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Public Administration – APPSC Group 1 Mains

Meaning, Nature and Scope of Public Administration

 Public Administration is one of the youngest branch of Political Science

 With the expansion of the activities of modern state public administration has come to occupy
great importance in modern society and emerged as an independent subject on its own
 The effort of every state to create welfare state has intensified the importance of the subject.
 Public Administration has been rightly described as the “heart of modern civilization” as it is
found essential to create social harmony and maintain peace and stability in the society.
 If the machinery of public administration breaks down, the social structure goes to pieces like a
house of cards.

Definition of Public Administration

The term ‘Public Administration’ has been variously defined by different authorities on the subject. In
the 19th century, Prof. Woodrow Wilson produced the most acceptable definition who defined public
administration as “detailed and systematic execution of public law”.

Below are some of the most important definitions of the term Public Administration, however, the term,
has been interpreted in board and also narrow way.

Following are a few definitions on the subject given by eminent writers on the discipline

Dr. L.D.White: “Public Administration consists of all those operations having for their purpose the
fulfillment or enforcement of public policy”

John M.Pfiffner: “Public Administration is the coordination of collective efforts to implement public
policy”

Harvey Walker: “The work which the government does to give effect to a law is called public
administration”

D. Wight Waldo: “Public Administration is the art and the science of management as applied to the
affairs of state”.

Herbert A. Simon: “In its broadest sense Administration can be defined as the activities of groups
cooperating to accomplish common goals”.

Felix Nigro: “Administration is the organization and use of men and materials to accomplish a purpose”.

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Nature of Public Administration

 FIRSTLY, public administration is a social science as it is concerned with the administrative

activities of people living in a society. The main aim of public administration is to get the
business of government done efficiently and economically and therefore it is described as
government in action.
 SECONDLY, it is not an end in itself, but a means to an end. It is the machinery by which public
goals and purpose are realized
 THIRDLY, it is concerned with policy execution as well as with policy making
 FOURTHLY, it is not only an art also a science
 LASTLY, it is greatly influenced by the environment in which it functions

Public Administration as a field of study include:

(a) Structures of public organizations dealing mainly with the way executive organizations are formed,
readjusted and reformed

(b) Administrative processes denoting the dynamic aspects of organization such as communication
control and decision making

(c) Bureaucratic behavior of officials with emphasis on the interpersonal and inter-groups relationship in
organizational settings

(d) Organization – environment interactions covering the influence and meaningful relationships that
are found to exist between Public Administration and its surrounding forces.

Scope of Public Administration:

Narrower view:

In the narrower view, public administration refers only to the activities of the executive branch.

What is the aim of activities of the executive branch?

 The major aim of the activities of the executive branch is to implement the policies of the
government.

Then the next question is whether all the official acts of all the officials in the executive branch come
under the scope of public administration?

 Here again opinion is divided.

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L.D.White:

 Writers like L.D. White opine that public administration covers all the activities of all officials
who are concerned with administering public affairs.
 In other words, managerial, technical clerical, and manual activities which are undertaken to
implement public policies come within the scope of public administration.

Luther Gulick:

 Luther Gulick is a prominent advocate of this view.

 According to Luther Gulick, public administration comprises of the managerial activities of the
top administrators only.
 What are these managerial activities? Luther Gulick has summed up these activities in the
acronym POSDCORB
 Each letter of which denotes an important function of the administration thus:

P = Planning, which means preparation for action in advance

O = Organization, which means creating the formal structure of authority for implementing the plans
prepared

S = Staffing, which includes the entire personnel function of recruiting, training and keeping them in
good working conditions

D = Directing, which denotes giving necessary instructions and orders to the staff for carrying out the
work

CO = Coordination, is to interrelate the various parts of the work

R = Reporting, i.e. keeping the superiors informed of the condition of work that is going on in the
organization.

B = Budgeting, which covers the whole gamut of financial activities, viz, fiscal planning, accounting,
auditing etc.

