic characteristics of horizontal beds are as follows:

1. The flat lying or nearly horizontal beds are easily distinguished by tonal contrast and different
resistance to erosion. The tonal contrast is expressed as bands following or extending parallel to the
topographic contours. They are also loop-like shaped on the aerial photographs (Figure 6.3).
2. In the case of alternating resistant and non-resistant beds slope characteristics (breaks in slope) help
in recognizing each unit.
3. The drainage pattern on flat lying beds is generally dendritic unless they are controlled by joint or
fault.
4. A dip of half a degree can be observed on aerial photographs unless beds are obscured or
obliterated by talus or scree.
5. The land shape of canyon-mesa type topography is underlain by horizontal or flat-lying sediments.
6.1.1.2. Medium dipping beds.

The beds with dips ranging from 5-35 degrees are considered to be medium dipping beds. Usually
the hard bed forms a more or less even sheet. The top part of this layer, when hard, will resist erosion
more than a weaker cover formation like shale or marl. When this is removed, the hard layer is
exposed. A slope results, showing the inclination and direction of the dipping hard bed. This landform
is called a DIPSLOPE or CUESTA (Figure 6.2), the most valuable element on a photogeologic map.
because it indicates the attitude of the hard bed. The dipslope or questa is an asymmetric ridge with
one slope is gentle, long and agree with the dip direction of the bed. Other slope is short and steep.
The longer is called the face slope, which is parallel with the dip of the hard bed, and the other is the
scarp or steep slope, which inclines away from the face slope.
Because the dipslope of a gentle or medium dip is attacked by erosion from two opposite
quarters, the resulting watershed will shift. On the steeper slope the streams will erode with greater
intensity, than on the side with a gentle slope. The divide will therefore shift gradually from the
steeper slope towards the gentle or face slope until an equilibrium is reached (Figure 6.4).

Figure 6.3. Dendritic drainage patterns
characteristically develop on
horizontal strata and cut canyons or
valleys in which progressively
older rock units are exposed. As a
result, the map patterns of
horizontal strata parallel stream
valleys and produce a dendritic
pattern on the geologic map.
Although topographic contour lines
are not shown on all maps, the
contacts of rock units of horizontal
strata will parallel the contours.
Escarpments and gentle slopes
generally develop on resistant and
nonresistant beds respectively and
thus produce variations in the width
of the map outcrop patterns. On
steep cliffs the upper and lower
contacts (as seen on the map) will
be close together, whereas on a
gentle slope of the same formatian
the contacts will appear further
apart. It is apparent, therefore, that
the map width of the outcrop belts
of horizontal strata is no indication
of the unit's thickness. Gently
dipping strata will develop the
same basic outcrop pattern as
horizontal beds. The contacts
between rock units in gently
dipping strata, when traced far
enough up a valIey, however, will
be seen to cross topographic
contours and form a large V-shaped
pattern which points in the
direction in which beds dip.

Figure 6.4. Recession of an escarpment. Escarpment (E) started at the initial position IPS where a strike
controlled stream began to erode shake Sh2 which is overlying Ss1. R and arrow indicated
direction of receding watershed. D is a dipslope of Ss2.
The main photo-characteristics of medium dipping beds are as follows:
1. The dip amount, dip direction and the strike can be determined well on these beds. Such beds are
the most valuable sources of information to the photogeologist.
2. The outstanding land shape developing on the medium dipping beds is the DIPSLOPE or
QUESTA.
3. Where bedding is expressed by bands of differing photographic tone or by topographic breaks in
slope due to the resistance of beds, the rule of V's may be applied to determine the direction of dip;
that is, where the trace of a bed intersects a stream valley a V in the outcrop pattern will point the
direction of dip (Figure 6.5, 6.6).
Figure 6.5
But if the direction of dip and direction of stream flow are the same and the stream has a
gradient greater than the amount of dip, the case will be reverse.
6.1.1.3. Steep and vertical beds.
The beds having dips more than 35 degrees are considered to be steeply dipping beds. In practice,
steep or vertically dipping beds are seldom indicative to which side of the ridge the bed is dipping.
Dips over 65 degrees seem vertical on photographs because of stereoscopic exaggeration.

Figure 6.6. When a sequence of rocks is ti1ted
and truncated by erosion, the outcrop
patterns will appear as bands which, on
a regional basis, are roughly parallel.
Important variations in details of the
basic pattern are developed in areas
dissected by erosion and should be
carefully analyzed, for they provide
important information concerning the
subsurface structure.
When dipping strata are traced across a
valIey, a V-shaped outcrop pattern is
produced which points in the direction
of dip. Exception to the rule is possible
if the degree of bedding dip is less than
the gradient of the valIey, but such
conditions are seldom encountered. The
size of the outcrop pattern V is
inversely proportion al to the magnitude
of dip:
1. low angle dip -large V (front part of
Figure)
2. high angle dip - small V
3. vertical dip - V is absent (back part of
Figure)
Careful examination of Figure will
reveal several additional relationships
basic to geologic maps:
1. Older beds dip toward younger beds
unless the sequence is overturned. 2.
Outcrop width depends on a. thickness
of the beds
b. dip of the beds (low dip maximum
width)
c. slope of the topography (steep slope
minimum width)

The main photo-characteristics of the steep and vertical dipping beds are as follows:
1. The diagnostic landshape developing on these beds is HOGBACK (Figure 6.2). Hogbacks are
sharp, straight or slightly curved ridges with the two opposing slopes dipping at same angles.
2. Vertical beds are strongly eroded, worn, and often covered by talus on both sides of a hogback
ridges.
3. The long axis of the hogback is parallel to the strike of the bedding. By using the long axis, one can
easily determine strike direction.
4. Using the scale of the aerial photograph, the true thickness of vertical or nearly vertical bed can be
measured directly without the aid of any formula.
6.1.1.4. Determination of the direction of dip of inclined beds from aerial photographs
1. Dip direction is readily apparent where topographic surfaces coincide with bedding surfaces
(Figure 6.7).
Figure 6.7
2. Dip direction can be determined using the rule of V (Figure 6.6, 6.9). The apex of V always points
the dip direction. The long and narrow V shape shows less dip amount or gently dipping beds while
short and wide V shape refers medium and steep dipping beds.
3. The drainage characteristics may also be used to find the dip direction in the areas, particularly
those of low relief, where beds are obscured by surfical materials or vegetation. Where the dips are
gentle the relatively long tributary systems commonly flow down the face slopes, whereas short
tributary systems will characterized back slopes (Figure 6.8). When the dip is steep, in other words, it
is over the 45 degrees, the rule is reverse (Figure 6.10).
Figure 6.8

Figure 6.9. Relationship between outcrop pattern and type of the bed

4. Slope asymmetry may be used to find the dip direction. The gentle slope of a questa or dip slope
indicates dip direction (Figure 6.10).
5. In heavily vegetated areas the tree crowns fall in the direction of slope.
Figure 6.10
To interpret the lineaments resulting from the dipping beds, the following characteristics
should be observed on aerial photographs:
a. They have to be persistent ridges when the bed is more resistant to the erosion than the adjacent bed
or rock unit.
b. They have to be approximately parallel to one another. If there is an abrupt ending of this
parallelism, it indicates a structural features like a fault.
c. Ridges of hard beds tend to be found in groups rather than single.
6.1.2. Folded structures

