Topic:

Impact of tuition practice on students’ learning achievement at secondary

School level

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Private tuition is observed as a very important instrument for the educational
accomplishments of students. Now-a-days, in Pakistan, tendency of home or
private tuition is frequently observed in almost all areas. This research is
specially designing to explore the effects of private tuition on the Academic
achievement of students in secondary school. Therefore, the statement of the
problem was entitled as” Effects of Private Tuition on students’ Academic
achievement at Secondary School level”

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The objectives of the study are:
 To find out the effects of tuition on the academic performance of
students in secondary school level.

 To suggest workable recommendations for the enhancement of students’

academic performance in Secondary School level.

 To determine whether the perceived effect of extra tuition on academic

performance by students differ from that of teachers.

 To establish whether the perceived effect of extra tuition on academic

performance by teachers differ from that of school principals.

 To establish whether the perceived effect of extra tuition on academic

performance by parents differ from that of teachers.

HYPOTHESIS OF THE STUDY

 Tuition approach has no significant effect on students’ academic
performance in school.
 Tuition has no momentous outcome on the students’ knowledge retention
in school.
 There is no relationship between private tuition approach and students’
achievement in class.
 Literature Review

Education has been widely considered as one of the important determinants of

an individual’s productivity and economic growth of countries. In order to find

evidence of the link connecting education to individual’s productivity and

economic growth, researchers have focused largely on formal education in both

public and private sectors. However, there is a lack of studies that investigate

the effect of private tutoring, a form of supplementary education where students

can acquire more skills and knowledge to increase their human capital. This is

an important area in education as private tutoring becomes a growing

phenomenon in many countries. It is also important to note that a substantial

amount of demand for private tutoring appears at all levels of education.

However, the definition of private tutoring varies in different countries and

educational settings. Therefore, it is important to specify the definition or scope

of private tutoring that this dissertation discusses. Specifically, students whose

parents live in an urban area with higher income and education levels have a

higher probability of receiving private tutoring than their peers who live in a

rural area with parents with lower income and education levels. The

ineffectiveness of the public education system is found as one of the

determinants of private tutoring. Existing studies on educational achievement in

private tutoring have commonly shown that the rates of those who had
experienced private tutoring have consistently increased and that there was a

change in the participation rate and spending required for private tutoring

according to educational level To meet this high demand, parents and students

who are not satisfied with education provided by the public school system find

other ways to meet their needs by participating in the private tutoring sector or

by studying abroad. The private tutoring issue is one of the difficult issues that

have remained unsolved for a long time. Even though the Korean government

has mobilized sizable budgets and administrative capacities to reduce private

tutoring that had been occurring for decades, the participation rate and amount

of spending for private tutoring has consistently increased. According to the

results of a “Survey on private tutoring” conducted by the National Statistical

Office, 87.4% of elementary school students, 74.3% of middle school students,

and 62.8% of high school students participated in private tutoring in 2009. In

particular, the difference of participation rate and spending for private tutoring

between income classes and regions has grown. Existing studies on educational

achievement in private tutoring have commonly shown that the rates of those

who had experienced private tutoring have consistently increased and that there

was a change in the participation rate and spending required for private tutoring

according to educational level.

There is an ongoing debate about the influence of private tutoring on academic

achievement. In status competition theory, private tutoring is explained as a

means of competition to acquire a higher social status, not as a means to

improve productivity. People tend to invest in education to obtain higher levels

of education because level of education is recognized as an important means to

acquire an elevated social status. As a result, the level of education has

continuously increased and schools tend to compete with each other to send

more students to higher grade and prestigious schools. However, when

competition related to education intensifies in this way, parents spare nothing

when investing in their children’s education and this increases the demand for

private tutoring. The results of these studies on the relation between private

tutoring and achievement were not consistent. Literature has focussed on

effective practice for specific subjects and age groups; few studies have

examined effectiveness from the perspective of the tutor and student. A shadow

seems a very appropriate metaphor to describe this phenomenon which

resonates the form and content of mainstream education and develops alongside

it. In some countries the nature of tutoring is better described as a parallel

system of education due to the extent of those receiving tutoring. The first

review of multiple tutoring studies completed in the US questioned the

assumption that all tutoring is effective and raised achievement (Rosenshine &

Furst, 1969). Of the 14 studies that were reviewed, only five demonstrated a

clear effectiveness of tutoring. In six studies no significant improvement was

found and in three of these at least one condition measure favoured the

untutored group. There was a statistically significant negative difference in one

of these cases for the results of the tutored students. It was decided that the most

appropriate method for collecting data from as many participants as possible

would be through the use of questionnaires. Using interviews would have

restricted the number of respondents feasibly possible to include in the study.