 According to Gulick the POSDCORB activities are common to all the field of administration.
 These are the essential techniques that are used by top administrators to get work done by
others.
 But one important criticism is leveled against the POSDCORB view of public administration is
said that the POSDCORB approach fails to take into consideration the nature and knowledge of
the subject matter with which an administrative agency is concerned.
 Realistically speaking, both the POSDCORB techniques and the knowledge of the subject matter
constitute the proper scope of the study of public administration.

Dimock:

 Dimock says the administration is what is concerned with what and the how of the government.

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Broader View:

In its broader view, public administration covers the activities of all three branches of government. It
includes the administrative activities of the national, state and local governments and public
corporations and other public bodies.

We have seen above the controversies regarding the scope of public administration. It is time to
examine the various elements comprising the scope of public administration.

Elements comprising the scope of public administration:

1) General administration, which is concerned with the determination of the objectives of

administration and making policies and plans containing those objectives.
2) Organizations that is structuring individuals and functions into productive relationships.
3) Personnel Management, i.e., direction of people employed to achieve desired goals.
4) Methods and procedure: These are the techniques of administering the process of working and
they constitute the functional aspect of administration.
5) Material and supply: These are the tools with which administration is carried on
6) Finance: With this help personnel can be employed and work can be performed.
7) Administrative accountability: this means accountability to the law, legislature and the public.
8) Administrative law which describe the powers and responsibilities of the officials and their
relationship with the people who are client of public administration.

It is generally agreed that the scope of Public Administration is conditioned by the scope of
governmental activities.

 Governmental activities, in their turn, are dependent upon the political philosophy that has
been adopted by particular government. Thus political ideology affects the scope of public
administration.
 For instance, in the 19th century, when the dominant ideology was laissez faire, the state
performed only limited functions such as law and order, justice and defense. In such a state;
usually called police state, Public Administration had a very limited role to play.
 But in the 20th century, the concept of welfare state has replaced the concepts of police state
which was negativist one, Modern welfare state is positive social service state. It renders various
services with a view to promote the welfare of the people.
 As a result, the functions and responsibilities of public administration in a welfare state have
greatly increased. This discussion clearly shows that the scope of public administration in a
particular society is ultimately determined by the kind of political ideology accepted and
practiced by that society.

Importance of Public Administration:

In a democracy, the importance of public administration is all the more great. The ideals of
democracy – progress, prosperity and protection of the common man – can be obtained only through
impartial, honest and efficient administration.

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Administrator – The Essential Servant:

 The administrator is the essential servant of the new age which is becoming so complex that
neither the bluster of the power politician nor the abundant good will of the multitude will avoid
breakdown, if despite the adoption of right policies, wrong administrative steps are taken.

 An administrator should be capable and serve faithfully.

 He should have “an agreeable personality, possess the ability to get along with the people, have
character and integrity, have qualities of leadership and be able to make a high percentage of
correct decisions without undue procrastination”.

From what has been said above it is clear that public administration is a great social force in the life of
a nation. The powerful and vital role played by it in the life of a nation led Ramsay Muir to remark that
in England the minister is a tool in the hand of the permanent executive. While governments may come
and go, ministries may raise and fall the administration of a country goes on forever. No revolution can
change it and no upheaval can uproot it.

Policy Formulation:

 Public Administration plays a prominent role not only in the management of men and material
but also in policy formulation though that is a field of politicians.

 Sir Josiah Stamp has rightly said that “the official must be main-spring of the new society,
suggesting, promoting and advising at every stage.”

 Administrative problems being complex and intricate and the ministers being amateur they
cannot understand the complexities and intricacies of the present day administrative problems.

 They have to depend more and more upon the permanent officials who with their long
experience and technical knowledge of the subjects exercise far greater influence in Policy
formulation than what is permitted to them on the basis of theory.

 “After World War II the whole concept of Public Administration expounded. The administration
– policy split was rejected, this opening a large new era for study: administrative policy
making….. New dimensions were added to administration as a process, in particular the analysis
of decision making and communications”.

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Evolution of Public Administration in India

Administrative ideas in Kautilya’s Arthashastra:

Mauryan Administration

Characteristic features of Mauryan administration:

 The Mauryans came to power in 321 BC.