Sediments are deposited like pages of a book, in sheets. Sediment layers have various
extensions, composed of different types of rock. Some are plastic, soft, like clays or shales; some are
loose, granular, like sand and gravel; and some hard like sandstone and limestone. Layers of rock are
laid down originally in a horizontal position. The process of sedimentation is continuous and may go
on for ages, until it is interrupted by crustal movements. Sedimentary rocks, laid down in large basins
of water, will eventually emerge from the sea and become exposed to denudation. When the
horizontally deposited sedimentary sequences are compressed by the tangential pressure, which is the
main force in the orogenesis or orogenic processes, they are tilted, warped, folded and fractured
resulting the orogenic belts or terrain.
The difference in rigidity of layers, changing direction or intensity of pressure, causes fracturing of
the strata. Rigid, hard beds, like sandstone or limestone, will break up into blocks when exposed to
folding movements near the surface. But beds of greater softness or plasticity like shale or clay when
compressed in depth, act just like viscous fluids. Folding and fracturing are processes linked closely
to each other.
Since rock layers are deposited one after another, in horizontal bedding, the upper strata is the
younger, the lower one the older. Evidence of stratigraphic sequence is of greatest importance in a
photogeologic evolution of an area. Tectonic analysis without evidence of the age of a formation
cannot be complete. In separating lithologic units on aerial photographs, the question arises
continually which is older, which the younger? On areas with a low relief, dipslopes are often too

indistinctive to obtain evidence of the sequence of certain strata. When the area is folded, the cores of
the fold will expose the older, the flanks and troughs the younger beds.
The type or forms of the tectonic landforms and structural features depend on the intensity of
tangential pressure. For example, slight tangential pressure on a horizontal strata will result in gentle
warping or open folds. When the tangential pressure is high and continues, steep and overturned folds
will form (Figure 6.11).
Figure 6.11. Types of folds. The type

depends on the intensity of tectonic
pressure. An is an anticline, with crest C
and anticlinal axis, AAx. The two
slopes are called limbs or flanks (L).
The syncline (Sy) and its axis (SAx)
indicate that the structure is symmetric.
When the axial plane (O-FAx) is tilted,
an assymetric or overfold, will result
(OF). Continuous tectonic pressure will
result in a recumbent or overturned fold
(RF). This fold is usually connected
with an overthrust (O-T) fault.
Recumbent folds may become covers or
nappes in intensively folded
mountainous areas.
On the basis of dip amount of flanks or limbs, folds are classified into three groups, namely
gentle folds, medium folds and steep folds.
a. Gentle folds. The dip amount of the limbs range from 2 to about 10 degrees. Folds in this
range have long gentle dipslopes. Gentle folding is of great importance to the petroleum geologist
because such structures are favorable for accumulation of oil.
b. Medium folds. The dip amount of the limbs range from 10 to 35 degrees. The landforms
are medium grade dipslopes. Such folded belts follow orogenesis.
c. Steep folds have dips from 35 to vertical. When eroded and in the steeper range, it is often
not possible to construct the approximate axial part of these folds. Metamorphics are almost
everywhere strongly compressed to steep folds because several orogenic movements from different
directions may have worked on the strata. Areas which have undergone several phases of tectonic
pressure usually show steep folds with meandering axes. The highest grade of tectonic pressure
causes over-thrusting. Layers are squeezed out into sheets or nappes.
There are several types and forms of folds namely, anticline and syncline.
a. Anticline. Anticlines are positive folds with bedding planes dipping away from a line called the
axis of the structure (Figure 6.11). The dip amount increases towards the flanks and low or horizontal
on or near the axis. The axis which runs with the highest part of the fold is a theoretical plane of
vertical or tilted attitude cutting the anticlinal fold at its highest part. It is, therefore, marked with a
line or symbol on maps. Axes do not continue horizontally along an anticlinal fold. They plunge
according to the dip of the bedding planes, and are named as plunging anticline (Figure 6.12).
Anticlines are of essential importance for petroleum prospecting.

Figure 6.12. Folding is one of the most
common types of structural deformation
and is found in complex mountain
ranges and in less deformed lowlands
and plateaus.
A convex upward fold is referred to as
an anticline and in this structure the
limbs dip away from the axis.
Anticlines are characterized by having
the oldest rocks in the core or center.
Synclines are folds which are concave
upward with limbs dipping toward the
axis and are characterized by having the
youngest rocks in the center.
In some folds the axis is horizontal but
more commonly it is inclined. The
inclination of the axis is referred to as
plunge and is of importance in
analyzing the three-dimensional aspect
of the fold. Plunging folds which have
been truncated by erosion form a
characteristic zig-zag outcrop pattern. A
plunging anticline forms a V -shaped
outcrop pattern with the apex (or nose)
pointing in the direction of the plunge.
Plunging synclines form a similar
pattern, but the limbs of the fold open in
the direction of plunge.

Figure 6.13. Eroded, dome-shaped structures
form a roughly circular to elliptical
outcrop with beds dipping away from
a central area. These structures may
range in size from small warps a few
feet in diameter to regional features
covers hundreds or thousands of
square miles. As can be seen in
Figure 157 the central part of an
eroded dome is made up of the oldest
bed with progressively younger rock
units located outward from the center
of the structure.
Drainage patterns are helpful in
interpreting domal structures because
(1) they tend to form a radial pattern
as streams develop on the less
resistant beds and (2) streams cutting
across the resistant beds permit one to
apply the rule of V's to interpret the
direction of dip. If the relative ages of
rock units are shown on the map, a
dome is readily recognized by older
rocks located in the center of the
structure.

Figure 6.14. A structural basin, when
eroded and exposed at the
surface, displays an elliptical or
circular outcrop pattern similar to
that of an eroded dome. The
general outcrop pattern of both
structures is similar, but two
major features enable us to
distinguish readily a basin from a
dome: (1) Younger rocks crop
out in the center of a basin,
whereas older rocks are exposed
in the center of a dome. (2) If the
structure has been dissected by
stream erosion, the V in the
outcrop points toward the center
of a basin and away from the
center of a dome. In addition, the
cliff or scarp formed on the
resistant rocks of a basin faces
outward, and the dip slope is
inclined toward the center of the
structure. This is exactly the
opposite of the direction in which
the slope is inclined in an eroded
dome.

Every anticline, short or long, has a part where the beds are highest, or where, the oldest beds
appear at the surface of a near level terrain. From such an area, the beds are dipping radially in all
directions, and the axis shows two plunges at opposite areas away from this highest part. These types
of features are called as dome due to their dome like shape (Figure 6.13). Such structural features are
of great economic importance in the respect of petroleum accumulation.
b. Syncline. This structure is a negative fold. The beds on a syncline dip toward the central
line, the synclinal axis, which runs along the deepest part of a tectonic trough. Synclines are of many
types, similar to anticline. If the axis of syncline shows two plunges at opposite areas, these features
are named as basin (Figure 6.14). Synclines have usually no economic interest for the oil geologist.
For the hydrologist however, synclines are important because artesian wells can be successfully
drilled in synclines.
6.1.3. Structural landforms

Every region of sedimentary rocks will be eroded during and after accomplished folding.
Weak rock will be removed and the hard beds will remain as ridges or dipslope belts. The resulting
landforms depend on the distributions of hard and weak strata. Positive forms will be mountains or
ridges; negative forms will be valleys, troughs, or basins.
Tectonic terrace (tectonic bench or homocline). These are incomplete anticlinal structures.
They have two flanks dipping in the same direction similar to a river terraces (Figure 6.15)
Figure 6.15
Anticlinal mountain. The axial part can be built up by a resistant and hard formation. Such a
situation is rather frequent because along an anticlinal axis, older beds crop out, which are mostly
harder and more resistant than younger formations which are not too well consolidated. The core part
will, therefore, remain and anticlinal mountain will result (Figure 6.16). Such anticlinal landforms
are frequent in areas of thick sandstone formations or where beds of hard limestone become exposed.
Anticlinal valley. When nonresistant and weak beds are exposed along an anticline and the
flanks are of resistant material, the core of the fold will be carved out by subsequent stream and an
anticlinal valley will result (Figure 6.16).
Synclinal valley. It is a type of landform which is associated with troughs (Figure 6.17).
Synclinal mountain. It is less frequent and occur when the core of the syncline is of hard
rock and the older beds along the flanks are weak and removed by erosion (Figure 6.17).