One of the aims of the study was to ascertain whether there were commonalities

in perceptions of effective tutoring characteristics, so restricting the number of

participants would mean data would not be gathered from a wide range of tutors

teaching different subjects. Questionnaires would also facilitate collection of

accurate consistent background data on subjects and levels taught. Although

emphasis was placed on collecting qualitative data, it was 94 considered that the

use of open-ended questions in conjunction with closed questions (for

background information), was the most time and cost effective method for

collecting data from significant numbers of tutors and students. The preliminary

questions were composed based on the data collected from the focus groups, a

review of the literature and previous research on the topic involving parents and

students (Ireson & Rushforth, 2005).

In addition to the number of respondents who failed to complete the

questionnaire, there were several examples of both tutors and students who

provided contradictory information. For example, at the start of the

questionnaire tutors were asked to state the subjects and levels they taught, later

they were asked to include the subject(s) they taught to Student 1. One tutor
indicated that they tutored maths, English and history at secondary level;

however when asked questions about Student this tutor included a student who

was tutored at primary level. Another tutor reported tutoring only at primary

level but then commented how an unsuccessful session had involved a student

who was being tutored as a punishment for bad behaviour in secondary school.

These discrepancies would have been cleared up in an interview situation,

although collection and recording detailed background information in this

manner would have been particularly time consuming. Due to the problem of

incomplete responses, particularly from the online survey, the questionnaire

would have benefitted from being shorter with the questions of particular

interest at the beginning. The hard copy questionnaire appeared to have a higher

response and completion rate. Perhaps more effort should have been made to

obtain contact details to send hard copy questionnaires to all respondents.

The impact of private tuition on attainment and the findings from the two

studies used to answer the research questions revealed contradictory results.

Private tutoring could be considered an out-of-school academic enterprise to

enhance students’ learning. Actually, the expectation is that if students spend

more time on subject matter learning, they will eventually learn more and better

and be successful in the national examinations, provided that the examinations

cover basic aspects of the school curriculum. However, a few studies have

examined the effect of private tutoring on students’ academic performance by

looking at the scores achieved in the national examinations. Some of this

evidence has been reviewed by Mark Bray (2006, 2011). The results of these

studies are inconclusive. Some of them found that students who received private

tutoring had a better reading performance, less frequent grade repetition and a

better academic performance in general, while other studies indicated no

relationship between their performance and whether or not they had been

privately tutored. Several studies which analysed survey data indicated a

positive impact of private tutoring on academic performance measured in terms

of examination scores (Lavy and Schlosser 2005; Dang 2007; Banerjee et al.

2007). Other studies indicated either no impact or even a negative impact of

private tutoring on academic performance (Suryadarma et al. 2006; Cheo and

Quah 2005). In a third set of studies, the impact of private tutoring was found to

be related to the fields of competence. For instance, Tran Thu Ha and Trudy

Harpham (2005) reported that private tutoring has a positive impact on reading,

but an insignificant effect on writing and numeracy. Similarly, Álvaro Choi et

al. (2011) indicated that the impact is positive for mathematics and positive but

decreasing for reading, but insignificant for the natural sciences. The

inconsistent findings of these research studies might be partly due to

methodological differences as well as differences in the respective cultural and

institutional contexts of the countries studied. In general, private tutoring is

considered to be a serious problem in many countries, which has been

extensively discussed by Bray et al. (2013). The only country for which a
positive impact of PTCs on academic achievement was reported was Portugal

(Mendes et al. 2013). Another analytic study was conducted by Simona Popa

(2007) with private tutors in Romania. However, these studies do not attempt to

answer the question of the impact of PTCs on academic performance measured

in terms of the standardised national test scores.