 The Mauryans established a vast empire in the country. They had also established systematic
administration at different levels.
 In fact the Mauryan system of administration marked the beginning of Indian administrative
system.
 The main source of information about the administrative system established by the Mauryan
kings is the most famous book – Arthasastra written by Kautilya.
 There is a detailed description about the entire administrative system of Mauryan period in
Arthasastra.

The important features of Mauryan administrative system can be described in the following manner.

 Mauryan empire was vast and extensive and for the first time theory and practice of Hindu
polity were combined together in the real sense of the term.
 The empire which was established by the Chandra Gupta Maurya decayed after Asoka.
 Pivotal point of administration throughout the empire remained village autonomy and
decentralization of authority.
 Religious toleration continued to be the state policy.
 Monarchy was the only acceptable form and monarch was considered very valuable.
 Empire was divided into various provinces and divisions technically known as Mandals, which
were further sub-divided into Janapadas and Villages.
 The administration on the whole was flawless and has won the appreciation of even critics of
Hindu polity.

Name of the State :

 The State during the Mauryan times was a monarchic state.

 Monarchy was the most powerful institution in the society.
 All the powers were concentrated in the hands of monarch.
 He was the only source of all powers, acts, and actions of the government. However, he was
subjected to certain limitations. He was to rule the country and to exercise the power strictly
according to the dharma preached by the religion.
 He was also bound by various rules, normal customs, traditions etc., imposed by the religion.
 Further, he had to act according to the advise rendered by the Council of Ministers. There were
also people’s council which exercised considerable control over the monarch.

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Central Government :

(i) The king and his council of ministers :

 The central government was the fountain head of the whole administration.
 It controlled all provincial governments.
 In the council of ministers (Mantri Parishad) Purohita occupied a very prominent place and
position.
 In addition to council of ministers there was also an inner cabinet of 3 to 5 ministers, who
also enjoyed a position of prestige and honour.

(ii) Administrative system at central level :

 There was a systematic and extensive administrative machinery to run the affairs of the
country at different levels, during the Mauryan period.
 There was an elaborate administrative system to look after the administration at the
central level.
 The work of the central government was divided into various departments.
 There was very efficient staff of run these departments.
 The central government used to have several powers to control administration at the
regional and local levels.
 Hence it was very powerful. It functioned under the control of king.

(iii) Superintendents of departments of central government :

 In the central government there were departmental superintendents who looked after the
administration of their respective departments.
 Some such departments were those which looked into the working of treasury affairs,
mines operations, metals, stores commerce, forest produce, armory, weights and
measures, tolls weaving, agriculture, liquor, elephants and chariots etc.

The Provincial Administration:

 The king was fully well aware that is was difficult to rule over the whole empire from one centre.
 Accordingly the empire was divided into four provinces.
 Each province was headed by a provincial governor who usually was of the royal blood.
 He implemented plans and proposals of his king and enjoyed considerable autonomy.
 He also had his own Mantri Parishad which was usually to be consulted before arriving at a
decision.

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 The Mauryan empire was divided into four regions or states. Each state of region is ruled by a
representative of the king. The states were further divided into Janapada and Mahajanapadas.
Most eminent persons were appointed to rule these units.
 The king’s representatives ruled their respective states with the help of ministers who were very
efficient in different fields of administration.
 There were also efficient civil servants to carry out different administrative activities including
collection of taxes, settlement of disputes, collection of various statistics, maintenance of law
and order and so on.
 There was also a special category of officials known as “Dharma Mahamatras” during this
period who were appointed to tour the country to know the problems of the people, and to
receive complaints from them and inform them to the king for necessary action.
 The preservation of moral values among the people was also the important duty of these
officials.