Figure 6.16. Block diagram of an anticlinal mountain
and a synclinal valIey. The anticline (A.Mt.)
forms a ridge. A thick sandstone bed (Ss2) is
overlain by a sandy shale sSh. Consequent
drainage C of sandy shale character forms
dipslopes (D) which however do not conform
with Ss2 below. The ,watershed W, however,
follows the axis of the structure. The synclinal
valley (S. V.) is formed by sandstone Ss1. It
forms a trough with dipslopes (D) and alluvial
fill (A). The shale at the left shows a strike
controlled strato subsequent river (sR). At the
center, stream sR follows the scarp in a similar
sense. The tributaries from the anticline are
resequent streams; the steep short gullies from
the scarp obsequents (O). CgI is a base
coinglomerate; B is base rock.
FIGURE 6.17. Block diagram of a synclinal

mountain and anticlinal valIey. The beds: Ss,
sandstone; Sh, sha1e;sSh, sandy shale; Lst,
limestone; CgI, conglomerate; and B, basement
rock. At D is a sinkhole-studded gently dipping
limestone surface, with internal drainage. It
forms dipslopes (D-D). Since the anticlinal
crest (AV) falls into a sandy shale, a valley is
eroded by a strike controlled stream. The
syncline (SM) is formed by several hard beds. It
is a mesa-type fiat trough. Talus cones (Tc) fiat-
tening the slope between sandstones 1 and 2,
should not be confused with dipslopes. Note that
shale at SM ex- presses the dip of beds. At sSh
the shale is unconclusive to real dip of the
complex.
6.1.4. Fractures
Tectonic forces do not always cause the development of folds. Instead, the rocks may break
or fracture. Faults and joints are examples of these types of deformational features.
6.1.4.1. Faults
Faults are the deformational features of the Earth's crust along which a measurable movement
takes place (6.18).
On aerial photographs fault indications have one common property: they are always straight,
or slightly curved. Straightness is inherent to all breaking phenomena of the crust. This stands mainly
for resistant rocks, because, weak, plastic beds are bent rather than broken. The relative straightness
of a fault indication is based on the straightness of the fault plane. This plane is always somewhat
irregular or slightly curved. Normal faulting displays, as a rule, straightness along a certain length
(Figures 6.18, 6.19). Curved fault traces are found only in reverse or overthrust fault.

Figure 6.18. Outcrop patterns of faults and
Colorado Plateau
Fault patterns on geologic maps are
distinctive; they appear as lines or zones
of displacement that abruptly offset
structures and terminate contacts
between formations.
Thrust faults generally dip at a low
angle. Because of the low-angle dip, the
pattern of the fault trace is
characteristically irregular and similar
in many respects to the trace produced
by low-dipping angular unconformities.
In Figure 6.18, thrust faults are located
at the base of the formations colored
purple and blue. The trace of a thrust
fault commonly forms a V across
valleys, with the V pointing in the
direction in which the fault dips.
Normal and reverse faults usually dip at
a high angle, so their outcrop patterns
are relatively straight. Since older rocks
are generally exposed on the upthrown
block, the relative movement on most
high-angle faults can be determined
from the map relations alone.
Thick, resistant sandstone formations in

the Colorado Plateau commonly show
the characteristics of fracture systems in
remarkable detail. The sandstone
formation in this area is nearly
horizontal. Normal faults are shown
where the surface is displaced
vertically. Joint systems are accentuated
by weathering and are expressed as
cracks.

Figure 6.19. Outcrop patterns of strike-
slip faults and strike-slip faults of
California
In a strike-slip fault, the displacement is
parallel to the strike of the fault plane.
Displacement on strike-slip faults may
reach several hundred miles, so rock
types of very different structure and
geologic characteristics may be placed
side by side after prolonged periods of
movement. The trend of strike-slip
faults is typically straight, in contrast to
the irregular trace of thrust faults and
the zigzag trace of normal faults. Small
slivers or slices of foreign rock bodies
may be caught in the strike-slip fault
zone and are commonly expressed
either as elongate troughs or ridges.
The lateral displacement of the crust in
strike-slip faults does not produce high
scarps. The fault line is, however,
commonly marked by structural and
topographic discontinuities, linear
ridges and rivers, and offset drainage
patterns. The offset drainage is usually
very signifıcant, because it indicates the
direction of displacement.

The main indications or features, which can be distinguished on aerial photographs to
determine the faults are:
1. Scarps. Morphologically, the most common landforms are fault scarps. All types of faults
may cause scarps but normal faulting will be the most frequent cause of scarp forming (Figure 6.20).
2. Triangular facets. When erosion advances and cuts up the fault scarp into residual
landforms, parts of the original scarp will remain and indicate the original approximate position of the
fault plane (Figure 6.20). These features are named as triangular facet and found along the foot of a
fault scarp, following a more or less straight line. They are found mostly on active, reactivated or
young faults.
3. Block forming. Relatively elevated and depressed surfaces can form a pattern called a
block mosaic. Such an area is called block faulted. These blocks are mostly connected with multiple
scarping (Figure 6.19)
4. Truncation. Abrupt termination of landforms, or drainage pattern or sudden changes in
photographic tone, texture along a straight line or linear feature (Figure 6.18, 6.19).
5. Trenches or linear depressions. Straight, incised narrow valleys or grabens in hard rock
like igneous, dissolved cracks in limestone (Figures 6.19, 6.20)
6. Controlled drainage. Every straight, angular stream course if not strato-subsequent,
should be considered fault controlled (Figures 6.19, 6.20).
7. Axial shift of structures. Right or left stepping in the fold axes indicates faulting.
8. Abrupt changes of dip on monoclines, or a sudden change of dip, strike or both, along
a line.
9. Igneous features. Linear arrangement of extrusives and dikes where magma intrudes into
major fractures or extrudes along them.
10. Alignment of sinkholes and vegetation, springs.
11. Tone changes along a linear feature due to vegetation or high water content.
12. Offset streams, rock units, and other linear features Figure 6.19, 6.20).
13. Lineaments. These are large scale linear features, which are the topographic expression
of underlying structural features such as fault-controlled valley (Figure 6.18, 6.19, 6.20), joint
controlled valleys or streams, fronts of mountain ranges, straight and narrow mountain or hill ranges,
ridges (Figure 6.20), lines of isolated hills, linear igneous intrusions, and lines of volcanoes.
14. Straight boundaries of cliff coasts or straight contacts between erosional (hills) and
depositional (alluvial) area.