A private tutor is a private teacher who teaches a specific educational subject or

skill to an individual student or small group of students. This practice enables a

student to enhance his knowledge or skill for more rapidly than in a traditional

classroom situation. These private tutors are frequently appointed and paid by

the student, the student’s family members or an agency. Some of these tutors

are used for remedial students or some are appointed for students who need

special attention; many provide more advanced material for extremely talented

and highly motivated students, or in the context of home schooling. Tutoring

also takes place when one adult assists another adult student to study a specific

course or subject that he is taking to get an excellent result. The adult can also

let the student work on his own and can be there if the student has any questions

(Free online Wikipedia Encyclopaedia). Trend of home tuition is increasingly

adopted in every area of the country especially in urban areas. In urban areas

kidnapping is a common practice therefore majority of the rich parents arrange

tuition for their children at home. In addition, there are various academies and

tuitions canters in every corner of the country to promote quality education.

These academies or tuitions canters play a significant role in raising the

achievement level of the students. However, home tuition is more beneficial and

effective as compared to the private tuition which takes place in academies or

tuition canters. Home tuition is safe and student is given special attention

individually. Home tutoring is a type of tutoring that takes place in the home.

Tutoring is instruction or receiving guidance by a tutor.

The purpose of the study was to examine the effects of private tuition on the

academic achievement of secondary school students in subject of mathematics.

The study was experimental type and pre-test and post-test technique was used

as research instrument. Sample students were classified into two groups on the

basis of pre-test scores i.e., control group and experimental group. Both these

groups were taught by two mathematics teachers. For the students of

experimental group, tuition arrangement was made after school time in subject

of mathematics by the principal researcher himself because he has a vast

experience in teaching of mathematics. In this way, students were engaged in

tuition for two hours. This experiment was completed in eight weeks. Then, the

researchers along with two other mathematics teachers administered a post-test

immediately to investigate whether students of experimental group have learnt

well as compared to the students of control group. For this purpose the teachers

made question papers covering the four chapters of mathematics which were

taught during treatment for the both groups. In our regression analysis, we used
family background characteristics and student-related factors as predictor

variables besides a dummy variable for students who received private tutoring

and students who did not receive any private tutoring during their high school

years. Our selection of predictor variables was carried out in accordance with

the major findings of other researchers. For instance, students who are more

interested in mathematics and related subjects are more successful on the large-

scale testing programmes such as the Programme for International Student

Assessment (PISA) (Ferry et al. 2000; OECD 2004). Similarly, if students

believe that they are successful and feel confident in different subject matter

areas, they tend to have higher achievement level than the ones who have less

confidence. They carried out the six stepwise regression analyses to assess the

impact of receiving private tutoring on the academic performance of students in

the Turkish language, mathematics and natural science subtests of the first and

the second sections of the class. Our results indicate that while private tutoring

does have a positive and statistically significant impact in fields of competence

such as mathematics and Turkish language, this is not the case in the natural

sciences. In this respect, the results of the present study are consistent with

those of an earlier study carried out in Turkey on the 2002 HEEE (Tansel and

Bircan 2005). However, in our present study, these impacts are small compared

to the impacts of other variables such as student’s interest and perception of

academic success in different subject areas, high school graduation tracks, high

school CGPA and parents’ cultural and socioeconomic status. The findings of
our present study have several implications. First, there is an inequality between

students who receive private tutoring and the ones who do not. Private tutoring

is more common among children whose parents have high education levels.

This strengthens the idea of social inequality which private tutoring fosters in

the society. 18 Most likely, such parents have more economic power to send

their children for private tutoring compared to those who do not send their

children for private tutoring. Students with a high level of interest in various

subjects such as mathematics, natural science and Turkish language who are

also more confident of their success in these respective subjects are more likely

to receive private tutoring. They are also the ones with higher CGPA at high

school. One may argue that a student’s interest in various subjects and their

academic confidence of success in these subjects may partly be developed

through the education they receive in the PTCs. Students choose their subject

combination tracks in the early years of high school based on their interests and

on the grades they receive in various subject areas. Thus, it is not wrong to

claim that the development of a positive interest in various subjects and higher

academic confidence in oneself is in fact more likely to occur during the formal

school years than at the PTCs. As was pointed out before, the empirical findings

of this study support the findings of existing literature where the positive, albeit

small impact of private tutoring seems consistent with similar studies in other

countries (Lavy and Schlosser 2005; Dang 2007; Banerjee et al. 2007). Another

result which is consistent with related literature is the impact of private tutoring
across different tracks. We found positive impacts in Turkish language and