Local Government:

The system of local government existed during Mauryan period was highly systematic.
There were two types of local bodies during those days: (i) Urban local bodies, (ii) Rural local
bodies.
The urban local bodies were constituted to look after the needs of the people living in the towns
and cities. Each urban local body was placed under the control of an officer known as
“Nagarika”. Each unit was placed under an officer called as needs of the people living in their
areas.
There were several villages during the Mauryan period. Each village consisted 100 to 500
families. The head of the each village was called as the “Gramika” or Grama Swamy. There was
a committee in each village consisted of Gramika and elders which used to be responsible for
the affairs of the village. It used to look after the law and order, welfare of the people, land and
other properties of the people, settlement of disputes and so on in the village.

Revenue and Expenditure:

 The government during those days used to spend most of its income on the execution of various
works for the welfare of the people and also on the payment of salaries to the public officials.
 The government used to undertake the construction and maintenance of rest houses, roads,
wells, hospitals, irrigation projects, etc., for the people.
 It used to spend 1/3 rd of its income on these welfare activities.
 Further the government also used to spend huge amounts for the maintenance of army for the
protection of the country.

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Judicial Administration:

 King understood the need and necessity of quick, cheap and prompt justice.
 It was believed that a king who failed to give justice had no right to rule.
 King was final court of appeal and yet not above laws.
 In the provinces, provincial governors looked after justice.
 There were separate courts for the administration of civil and criminal courts.
 In the villages headman or Gramika was responsible for giving justice.
 Judges were appointed by the king from among those who possessed saintly qualities.
 Trial was on the spot and judges were supposed to be impartial.
 Witnesses occupied a significant position in the administration of justice.
 Only respectable and physically fit persons were supposed to be brought as witnesses.
 In addition to witnesses a judge was supposed to use his spies for knowing the truth.

Village Administration:

 Gramika was the chief functionary in the villages.

 He was responsible for taking all initiatives and negotiated with the central government for
village welfare.
 Gopa was the state employee posted in the village.
 There was also system of grouping villages for collective development.
 There were trade guilds for industrial development in the villages.
 Trade and industry was allowed to flourish and in fact encouraged.

Revenue Administration:

 Agriculture is the main occupation of the people during the Mauryan period. Hence land
revenue was the main source of income to the government.
 Further, there were several artisans like weavers, potters, blacksmiths etc., and also traders and
merchants living in the villages and towns. The government imposed taxes on these people.
 However, the land revenue constituted as the primary source of income to the government.
 The government established systematic machinery to lay and collect land revenue from the
farmers living in various villages.
 The country was divided into various units for the purpose of revenue administration.
 Each Janapada was divided into various Styanyam (District level), Dronamukha (Divisional level),
Karvatakam (Mandal/Taluk level), and Sagrohnam (at Village level) for the purpose of revenue
administration.
 The village was the primary unit for the revenue administration.
 The ‘Gopa’ was the head of the revenue administration at the village level. He used to discharge
several functions relating to revenue administration such as collection of income particulars of

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each family, maintenance of records relating to Jand, fixation and collection of land revenue,
registration of births and deaths and so on. He functioned under the control of ‘Sthanika’ who
was the head of Dronamukha.

Spy System:

 There was an elaborate and systematic spy system existed during the Mauryan period.
 The spies used to play a very important and active role in the administration.
 They used to function under students, traders, sages and so on.
 They also used to tour the entire country for collection of facts.
 The kings used to know about the conditions existed in different parts of their kingdom through
these spices which was used for taking decisions and running the administration.

Mughal Administration:

 Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Shah Jahan, Jahangir and Aurangzeb were the important rulers of the
Mughal Empire.
 Akbar was the author of Mughal administrative system.
 Akbar’s administrative system was followed by his successors with minor changes.
 In Mughal administrative system there were both native and foreign elements. So Majundar
described this as “the Perso-Arabic system in Indian setting”.

Central Administration:

The Mughal Emperor

 The Mughal Emperor was the head of administration.