Figure 6.20. Block diagram showing landforms developed along recently active strike-slip faults.
6.1.4.2. Joints
Joints are also expressed as linear features, similar to faults, on aerial photographs (Figure
6.18). So, the same features or criterias which are used to detect faults on aerial photographs can be
used also to detect joints. The main differences:
1. there is no displacement along the joint planes,
2. the lengths and the spaces of the linear features caused by the joints are less than that of faults.
Joints in sedimentary rocks develop as regularly spaced parallel sets with equal separation.
Generally two closely spaced sets form at an certain angle to each other. But in igneous rocks more
than two joint sets may occur, and the separation between joints are unequal. Therefore, joint sets
developed on igneous rocks may produce a criss-cross pattern.
In fine grained sedimentary rocks like clay, shale and marl joints are relatively closely and
regularly spaced, while they are widely spaced in coarse grained hard rocks, like sandstone and
limestone.
6.1.5. Unconformities
Deposition of beds in a body of water is a continuous process. Layer by layer is deposited in
succession, the older covered by the younger. Such beds have parallel bedding planes and the strata
are called conformable. When the deposition of sediments is interrupted, and the sedimentary rocks
is lifted above water and consequently becomes exposed to erosion, an erosional surface will develop.
When the depositional cycle is terminated, it will be replaced by an erosional cycle. The eroded or
abraded surface may eventually sink again. A new sedimentary period will start The relationship
between the old and the new deposit cycle is called unconformity. The beds of old cycle may be

tilted, broken or folded during the process or in later periods. When a following submergence is
followed by a new sedimentation, the relation between the two sedimentary groups is called an
angular unconformity (Figure 6.21, 6.22, 6.23).
On aerial photographs, unconformities can be directly observed when the contact is along a
tilted plane. When the contact is horizontal, it is usually cannot be observed, because of scree or a soil
cover. Usually, the unconformity contact is an irregular plane in a horizontal rather than a tilted
position. In intensely folded areas, however, the unconformity plane may become tilted or vertical
and the contact may appear somewhat straight, when the topography is taken into consideration.
When plotting unconformity contacts, which appear as irregular lines on photographs, care should be
taken not to confuse them with fault contacts. The main character of a contact line is its irregularity. If
straight lines are observed, it should be considered as a fault contact.
Since the unconformity contact is seldom directly visible on aerial photographs, the contact
line must be plotted between two areas of different attitudes or lithology. Angular contacts can be
observed rather easily, provided no fault contact is present between two members. Erosional contacts
can be plotted rather easily when marine sediments, igneous and alluvials are involved.
Figure 6.21. Two types of unconformities. The

formation (S) shows conform bedding C-C.
Formation B is folded and angular unconform
with S. Unconformity plane is at A-A. The
tilted formation S became eroded, and on the
eroded surface, formation T deposited hori-
zontally. The contact between S and T along
line E-E (the old eroded surface of S) is
erosional. This is an erosional unconformity,
though an angular as well.
Figure 6.22. Morphologic expression of

unconformities. B is a folded base rock.
Supposedly homogenous, the outcropping
formatian shows a dendritic drainage. (A)
denotes an angular unconformity. The
outcropping sediments of S form dipslope
rows. There is an erosional unconformity at E
between S and horizontal terrace T.

Figure 6.23. Outcrop pattern of
unconformity and aerial photograph
of an angular unconformity in the
Montana region
Angular unconformities can be recog-

nized on geologic mars by
interruptions, or discontinuities, in the
outcrop patterns. The outcrop pattem
of older structures is partly covered
by younger strata, so on the geologic
map, the contacts of the older
structures will terminate abruptly
against the patterns of the overlying
younger beds. In the diagram shown
here, the oldest sequence has been
warped into plunging folds, eroded,
and subsequently covered by a
younger sequence of strata. A second
period of erosion has partly removed
the younger strata and exposed
segments of the older folds. The
angular unconformity is located at the
base of the sequence of younger
horizontal strata. All of the map
patterns of the older strata terminate
against this contact. V s in the trace of
the unconformable surface indicate
the direction in which the
unconformity dips

6.2. LITHOLOGIC INTERPRETATION
Lithological interpretation refers to the recognition of rock types from photogeological data
alone, rather than from photogeological data supported by local field experience. A combination of
geomorphological and structural analysis must be undertaken. Each outcrop seen on the stereomodel
must be considered on its local and regional geological environment, and the final lithological
interpretation must not be made until the other studies are completed.
The photographic appearance of a particular rock type may be quite variable, depending
especially on the climate and the amount of relief. It is not possible to establish a set of criteria for the
recognition of rock types that would be applicable to all areas. However, certain lithologic
information can be obtained by using certain photocharacteristics of different rocks.
The following procedure may be used in lithologic interpretation:
1. Determine the climatic environment (e.g. desert, arid, semi-arid, humid, temperate, tropical),
2. Determine the type of erosional environment (e.g. active, very active, inactive),
3. Recognize and mark the bedding traces of the sediments or metasediments,
4. Recognize and mark the areas of outcrop that do not have any bedding (these may be intrusions, or
horizontally bedded sediments),
5. Recognize and mark the areas of superficial cover that do not indicate bedding,
6. Re-study the bedding traces determined at (3) around fold noses and determine the approximate
position of the axial traces,
7. Study the lineaments to determine whether they represent faults, dykes, joints, or combinations of
these.
To differentiate different lithologies, the following observations should be made on
aerial photographs:
1. The photographic tone of the rock mass in relation to the neighboring rocks,
2. The resistance to erosion of the rock mass in relation to the neighboring rocks,
3. The boundary of whole rock mass,
4. The topographical expression of whole rock mass,
5. The boundaries of the individual outcrops,
6. The gully analysis,
7. The joint pattern,
8. The fault pattern,
9. The drainage pattern,
10. The vegetation cover,
11. The bedding or the relic bedding lineaments,
12. The foliation lineaments,
13. The regional geological environment.

6.2.1. Sedimentary rocks
6.2.1.1. Consolidated sediments
The most prominent feature of sedimentary rocks is bedding. As a result of differential
erosion of sedimentary rocks, beds appear as banded patterns on aerial photographs. Banding due to
vegetation or soil differences expressed by topographic tone can also be used to recognize and mark
the beds in absence of topographic expressions. Bedding may be most prominent in the mature stage
of geomorphic cycle. However, bedding may be masked in the case of massive sedimentary rocks,
such as certain sandstones, and these appear as uniform masses and similar to some igneous and
metamorphic rocks. In massive limestones sinkhole develop.
Table 6.1. Summary chart of sedimentary rocks (Way, 1973)
Coarse grained rocks (sandstone). Porosity and permeability are variable. The individual
beds are generally thin and occur interbedded with shale. Differential erosion is an important
recognition factor. Cross bedding features might be observed in the photographs taken in arid regions.
The joints and fissures may be visible on photographs. In spite of their porosity and permeability they
develop a drainage pattern (dendritic). It is partly an internal drainage and streams often follow lines
of dislocations (angular drainage). Gullies are generally short, steep, V-shaped and widely spaced.
The tone is usually light gray, ferruginous types may become dark. Sandstones support little or no
vegetation, less dense than on shales. In humid climates sandstone-shale are usually vegetated and
cultivated.