mathematics subtests. However, we found no impact in the natural science

subtests. This is similar with the finding reported by Choi et al. (2011) with

reference to South Korea. Among the variables we considered in our regression

analysis, the students’ track during their high school education explained more

variance in the subtest scores in HEEE than receiving private tutoring. Thus, we

can conclude that the high school curriculum students are exposed to is more

important than receiving private tutoring in determining the success at the

HEEE. On the other hand, this creates an inequality in terms of subject

combination tracks. For equity purposes, the results of our study suggest that

there should be one common curriculum for all the students. As a policy

implication, the government should consider providing equal opportunities for

all students at high school level by implementing the same curriculum for

everyone. Furthermore, students’ interest in and perception of success in various

subjects and their academic success during their high school years are important

determinants of their performance in the HEEE. These variables might be

considered as the school-related factors. Meanwhile, parents’ cultural and

socioeconomic status is another important determinant of the success at the

HEEE. The positive impact of parental factors on the examination performance

has been found by many researchers in a variety of contexts. These particular 19

student-related factors may also have indirect impacts on students’ interest and

academic confidence in various subject matter areas as well. The significant but
small contribution of PTCs is somewhat contradicts the findings of earlier

research studies reported in related literature. There could be several reasons of

this contradiction. First of all, in our present study, student-related factors were

controlled for somewhat differently than in earlier studies. For instance, unlike

existing studies, our study considered students’ interest in different subject

matter areas and their perception of success as one of the predictor factors in the

model. Other studies which report significant and important effects of PTCs do

not consider this major variable in their analysis. Second, in our present study,

the type of educational practices pursued by the PTCs were not considered. As

is well known and as we clearly articulated before, the teaching methodology

used in the PTCs in Turkey is to basically practise with multiple-choice test

questions (Gök 2010). There is less emphasis on conceptual understanding but

rather, the major criterion of success is the number of test questions correctly

solved by the students in a day. There is a belief that the more multiple-choice

questions students are exposed to the more likely they are to be successful in the

HEEE. This is in theory not a proper way of teaching, and likely to hinder the

effect of PTCs in the national examinations. However, throughout the years, this

practice has become even more important at the PTCs. The PTCs usually

advertise their institutions based on the number of multiple-choice questions

they provide for their students to work on. This could be one of the major

reasons for the significant but small impact of PTC attendance among the

students on their HEEE results. Solving one or two multiple-choice questions

could be considered within the chance level, but can change the HEEE scores of

the students dramatically. As it was reported in the introduction of this paper,

parents spend in excess of USD 5000 per year to have their children solve

mostly one or two more multiple-choice questions in the national examination.

It seems a waste of money, since this expenditure goes to the private sector

rather than to formal schooling. It would seem that educational outcomes are

likely to be much better if parents financially supported formal schooling rather

than PTCs. In our present study, we found two important general factors to be

the most important determinants of students’ success in passing the HEEE. The

first one concerns student-related factors, such as family background

characteristics and interest in and perception of success in various subject

matter areas. These two variables might even be interrelated as well. The second

concerns school-related factors, including student’s subject combination tracks

and academic success as defined by their grade point averages. Unlike other

studies, the main 20 characteristic of our study is to take both student-related

and school-related factors into consideration while investigating the impact of

private tutoring on the success in national university examinations. Studying the

impact of private tutoring is a somewhat complicated issue, since there are

many factors and variables involved which might influence academic success.

This study has made a unique start in considering some of the very important

factors in its analysis. However, to obtain an even clearer picture of the

interplay of all the aspects involved in the effectiveness of private tutoring,

further studies are required in this field in different cultural settings by

considering some other important variables which can be grouped under either

student-related or school related factors. The Education Ministry, therefore,

aspires to achieve universal access to education and full enrolment from

preschool to upper secondary school by 2020. The quality of education received

will be uniquely Malaysian, and comparable to international best practices and

systems.

This study applied a multivariate latent growth model to examine the

relationship between changes in the time invested in private tutoring and

changes in academic achievement. This statistical technique allows estimating

of individual growth curves that represent change or growth in language the

time invested in private tutoring and changes in academic achievement. With

linear growth curves, two growth parameters are estimated, namely an initial

level growth parameter (i.e., intercept) and a growth rate parameter (i.e., slope).