 He enjoyed despotic powers. He was the source of all authority.
 However, the Mughal Emperor was benevolent despot.
 He endeavoured hard for the welfare of his people.
 The emperor used to maintain direct contact with people through an institution called Jharoka-
i-Darshan.
 Other important institutions attended by emperor were Diwan-I-Khas and Ghusal Khana.
 The Istamic traditions were the only restricting influences on king.
 According to Abdul Fazal, a great writer at that time, the Monarch enjoyed his position because
of divine will. To him “A king is the origin of stability and possession “.
 The Mughal emperor used to maintain direct contact with people through institutions like
Jharokna-I- Dharshan, Diwan-I-Khas and Ghusal Khana. Majundar in his work, ‘An Advanced
History of India’ stated that endowed with the spirit of benevolent despots, these rulers worked
hard of the good of their subjects in one way or other especially in the regions surrounding the
central capital.

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The Ministers: A council of four ministers used to advise the emperor on all important matters. These
four ministers viz., Diwan, Mir Bakshi, The Sadar and Mir Saman, were regarded as pillars of the state.

Diwan : Diwan was the chief of the Revenue and Finance Department. He was incharge of income and
expenditure. He is the adviser to the emperor in financial matters. Raja Todar Mal was one of the
successful Diwans.

Mir Bakshi : Mir Bakshi was incharge of military affairs. He was the chief adviser to the emperor on all
matters relating to army. He looked after recruitment, payment and organization of soldiers. The
security of the king come under Mir Bakshi.

Sadar : Sadar was the head of religious affairs. His function was to supervise all religious institutions,
educational institutions and distribution of charities. He had power to appoint judges (Quazis).

Mir Saman : Mir Saman was incharge of factories and stores. He was assisted by Estate Officer, Head
Accountant, Office incharge of Artisans, Cashiers and men incharge of materials.

During the period of Akbar, there was an officer of Vakil to advise the emperor. Vakil used to supervise
the work of other ministers. After the dismissal of Bairam Khan, the office of the Vakil lost its
significance. During the period of Mughals there was centralized administration. He was assisted by
four ministers. There were important central government officers like Diwan-in-Ala, Qazi, Chief-Sadar,
Daroge of Bak Chakri, Daroghah, Muhtasib and Mir Atish. Thus the central administration was
characterized by centralization.

Revenue Administration: The Mughal rulers taxed the people in possible ways to maintain a grand
court, a huge army and dignified nobility.

Sources of Revenue:

 The Mughals, used to get revenue from two sources viz. central revenue and state revenue.
 The central revenue was collected through land revenue, jiziya, zakat, a part of war-booty,
monopolies, salt-tax, customs and mines.
 This local revenue was collected from petty taxes on trade, occupation and transport.
 There were two types of taxes – direct taxes and indirect taxes. In the total revenue the share of
the indirect taxes are higher than direct taxes like jiziya and zakat.
 The burden of indirect taxes was more on the poor people.

(i) Land Revenue :

 During the Mughal period a tax on the crop was known as land revenue. Land revenue was the
main source of state income.
 During the period of Akbar, land revenue system was known as Bandobast. It was based upon
the principles namely measurement, classification and assessment.
 The land under cultivation was measured by Jarit.

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 The land was divided into four classes on the basis of cultivation. They were (A) Polaj :
Cultivated every year, (b) Parauti : left hollow for a year or two (c) Chachar : left for three or four
years and (d) Banjar : cultivated occasionally.
 The cultivators used to pay half of the produce as tax to the government.
 There were provisions for grant of takawi loans to peasants to by seeds.
 Remissions were granted in times of famines and drought.
 Akbar introduced the practice of granting loans at a very low rate of interest.
 The peasants were given pattas.
 They were required to sign quabuliats (deeds of agreement). But some restrictions were
imposed on the right of cultivator to dispose of land.
 To put in the words of Irfan Habib, in one sense the land belonged to the peasants, in another
sense the peasant belonged to the land.

(ii) Other Taxes :

 There were a number of other taxes. The total amount collected under miscellaneous taxes had
not exceeded 25 percent of the land revenue.
 Aurangazeb imposed Jiziya tax. It was undoubtedly a heavy imposition. To put in the words of
Irfan Habib, “Jiziya was equal to about a month’s wages of an unskilled urban labour”.