Table 6.2. Sandstone (humid and arid) (Way, 1973)
Shale and similar fine grained sedimentary rocks. Shales are the most common and wide spread
sediments. They exhibit dark tones, a fine-textured drainage, and relatively closely and regularly
spaced joints. Dark tone of shales is due to absorbed water (but it is impervious to it). As a result of
very poor permeability no internal drainage develops on shales (or unconsolidated equivalents, clays).
Erosion is intense, typical drainage pattern is closely spaced tree-like (dendritic), and when steep-
sloped and silty, is dendritic-parallel. Gullies in shales are long, more open with more gentle gradient
than in sandy beds. In most places shales are interbedded with more or less sandy beds or sandstone.
Sand content influences the drainage pattern. Strike controlled subsequent pattern may form. Faulting
can rarely be observed in shales, because the fissure is soon closed and joined together by clay.

Table 6.3. Shale (humid and arid) (Way, 1973)
Very coarse grained rocks (conglomerate and breccia). These seldom show a great degree of
permeability. Permeability depends on the grade of cementation and the type of solubility of the
matrix. They are usually lenticular and almost always associated with sandstones. It is difficult to
separate conglomerates from sandstones on the basis of drainage since they differ from sandstones
only in the size of fragments. In deserts the surface of beds are disintegrated to gravel deposits giving
a rough surface and darker tone (shadow effect). Cataclastic breccias and conglomerates occur in
crush zones.

Limestones have light tones with dissolution forms like rills, channels, trenches and sinkholes.
Dolomite is less soluble than limestone. Different types of limestones have sinkholes different size
and distribution. Fractures are broadened by solution. The drainage is internal. Marls are light in tone,
have drainage patterns similar to shales depending on their clay content. In tropical regions they
support dense forest vegetation.
.
Table 6.4. Limestone (humid and arid) (Way, 1973)

Table 6.5. Tropical limestone, dolomite or cherty limestone (humid and arid) (Way, 1973)

Table 6.6. Thin bedded sedimentary rocks (humid and arid) (Way, 1973)

Table 6.7. Thick bedded sedimentary rocks (humid and arid) (Way, 1973)

Table 6.8. Tilted sedimentary rocks (humid and arid) (Way, 1973)

6.2.1.2. Unconsolidated sediments
Most unconsolidated sediments are readily differentiated from consolidated sedimentary
rocks on aerial photographs. Land-form is the significant element in recognizing surficial sediments;
because many surficial deposits have diagnostic topographic form, e.g. sand dunes, alluvial fans, river
terraces, eskers. In the absence of a diagnostic landform, their character can be inferred from drainage
characteristics, tone, slope analysis, and related criteria.
Table 6.9. Summary chart of glacial landforms (Way, 1973)
Table 6.10. End moraines (humid and arid) (Way, 1973)

Table 6.11. Drumlins (humid and arid) (Way, 1973)
Table 6.12. Glacial till Thick young till; thick old till (Way, 1973)

Table 6.13. Glacial till
Thin young till;
thin old till
(Way, 1973)
Table 6.14. Eskers

(humid and arid)
(Way, 1973)

Table 6.15. Summary chart of fluvial landforms (Way, 1973)
Table 6.16. Delta (Way, 1973)

Table 6.17. Tidal flats (marsh, mud, sand) (Way, 1973)

Table 6.18. Alluvium (fans, valley fills, continental) (Way, 1973)

Table 6.19. Flood plains
(Meander, covered
composite)
(Way, 1973)
Table 6.20. Coastal

plains (Young and
old) (Way, 1973)

6.2.2. Igneous rocks
Table 6.21. Summary chart of igneous rocks (Way, 1973)
6.2.2.1. Intrusive igneous rocks

These can be recognized by drainage, texture, massive character of the rock, and cross-cutting
relations with country rocks. Igneous rocks particularly those forming stocks and batholiths reveal a
criss-cross pattern of joints. This pattern is seen in good exposure areas and it is due to the rock type
and mode of origin and is independent of climate and erosional cycle. Vegetation will be more or less
uniform. The rocks have rather uniform appearance in aerial photographs. Unless fracture controlled,
dendritic drainage pattern will develop in large areas covered by uniform igneous masses. If the
intrusion is dome shaped radial-annular drainage patterns occur.
Topographic and erosional characteristics of some igneous rocks may be used in
interpretation. At low altitudes in some tropical areas granite shows hummocky, rounded topography
with uniform vegetation and dendritic drainage. Angular topography might be expected in high
altitudes.
Acidic intrusions can be differentiated by large scale rectangular jointing from the basic
intrusions or relative tone may be used. But igneous mass should be mapped as an intrusion if there is
not sufficient evidence.
Intrusive dykes stand out as ridges or when they are less resistant than the country rock, they
appear as linear depressions; these may also display distinct tonal contrast. Sills are more difficult to
interpret since they are parallel to bedding.

Table 6.22. Granitic forms:
Linear, Dykes (Humid
and Arid)
(Way, 1973)
Table 6.23. Granitic rocks:

Large, massive(Humid
and Arid)
(Way, 1973)

6.2.2.2. Extrusive igneous rocks (Lavas and pyroclastics)
These might be acidic, intermediate or basic in composition. They have diagnostic landforms.
Relatively young lava flows show lobate patterns of topography and vegetation and association with
volcanic cones. The surface of a flow may be hummocky and irregular in comparison to the surfaces
of sedimentary rocks. Basic lavas may show dark tones, whereas acidic (rhyolitic, or silicic) lavas
show light photographic tones. Intermediate lavas (andesitic) have medium gray tones. Tuffs and
tuffaceous clays have a dendritic surface drainage. Flow structures may be present. Vegetation is
rather poor due to internal drainage.
Table 6.24. Volcanic forms: Young; basaltic flows (Humid and Arid) (Way, 1973)

Table 6.25. Fragmented tuff and bedded flows (Way, 1973)
6.2.3. Metamorphic rocks

It is difficult to identify metamorphic rocks from aerial photographs because large-scale
distinguishing characteristics are generally absent. It may be difficult or impossible to recognize the
bedding because of physical changes in the rock units due to high pressure and/or high temperatures
of the metamorphism. Structural trends obtained from aerial photographs are foliations rather than
bedding. Parallel alignments of ridges and intervening low areas may reflect regional cleavage,
foliation or fold axis and may suggest metamorphic rocks. In these sort of areas the occurrence of
widely spaced lineations at right angles to the regional trend support the presence of metamorphic
rocks. The lineations represent regional cross-joints and may be reflected in abrupt deflections of
drainage along conspicuous straight stream segments of major streams or in the development of
tributary streams along these joints.