These parameters are viewed as latent variables, and these latent variables can

be estimated using structural equation model. Both parameters vary between

individuals, meaning that for each individual a growth curve is estimated with a

specific initial status and a specific rate of change. As for the time invested in

Korean language courses in private tutoring, a direct correlation was found

between time invested and higher grades-that is, the higher the grade, the

greater was the amount of time invested in private tutoring. The time invested in
Korean language tutoring was 3.06 hours in the first year, 3.18 hours in the

second year, and 3.33 hours in the third year. The time spent on English tutoring

was different from that spent on Korean. For English tutoring, the higher the

grade, the lesser was the amount of time spent on tutoring. The average time

invested in English was 4.08 hours in the first year, 4.06 hours in the second

year, and 3.81 hours in the third year. In the case of mathematics, the time

invested in private tutoring had decreased between 8 th graders and 9th graders,

but there was no change between 9th graders and 10th graders. Overall, the

average time invested in private tutoring including Korean, English, and

mathematics had increased slightly, showing 3.79 hours in the first year, 3.81

hours in the second year, and 3.82 hours in the third year. Academic

achievement had increased. More specifically, achievement was 58.26 in 8th

graders, 60.58 in 9th graders, and 63.33 in 10th graders. The analysis of time

invested in private tutoring showed that the higher the grades, the greater were

the amount of time invested in private tutoring in the case of Korean language

study.. Even though the results revealed that the total average time invested in

private tutoring in each subject, such as Korean, English, and mathematics, had

increased, the increase was only a slight one. This result means that changes in

the total time invested in private tutoring were not significant enough to affect

the increases and decreases for each subject. Eventually, in case of students who

had experienced private tutoring at least once, the total time invested in private

tutoring tended to remain the same regardless of their grade levels; however,
results showed that the time invested in private tutoring was adjusted by

necessity. Ultimately, the study showed that once a student started to participate

in private tutoring, he or she had to keep participating The Developmental

Change in the Time Invested in Private Tutoring and Academic Achievement

According to the final model selected by the variable, the time invested in

private tutoring increased linearly.

Results showed that the time invested in private tutoring had increased at the

rate of .002 every year from the first to the third year. The covariance of private

tutoring was shown to be statistically insignificant. This result shows that once

private tutoring begins, time invested in private tutoring consistently increases

regardless of the initial value of private tutoring. The value of academic

achievement increased at a rate of 1.929 on average. Even if the covariance of

private tutoring was statistically insignificant, the covariance of academic

achievement was identified to be -.149.063 (p < .001). Thus, the higher the

initial log values of academic achievement, the greater was the increase in rate

of academic achievement over time. Relations between Changes in the Time

Invested in Private tutoring and Changes in Academic Achievement The final

model verifying the relation structure between changes in private tutoring time

and academic achievement using a multivariate latent growth model.

However, the government’s corresponding methods have consistently tried to

control private tutoring, and the effectiveness of such tutoring has already been

lost. Thus, the private tutoring policy should change direction and work

towards a realistic estimate of the effects of private tutoring and an active

public relations campaign to spread this information. The limitations of this

study are as follows. This study measured the level of participation in private

tutoring as the time invested in private tutoring. However, this method did not

consider the qualitative aspects of private tutoring. Even if a significant amount

of time was invested in private tutoring, there is a strong possibility that the

effect of private tutoring was not properly measured in cases where the

qualitative aspect of the tutoring was poor. Therefore, considering these points,

further studies should examine the qualitative and quantitative aspect at the

same time when measuring the level of experience in private tutoring. Despite

the limitations mentioned above, the significance of this study is the

longitudinal design, which had not been present in the previous studies. This

study measured academic achievement with objective data, used average

values for all the subjects in terms of time invested in private tutoring, and

systematically investigated the relationship between academic achievement

and private tutoring. Surprisingly, the industrially and educationally advanced

state of Maharashtra showed higher rural-urban difference in the extent of

private tutoring, followed by Uttar Pradesh. The state of Andhra Pradesh has

the lowest proportion of private tutoring in rural areas compared to the other

three states, with an 18 percentile difference. This trend clearly indicates

inequity in educational inputs not only in terms of schooling facilities but also

in terms of private tutoring between rural and urban areas. In other words,

government policies welcome rural and disadvantaged students into the system

but, with compromised quality provisions, the students lack resources to

supplement learning through private tuition. While urban and well-off students

pursue additional learning opportunities through private tutoring, rural students

lack additional academic support to overcome school and home-level

inadequacies. Private tuition thus becomes an instrument to perpetuate the

locational disparities in educational attainment.