Table 6.26. Summary chart of metamorphic rocks (Way, 1973)
Schists are metamorphic rocks with highly foliated structures (Table 25). Not much resistant
to weathering and erosion. They develop landforms similar to the original rocks they are derived
from. Because they have been repeatedly folded and fractured they are usually in steep attitudes and
folded into undulating lamellations. Drainage in uniform schists is dendritic, close-spaced in phyllites
and widely spaced in quartzite schist. Fault control is prominent. In humid climates schists tend to
form rounded crests as a result of intense weathering.
Table 6.27. Schist

(Humid and Arid)
(Way, 1973)

Slates have rugged topography and have very characteristic drainage, angular and most often
rectangular. The hills are rounded, the slopes are very steep. Tone is usually dark.
Gneiss is a massive foliated rock of granitic character with high erosion resistance.
Orthogneiss is derived from granite and morphologically similar to it in appearance and landform,
showing rounded forms. Paragneisses derived from sediments show sharp crested parallel ridges
when they are derived from massive sandstone; smooth and irregular in case of metamorphosed
shales, tuffs, lavas or marls. The tone varies widely depending on the composition.
Marbles, crystalline limestones have granular structure and have fine to coarse textures.
Marble shows a massive appearance with smooth rounded forms. Development of sinkholes depend
on the attitude, character, purity and mineral composition of the rock.
Serpentinites (metamorphic basic igneous rocks) occur in roundish or lenticular masses;
compact resistant and impervious. Resistance to erosion varies, but not too high. The tone is dark.
Poor soil cover, vegetation sparse, drainage is radial, fracture controlled.
Table 6.28. Slate

(Humid and Arid)
(Way, 1973)
Table 6.29. Gneiss

(Humid and Arid)
(Way, 1973)

LIST OF REFERENCES
Allum, J.A.E., 1975, Photogeology and Regional mapping, Pergamon Press, 107 p.
Bandat, H.F., 1962, Aerogeology, Gulf Publishing Company, 350 p.
Drury, S.A., 1986, Image Interpretation in Geology, Allen and Unwin, 243 p.
Hamblin, W.K. and Howard, J.D., 1986, Exercises in Physical Geology, Burgess Publishing, 191 p
Miller, V.C., 1981, Photogeology, McGraw-Hill, 248 p.
Ray, R.G., 1960, Aerial Photographs in Geologic Interpretation and Mapping, U.S. Geological
Survey, Professional Paper, 373 p.
Wanless, H.R., Aerial Stereo Photographs, Dept of Geology, Univ. of Illinois.
Way, D.S., 1973, Terrain Analysis, Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania. Dowden Hutchinson and Ross.

Section 1.1 What is Remote Sensing? Page 5
1. Introduction to Fundamentals
1.1 What is Remote Sensing?
So, what exactly is remote sensing? For the purposes of this tutorial, we will use the
following definition:
"Remote sensing is the science (and to some extent, art) of acquiring

information about the Earth's surface without actually being in contact
with it. This is done by sensing and recording reflected or emitted energy
and processing, analyzing, and applying that information."
In much of remote sensing, the process involves an interaction between incident radiation
and the targets of interest. This is exemplified by the use of imaging systems where the
following seven elements are involved. Note, however that remote sensing also involves the
sensing of emitted energy and the use of non-imaging sensors.
1. Energy Source or Illumination (A) - the

first requirement for remote sensing is to have
an energy source which illuminates or
provides electromagnetic energy to the target
of interest.
2. Radiation and the Atmosphere (B) - as

the energy travels from its source to the
target, it will come in contact with and interact
with the atmosphere it passes through. This
interaction may take place a second time as
the energy travels from the target to the
sensor.
3. Interaction with the Target (C) - once the energy makes its way to the target through the
atmosphere, it interacts with the target depending on the properties of both the target and the
radiation.
Canada Centre for Remote Sensing

Section 1.1 What is Remote Sensing? Page 6
4. Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D) - after the energy has been scattered by, or
emitted from the target, we require a sensor (remote - not in contact with the target) to collect
and record the electromagnetic radiation.
5. Transmission, Reception, and Processing (E) - the energy recorded by the sensor has
to be transmitted, often in electronic form, to a receiving and processing station where the
data are processed into an image (hardcopy and/or digital).
6. Interpretation and Analysis (F) - the processed image is interpreted, visually and/or
digitally or electronically, to extract information about the target which was illuminated.
7. Application (G) - the final element of the remote sensing process is achieved when we
apply the information we have been able to extract from the imagery about the target in order
to better understand it, reveal some new information, or assist in solving a particular problem.
These seven elements comprise the remote sensing process from beginning to end. We will
be covering all of these in sequential order throughout the five chapters of this tutorial,
building upon the information learned as we go. Enjoy the journey!

Section 1.2 Electromagnetic Radiation Page 7
1.2 Electromagnetic Radiation
As was noted in the previous section, the first

requirement for remote sensing is to have an
energy source to illuminate the target
(unless the sensed energy is being emitted by
the target). This energy is in the form of
electromagnetic radiation.
All electromagnetic radiation has fundamental

properties and behaves in predictable ways
according to the basics of wave theory.
Electromagnetic radiation consists of an
electrical field(E) which varies in magnitude in
a direction perpendicular to the direction in
which the radiation is traveling, and a
magnetic field (M) oriented at right angles to
the electrical field. Both these fields travel at
the speed of light (c).
Two characteristics of electromagnetic

radiation are particularly important for understanding remote sensing. These are the
wavelength and frequency.

Section 1.2 Electromagnetic Radiation Page 8
The wavelength is the length of one wave cycle, which can be measured as the distance
between successive wave crests. Wavelength is usually represented by the Greek letter
lambda (λ). Wavelength is measured in metres (m) or some factor of metres such as
nanometres (nm, 10-9 metres), micrometres (µm, 10-6 metres) (µm, 10-6 metres) or
centimetres (cm, 10-2 metres). Frequency refers to the number of cycles of a wave passing a
fixed point per unit of time. Frequency is normally measured in hertz (Hz), equivalent to one
cycle per second, and various multiples of hertz.
Wavelength and frequency are related by the following formula:
Therefore, the two are inversely related to each other. The shorter the wavelength, the higher
the frequency. The longer the wavelength, the lower the frequency. Understanding the
characteristics of electromagnetic radiation in terms of their wavelength and frequency is
crucial to understanding the information to be extracted from remote sensing data. Next we
will be examining the way in which we categorize electromagnetic radiation for just that
purpose.

Section 1.3 The Electromagnetic Spectrum Page 9
1.3 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum ranges from the shorter wavelengths (including gamma and
x-rays) to the longer wavelengths (including microwaves and broadcast radio waves). There
are several regions of the electromagnetic spectrum which are useful for remote sensing.
For most purposes, the ultraviolet or UV

portion of the spectrum has the shortest
wavelengths which are practical for remote
sensing. This radiation is just beyond the
violet portion of the visible wavelengths,
hence its name. Some Earth surface
materials, primarily rocks and minerals,
fluoresce or emit visible light when illuminated
by UV radiation.

The light which our eyes - our "remote

sensors" - can detect is part of the visible
spectrum. It is important to recognize how
small the visible portion is relative to the rest
of the spectrum. There is a lot of radiation
around us which is "invisible" to our eyes, but
can be detected by other remote sensing
instruments and used to our advantage. The
visible wavelengths cover a range from
approximately 0.4 to 0.7 µm. The longest
visible wavelength is red and the shortest is
violet. Common wavelengths of what we
perceive as particular colours from the visible
portion of the spectrum are listed below. It is
important to note that this is the only portion
of the spectrum we can associate with the
concept of colours.
Violet: 0.4 - 0.446 µm

Blue: 0.446 - 0.500 µm
Green: 0.500 - 0.578 µm
Yellow: 0.578 - 0.592 µm
Orange: 0.592 - 0.620 µm
Red: 0.620 - 0.7 µm
Blue, green, and red are the primary

colours or wavelengths of the visible
spectrum. They are defined as such because
no single primary colour can be created from
the other two, but all other colours can be
formed by combining blue, green, and red in
various proportions. Although we see sunlight
as a uniform or homogeneous colour, it is
actually composed of various wavelengths of
radiation in primarily the ultraviolet, visible
and infrared portions of the spectrum. The visible portion of this radiation can be shown in its

component colours when sunlight is passed through a prism, which bends the light in differing
amounts according to wavelength.
The next portion of the spectrum of interest is

the infrared (IR) region which covers the
wavelength range from approximately 0.7 µm
to 100 µm - more than 100 times as wide as
the visible portion! The infrared region can be
divided into two categories based on their
radiation properties - the reflected IR, and
the emitted or thermal IR. Radiation in the
reflected IR region is used for remote sensing
purposes in ways very similar to radiation in
the visible portion. The reflected IR covers
wavelengths from approximately 0.7 µm to
3.0 µm. The thermal IR region is quite
different than the visible and reflected IR
portions, as this energy is essentially the
radiation that is emitted from the Earth's
surface in the form of heat. The thermal IR
covers wavelengths from approximately 3.0
µm to 100 µm.
The portion of the spectrum of more recent

interest to remote sensing is the microwave
region from about 1 mm to 1 m. This covers
the longest wavelengths used for remote
sensing. The shorter wavelengths have
properties similar to the thermal infrared
region while the longer wavelengths approach
the wavelengths used for radio broadcasts.
Because of the special nature of this region
and its importance to remote sensing in
Canada, an entire chapter (Chapter 3) of the
tutorial is dedicated to microwave sensing.