There are several reasons behind the higher prevalence of private tuition in

urban areas compared to rural areas in most states. Firstly, parents in urban

areas are relatively better off educationally and economically and are in a

position to afford the cost of private tuition. Secondly, there is more

competition in urban areas, of which the parents are aware. There are also

tremendous peer-group pressures and a sense of guilt among middle-class

parents in terms of neglecting their children, besides issues of social obsession

and prestige. Parents also feel safe leaving their children in private tuition
centres, where they will not waste their time watching television and idling at

home. The phenomenon of the nuclear family and double incomes has given

couples the requisite money to spare in sending their children to tuition centres.

Further, in urban areas there is a greater supply of private tuition, which creates

a demand. It also raises an important question about quality of education even

in urban schools. In rural areas lack of economic ability, low levels of parental

education and aspirations ,and limited supply of private tuition can be some of

the reasons for the low proportion of private tuition in such areas. Kerala, where

rural and urban areas are in continuum and have similar levels of social

development, shows no geographical disparities in obtaining private tutoring.

A majority of students go to private tutorial/coaching centres, which organize

tutoring for public examination. Interestingly, nearly one fifth of students

obtain private tuition from the same teacher who teaches in their school, despite

this being banned in many states. Based on the perspective of students seeking

private tuition, the reasons could be classified into three categories namely,

academic, personal, and social. Academic reasons include the inability to

understand classroom instructions, poor teaching, and to pass examinations.

Personal reasons include desire to score a higher percentage of marks, and

social reasons comprise parental decision, peer-group pressure, etc. But there

is a difference in perspective, as students from government schools seek private

tuition mostly to qualify in public examinations, while for most private unaided
students it is to score high percentage marks and have the edge over others. A

large percentage of students, particularly from government schools, mentioned

the fact that they could not understand classroom teaching as a reason for

seeking private tuition. Also, the largest number of students who attend private

tuition are tutored in mathematics, science and English. This explains the poor

handling of these important subjects in schools. Crowded classrooms, lack of

subject specialists, teachers teaching more than one subject, loss of school

working days, authorized and unauthorized teacher absenteeism, not

completing syllabus in time, and lack of school monitoring characterize

government schools, as education departments fail to implement policies and

follow norms. As in many developing countries, public examinations occupy

centre stage in school education in India.The correlation coefficient between

the initial value of time invested in private tutoring and the initial value of

academic achievement was a path coefficient of .12.282. The path coefficient

of the initial value of time invested in private tutoring to change in academic

achievement was -3.700. Thus, the effect of private tutoring on academic

achievement was shown to be negative. The path coefficient of the initial value

of achievement to changes in time invested in private tutoring was -.011. This

study examined overall changes in time invested in private tutoring and

academic achievement by using data from the first three years of the KYPS.

The study also examined how changes in time invested in private tutoring and
academic achievement influenced each other through a multivariate latent

growth model. In conclusion, according to the results of this study, private

tutoring could improve academic achievement in the short term, but it has a

negative effect on academic achievement in the long term. Parents and students

are likely to overestimate the effect of private tutoring when they experience

temporarily high academic achievement because of tutoring. Accordingly,

once parents and students experienced private tutoring, the total time invested

in private tutoring tended to remain consistent or increase slightly. However,

because private tutoring has a negative effect on academic achievement in the

long term, academic achievement may not be improved, and it may decrease

even if time invested in private tutoring is increased. This finding should not

be overlooked, namely that private tutoring might be helpful in the short term

at an appropriate time if it is necessary, and that its beneficial effect might be

short-lived. Korean families overinvest in certain kinds of private tutoring

because of a lack of information about the actual benefits of this investment.