Section 1.4 Interactions with the Atmosphere Page 12
1.4 Interactions with the Atmosphere
Before radiation used for remote sensing reaches the Earth's surface it has to travel through
some distance of the Earth's atmosphere. Particles and gases in the atmosphere can affect
the incoming light and radiation. These effects are caused by the mechanisms of scattering
and absorption.
Scattering occurs when particles or large gas molecules present in the atmosphere interact
with and cause the electromagnetic radiation to be redirected from its original path. How much
scattering takes place depends on several factors including the wavelength of the radiation,
the abundance of particles or gases, and the distance the radiation travels through the
atmosphere. There are three (3) types of scattering which take place.

Rayleigh scattering occurs when particles are very small compared to the wavelength of the
radiation. These could be particles such as small specks of dust or nitrogen and oxygen
molecules. Rayleigh scattering causes shorter wavelengths of energy to be scattered much
more than longer wavelengths. Rayleigh scattering is the dominant scattering mechanism in
the upper atmosphere. The fact that the sky appears "blue" during the day is because of this
phenomenon. As sunlight passes through the atmosphere, the shorter wavelengths (i.e. blue)
of the visible spectrum are scattered more than the other (longer) visible wavelengths. At
sunrise and sunset the light has to travel farther through the atmosphere than at midday and
the scattering of the shorter wavelengths is more complete; this leaves a greater proportion of
the longer wavelengths to penetrate the atmosphere.
Mie scattering occurs when the particles are just about the same size as the wavelength of
the radiation. Dust, pollen, smoke and water vapour are common causes of Mie scattering
which tends to affect longer wavelengths than those affected by Rayleigh scattering. Mie
scattering occurs mostly in the lower portions of the atmosphere where larger particles are
more abundant, and dominates when cloud conditions are overcast.
The final scattering mechanism of importance is

called nonselective scattering. This occurs when
the particles are much larger than the wavelength of
the radiation. Water droplets and large dust
particles can cause this type of scattering.
Nonselective scattering gets its name from the fact
that all wavelengths are scattered about equally.
This type of scattering causes fog and clouds to
appear white to our eyes because blue, green, and
red light are all scattered in approximately equal
quantities (blue+green+red light = white light).

Absorption is the other main mechanism at work

when electromagnetic radiation interacts with the
atmosphere. In contrast to scattering, this
phenomenon causes molecules in the atmosphere to
absorb energy at various wavelengths. Ozone,
carbon dioxide, and water vapour are the three main
atmospheric constituents which absorb radiation.
Ozone serves to absorb the harmful (to most living

things) ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Without this
protective layer in the atmosphere our skin would
burn when exposed to sunlight.
You may have heard carbon dioxide referred to as

a greenhouse gas. This is because it tends to absorb radiation strongly in the far infrared
portion of the spectrum - that area associated with thermal heating - which serves to trap this
heat inside the atmosphere. Water vapour in the atmosphere absorbs much of the incoming
longwave infrared and shortwave microwave radiation (between 22µm and 1m). The
presence of water vapour in the lower atmosphere varies greatly from location to location and
at different times of the year. For example, the air mass above a desert would have very little
water vapour to absorb energy, while the tropics would have high concentrations of water
vapour (i.e. high humidity).
Because these gases absorb

electromagnetic energy in very
specific regions of the spectrum, they
influence where (in the spectrum) we
can "look" for remote sensing
purposes. Those areas of the
spectrum which are not severely
influenced by atmospheric absorption
and thus, are useful to remote
sensors, are called atmospheric
windows. By comparing the
characteristics of the two most
common energy/radiation sources
(the sun and the earth) with the
atmospheric windows available to us, we can define those wavelengths that we can
use most effectively for remote sensing. The visible portion of the spectrum, to
which our eyes are most sensitive, corresponds to both an atmospheric window and
the peak energy level of the sun. Note also that heat energy emitted by the Earth
corresponds to a window around 10 µm in the thermal IR portion of the spectrum,
while the large window at wavelengths beyond 1 mm is associated with the

microwave region.
Now that we understand how electromagnetic energy makes its journey from its source to the
surface (and it is a difficult journey, as you can see) we will next examine what happens to
that radiation when it does arrive at the Earth's surface.

Section 1.5 Radiation - Target Interactions Page 16
1.5 Radiation - Target Interactions
Radiation that is not absorbed or scattered in

the atmosphere can reach and interact with
the Earth's surface. There are three (3) forms
of interaction that can take place when energy
strikes, or is incident (I) upon the surface.
These are: absorption (A); transmission
(T); and reflection (R). The total incident
energy will interact with the surface in one or
more of these three ways. The proportions of
each will depend on the wavelength of the
energy and the material and condition of the
feature.
Absorption (A) occurs when radiation (energy) is absorbed into the target while transmission
(T) occurs when radiation passes through a target. Reflection (R) occurs when radiation
"bounces" off the target and is redirected. In remote sensing, we are most interested in
measuring the radiation reflected from targets. We refer to two types of reflection, which
represent the two extreme ends of the way in which energy is reflected from a target:
specular reflection and diffuse reflection.

When a surface is smooth we get specular or mirror-like reflection where all (or almost all) of
the energy is directed away from the surface in a single direction. Diffuse reflection occurs
when the surface is rough and the energy is reflected almost uniformly in all directions. Most
earth surface features lie somewhere between perfectly specular or perfectly diffuse
reflectors. Whether a particular target reflects specularly or diffusely, or somewhere in
between, depends on the surface roughness of the feature in comparison to the wavelength of
the incoming radiation. If the wavelengths are much smaller than the surface variations or the
particle sizes that make up the surface, diffuse reflection will dominate. For example, fine-
grained sand would appear fairly smooth to long wavelength microwaves but would appear
quite rough to the visible wavelengths.
Let's take a look at a couple of examples of targets at the Earth's surface and how energy at
the visible and infrared wavelengths interacts with them.
Leaves: A chemical compound in leaves

called chlorophyll strongly absorbs
radiation in the red and blue
wavelengths but reflects green
wavelengths. Leaves appear "greenest"
to us in the summer, when chlorophyll
content is at its maximum. In autumn,
there is less chlorophyll in the leaves, so
there is less absorption and
proportionately more reflection of the red
wavelengths, making the leaves appear
red or yellow (yellow is a combination of
red and green wavelengths). The
internal structure of healthy leaves act as excellent diffuse reflectors of near-infrared
wavelengths. If our eyes were sensitive to near-infrared, trees would appear extremely bright
to us at these wavelengths. In fact, measuring and monitoring the near-IR reflectance is one
way that scientists can determine how healthy (or unhealthy) vegetation may be.
Water: Longer wavelength visible and near

infrared radiation is absorbed more by water
than shorter visible wavelengths. Thus water
typically looks blue or blue-green due to
stronger reflectance at these shorter
wavelengths, and darker if viewed at red or
near infrared wavelengths. If there is
suspended sediment present in the upper
layers of the water body, then this will allow
better reflectivity and a brighter appearance
of the water. The apparent colour of the
water will show a slight shift to longer

wavelengths. Suspended sediment (S) can

be easily confused with shallow (but clear) water, since these two phenomena appear very
similar. Chlorophyll in algae absorbs more of the blue wavelengths and reflects the green,
making the water appear more green in colour when algae is present. The topography of the
water surface (rough, smooth, floating materials, etc.) can also lead to complications for
water-related interpretation due to potential problems of specular reflection and other
influences on colour and brightness.
We can see from these examples that, depending on the complex make-up of the target that
is being looked at, and the wavelengths of radiation involved, we can observe very different
responses to the mechanisms of absorption, transmission, and reflection. By measuring the
energy that is reflected (or emitted) by targets on the Earth's surface over a variety of different
wavelengths, we can build up a spectral response for that object. By comparing the
response patterns of different features we may be able to distinguish between them, where
we might not be able to, if we only compared them at one wavelength. For example, water
and vegetation may reflect somewhat similarly in the visible wavelengths but are almost
always separable in the infrared. Spectral response can be quite variable, even for the same
target type, and can also vary with time (e.g. "green-ness" of leaves) and location. Knowing
where to "look" spectrally and understanding the factors which influence the spectral response
of the features of interest are critical to correctly interpreting the interaction of electromagnetic
radiation with the surface.

Section 1.6 Passive vs. Active Sensing Page 19
1.6 Passive vs. Active Sensing
So far, throughout this chapter, we have made

various references to the sun as a source of
energy or radiation. The sun provides a very
convenient source of energy for remote sensing.
The sun's energy is either reflected, as it is for
visible wavelengths, or absorbed and then re-
emitted, as it is for thermal infrared
wavelengths. Remote sensing systems which
measure energy that is naturally available are
called passive sensors. Passive sensors can
only be used to detect energy when the naturally
occurring energy is available. For all reflected
energy, this can only take place during the time
when the sun is illuminating the Earth. There is
no reflected energy available from the sun at night. Energy that is naturally emitted (such as
thermal infrared) can be detected day or night, as long as the amount of energy is large
enough to be recorded.
Active sensors, on the other hand, provide their own

energy source for illumination. The sensor emits radiation
which is directed toward the target to be investigated. The
radiation reflected from that target is detected and
measured by the sensor. Advantages for active sensors
include the ability to obtain measurements anytime,
regardless of the time of day or season. Active sensors can
be used for examining wavelengths that are not sufficiently
provided by the sun, such as microwaves, or to better
control the way a target is illuminated. However, active
systems require the generation of a fairly large amount of
energy to adequately illuminate targets. Some examples of
active sensors are a laser fluorosensor and a synthetic
aperture radar (SAR).

Section 1.7 Characteristics of Images Page 20
1.7 Characteristics of Images
Before we go on to the next chapter, which looks in more detail at sensors and their
characteristics, we need to define and understand a few fundamental terms and
concepts associated with remote sensing images.
Electromagnetic energy may be detected either

photographically or electronically. The
photographic process uses chemical reactions
on the surface of light-sensitive film to detect
and record energy variations. It is important to
distinguish between the terms images and
photographs in remote sensing. An image
refers to any pictorial representation, regardless
of what wavelengths or remote sensing device
has been used to detect and record the
electromagnetic energy. A photograph refers
specifically to images that have been detected as well as recorded on photographic
film. The black and white photo to the left, of part of the city of Ottawa, Canada was
taken in the visible part of the spectrum. Photos are normally recorded over the
wavelength range from 0.3 µm to 0.9 µm - the visible and reflected infrared. Based
on these definitions, we can say that all photographs are images, but not all images
are photographs. Therefore, unless we are talking specifically about an image
recorded photographically, we use the term image.
A photograph could also be

represented and displayed in a
digital format by subdividing the
image into small equal-sized and
shaped areas, called picture
elements or pixels, and
representing the brightness of each
area with a numeric value or digital
number. Indeed, that is exactly
what has been done to the photo to
the left. In fact, using the definitions
we have just discussed, this is
actually a digital image of the
original photograph! The photograph was scanned and subdivided into pixels with
each pixel assigned a digital number representing its relative brightness. The
computer displays each digital value as different brightness levels. Sensors that

Section 1.7 Characteristics of Images Page 21
record electromagnetic energy, electronically record the energy as an array of

numbers in digital format right from the start. These two different ways of
representing and displaying remote sensing data, either pictorially or digitally, are
interchangeable as they convey the same information (although some detail may be
lost when converting back and forth).
In previous sections we described the visible portion of the spectrum and the
concept of colours. We see colour because our eyes detect the entire visible range
of wavelengths and our brains process the information into separate colours. Can
you imagine what the world would look like if we could only see very narrow ranges
of wavelengths or colours? That is how many sensors work. The information from a
narrow wavelength range is gathered and stored in a channel, also sometimes
referred to as a band. We can combine and display channels of information digitally
using the three primary colours (blue, green, and red). The data from each channel
is represented as one of the primary colours and, depending on the relative
brightness (i.e. the digital value) of each pixel in each channel, the primary colours
combine in different proportions to represent different colours.
When we use this method to display a single channel or range of wavelengths, we

are actually displaying that channel through all three primary colours. Because the
brightness level of each pixel is the same for each primary colour, they combine to
form a black and white image, showing various shades of gray from black to white.
When we display more than one channel each as a different primary colour, then the
brightness levels may be different for each channel/primary colour combination and
they will combine to form a colour image.

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1.

Photogeology is the interpretation of the geological and geomorphological features as well as

Aerial photographs are a source of geological information that may be unobtainable

2.1. Stereoscopic Vision

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2.3. Radial displacement due to relief

Figure 2.5. Diagram showing

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3.1. Types of aerial photographs

3.1.1. Types of the photographs on the basis of optical axis position

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b. Oblique aerial photograph

High oblique aerial photographs: S is between 20°-30°

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3.1.3. Types of aerial photographs on the basis of film used

a. Panchromatic black and white photographs

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3.4. Taking aerial photographs

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3.4.2.4. Differential overlap

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Requirements for Stereoscopic Viewing:

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5.1. Fundamentals of photointerpretation

Basics problems of photogeologic interpretation are:

5.2. Essential interpretation elements in photointerpretation

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Tone Property Soil or rock properties

Mottled : Significant changes in soil moisture and/or texture within short

Banded : In areas of linear shaped differences in soil or rock texture and

Scrabbled : Common in arid regions of alkali deposits. The pattern is irregular,

C. Sharpness of tone boundary

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5.2.1.1. Terrain factors affecting gray tone

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A. Technical factors: 1. Characteristics of the material and equipment

B. Climatic factors: 1. Regular variations in the nature of daylight

5.2.2. Texture and pattern

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5.2.4.2. Stage of Stream development.

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Sketches of drainage density variations.

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