Consuming private tutoring might not always represent the best strategy for

increasing academic performance; however, in a hypercompetitive

environment, few families are willing to take the risk of reducing their

children’s chances of being admitted to elite courses. Therefore, an accurate

analysis of the effect of private tutoring needs to be conducted in the Korean

government, and an active public relations campaign to increase awareness of

these analysis results should be run. The Korean government has been

investigating private tutoring since 2007 (Statistical Korea, 2009), and has

announced a variety of measures to reduce the costs of private tutoring (Lim et

al., 2012). However, the government’s corresponding methods have

consistently tried to control private tutoring, and the effectiveness of such

tutoring has already been lost. Thus, the private tutoring policy should change

direction and work towards a realistic estimate of the effects of private tutoring

and an active public relations campaign to spread this information. The

limitations of this study are as follows. This study measured the level of

participation in private tutoring as the time invested in private tutoring.

However, this method did not consider the qualitative aspects of private

tutoring. Even if a significant amount of time was invested in private tutoring,

there is a strong possibility that the effect of private tutoring was not properly

measured in cases where the qualitative aspect of the tutoring was poor.

Therefore, considering these points, further studies should examine the

qualitative and quantitative aspect at the same time when measuring the level

of experience in private tutoring. Despite the limitations mentioned above, the

significance of this study is the longitudinal design, which had not been present

in the previous studies. This study measured academic achievement with

objective data, used average values for all the subjects in terms of time invested

in private tutoring, and systematically investigated the relationship between

academic achievement and private tutoring. Surprisingly, the industrially and

educationally advanced state of Maharashtra showed higher rural-urban

difference in the extent of private tutoring, followed by Uttar Pradesh. The state

of Andhra Pradesh has the lowest proportion of private tutoring in rural areas

compared to the other three states, with an 18 percentile difference. This trend

clearly indicates inequity in educational inputs not only in terms of schooling

facilities but also in terms of private tutoring between rural and urban areas. In

other words, government policies welcome rural and disadvantaged students

into the system but, with compromised quality provisions, the students lack

resources to supplement learning through private tuition. While urban and

well-off students pursue additional learning opportunities through private

tutoring, rural students lack additional academic support to overcome school

and home-level inadequacies. Private tuition thus becomes an instrument to

perpetuate the locational disparities in educational attainment.

There are several reasons behind the higher prevalence of private tuition in

urban areas compared to rural areas in most states. Firstly, parents in urban

areas are relatively better off educationally and economically and are in a

position to afford the cost of private tuition. Secondly, there is more

competition in urban areas, of which the parents are aware. There are also

tremendous peer-group pressures and a sense of guilt among middle-class

parents in terms of neglecting their children, besides issues of social obsession

and prestige. Parents also feel safe leaving their children in private tuition

centres, where they will not waste their time watching television and idling at

home. The phenomenon of the nuclear family and double incomes has given

couples the requisite money to spare in sending their children to tuition centres.

Further, in urban areas there is a greater supply of private tuition, which creates

a demand. It also raises an important question about quality of education even

in urban schools. In rural areas lack of economic ability, low levels of parental

education and aspirations ,and limited supply of private tuition can be some of

the reasons for the low proportion of private tuition in such areas. Kerala, where

rural and urban areas are in continuum and have similar levels of social

development, shows no geographical disparities in obtaining private tutoring.

A majority of students go to private tutorial/coaching centres, which organize

tutoring for public examination. Interestingly, nearly one fifth of students

obtain private tuition from the same teacher who teaches in their school, despite

this being banned in many states. Based on the perspective of students seeking

private tuition, the reasons could be classified into three categories namely,

academic, personal, and social. Academic reasons include the inability to

understand classroom instructions, poor teaching, and to pass examinations.

Personal reasons include desire to score a higher percentage of marks, and

social reasons comprise parental decision, peer-group pressure, etc. But there
is a difference in perspective, as students from government schools seek private

tuition mostly to qualify in public examinations, while for most private unaided

students it is to score high percentage marks and have the edge over others. A

large percentage of students, particularly from government schools, mentioned

the fact that they could not understand classroom teaching as a reason for

seeking private tuition. Also, the largest number of students who attend private

tuition are tutored in mathematics, science and English. This explains the poor

handling of these important subjects in schools. Crowded classrooms, lack of

subject specialists, teachers teaching more than one subject, loss of school

working days, authorized and unauthorized teacher absenteeism, not

completing syllabus in time, and lack of school monitoring characterize

government schools, as education departments fail to implement policies and

follow norms. As in many developing countries, public examinations occupy

centre stage in school education in India. A large percentage of students who

join private tuition find it useful to prepare for examinations. Students going to

private tuition think that private tutoring is very good and very helpful because

students are prepared and taught according to the examination pattern; they

know the trends and what could be asked in the examination, and how they

should answer. The private tuition institutions have the (so-called) right

method of preparing students for examinations and, therefore, they suitably put

in the efforts needed for a particular subject. They help the students by
providing the required materials, conducting frequent tests, giving feedback

and suggesting suitable ways of study to optimize performance in different

subjects. Above all, students receive individual attention, which is rare in

general, particularly in government schools. Since they pay for private tuition

both parents and students lay responsibility with and expect accountability

from private tutors/centres for performance in examinations. Although the

ideal role of the school is not mere preparation for examinations, there is a need

to diagnose the gap between the examination system and curricular load,

teaching conditions and pedagogical aspects in schools. There are also many

social reasons behind the rise and growth of private tuition. Like in many Asian

countries, a culture of comparing and competing with peer group, relatives and

kin group, and the social obsession with education, are common social features

of middle-class Indian society. For many a middle-class parent, association of

their wards in reputed private tutorial/coaching centres is a matter of social

prestige that confers a feeling of exclusivity. This trend has become more

pervasive with the rise of stocks in information technology the great American

dream. The norm of the small family with a double income has resulted in

households’ capacity and clinginess to invest in children’s education. Among

parents, a growing feeling of inability to academically guide their children, and

lack of access to neighbourhood community, have also ensured parental

preference to send their wards to private tuition centres. The culmination of all
these factors, at the social level, will put a lot of pressure on parents and

students and put them on edge. So much social pressure has the potential to

destroy the normal emotional relationship and become a bane for the family

and society. There are no simple solutions for social issues.

These results suggest an important role for tuition fees and grants in

university participation decisions. However, they all relate to the US context,

which is a unique setting in terms of the high levels of university fees; indeed,

it is hard to think that they can be informative a priori about different, non-

US, settings. In addition, these studies relate to specific groups of individuals,

as seen above. Another feature is that they consider either the effect of fees or

the effect of support, but not both in the same setting. In this paper, on the

other hand, we can benchmark the effects of both grants and fees; moreover,

we do this on a representative sample of individuals. Also, to our knowledge,

our paper is the first to examine the role of fees and support in a different

setting, the UK. Recent increases in university tuition fees are part of a new

entrepreneurial trend in higher education in which institutions are expected to

generate more of their own revenue. We examine the effects of this trend on

access to universities for students of lower socioeconomic origins, and

identify a series of cross cutting pressures. On the one hand, tuition fee s pose

e an obvious s financial barrier for these e students, whom researchers have

shown to be relatively cost-sensitive and debt-averse. On the other hand, the

demand for university education among youth from all backgrounds remains

buoyant, and student cultures may be increasingly resigned to accepting large

debts to finance their schooling. It is unrealistic to expect that an all-

embracing, prescriptive theory of teaching will easily emerge given the

complex, social nature of the enterprise. It would be like expecting a

prescriptive theory of "being a politician" or "being an actor". Of course in

each of these activities there are guidelines which the novice teacher (or

politician or actor) can make use of and some theories and practical tips... But

these theories can never be entirely prescriptive in that the activities do not

occur in a vacuum but often depend for their effectiveness of the personalities

of the participants.

We then examine e empirical evidence e from two survey s from the

University of Guelph, along with some supplementary sources. We find that

the representation of students from low socioeconomic backgrounds fell

substantially during a decade of rising tuition costs. In discussing this finding,

we link the phenomena of higher and de-regulated tuition to the new

entrepreneurship, and argue that it has the potential to increasingly stratify

Canadian higher education. When tutors and students were asked about

effectiveness in tutoring, responses often referred to benefits from PT that did

not include higher examination results. This was also true when students and
 tutors were asked how they evaluate tutoring. This thesis has shown that

effective tutoring from the perspective of tutors and students does not always

denote better grades or examination results, but rather an increase in

confidence, a greater understanding of the subject and motivational gains

where students felt they were less likely to give up on any given task.

Evaluating outcomes from PT with reduced emphasis on formal performance

indicators would be an important extension of this research.

We read that many researcher do work on it they researched about what is

significant changes and fees of tuition effeteness. There is need to research

that what the effects of tuition on student learning is. So that we conclude

how it is beneficial and effective for students in learning.

This seems to be important for academic performance of students.

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