(iii) Collection of Revenue :

 The cultivators were given the choice of paying revenue either in cash or in kind.
 For the purpose of revenue collection the empire was divided into Subhas, Sarkars and
Paraganas.
 Subedar was the provincial governor.
 In Sarkars, Amal Guzar was incharge of revenue administration.
 In Paraganas, Amil was the revenue officer.
 In village levels Patwari maintained land records.
 Theoretically the emperor was the sole claimant to the land revenue. But the intermediaries
like Jagirdars used to play an important role in assessing and collecting taxes.

Finally during the Mughals there was a Ryotwari system. The cultivators used to pay the revenue either
in cash or in kind. In this system there were no middle men. The state demand was fixed at 1/3 rd of
average produce.

Mansabdari System :

 The Mughal administrative system was based upon Mansabdari system.

 All government employees were holders of mansab, means place or reach.
 The Mughal administrative system had a bureaucratized hierarchy of officials called
Mansabdars.
 There were 33 grades of mansabdars, from the commander of 10 to 5 thousand.
 The rank fixed their status and salary.

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 They were paid their salary in cash.

 The mansabdars were recruited, promoted and dismissed by the emperor with the consultation
of Mir Bakshi.

Military Organisation :

 The Mughal military organization was based on Mansabdari system.

 The imperial army consisted of 4 divisions, infantry, cavalry, elephantry and artillery.
 Akbar introduced the practice of branding of horses and maintenance of descriptive rolls of
soldiers.
 He maintained elephantry for transporting artillery in the war.
 There were two ranks within the Mansabdari system. These were zats and sawar ranks.
 According to Blockman, zat rank refers to the troops while Mansabdar. It was stated that the
Mughals depended on Mansabdars and the troops maintained by them.

Legacy of British Rule:

For a very long time India remained under British domination and control. The Britishers had their own
administrative setup during their period of supremacy which needed changes after India became
independent in 1947. Of course several administrative changes were introduced to suit new needs and
requirements, yet on the whole influence of British administrative system, altogether could not be
wiped out. It was and even today it is being felt in many spheres of administration.

Some of the major areas in which this influence is being felt are as under

Parlimentary System: Whether India will be better administered in a Parliamentary or a Presidential

system of government, for this the former course was considered better. This is the legacy of the British
system to India. We had thought the model adopted by Britain suited to India needs and thus adopted
that.

Federal System: For running over administration it was found that India should be a Federation. It was
felt that it will be more or less impossible to administratively run a big country like India from one
centre. The idea of running administration in federal pattern is the legacy of British rule. Every proposal
which was put forward for solving constitutional deadlock was based in federal pattern.

Neutrality of Civil Services: Britishers during their stay in India decided that civil servants in India should
be politically neutral. They should honestly serve the masters and be away and above political changes
and movements which were taking place in the country. This philosophy has been followed very
honestly and rigorously in India and became a legacy of the British.

An Independent Recruiting Body: We also borrowed the idea of an independent recruiting body as civil
services were concerned. Accordingly, a separate UPSC and State Public Service Commissions have been
set-up.

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Democratic System: We have decided that India will be a democracy in which the people will be
sovereign. They will decide whether the administration is working for their welfare or not. Every
administrative activity will be judged in terms of welfare of the people.

District as a Unit of Administration: British government during its stay in India decided that district
should be a unit of administration. The Collector was, therefore, made responsible for running whole
district administration. He was loaded with executive, legislative and judicial powers. Today also district
is the unit of our administration at the lower level.

Local Self Government Institutions: In India in the past local government institutions have always been
working successfully. It was during the medieval period that these received some set back. But during
British period, these were received to such an extent that the patterns of local self-institutions laid down
by the British government became legacy of British rule to Indian administration, though now these
bodies are being given more autonomy than what they used to enjoy in the past.

Red tapism: Indian administration is known for its delays and red tapism. It is said that the wheels of the
government move very slowly. The officialdom many a time frustrates the implementation of many very
good projects. Again this red tapism is the gift to Britain to Indian administrative set-up.

Hierarchal System: Whole administrative system should be based on hierarchy in which senior will
supervise the work of his subordinates and also in which subordinate will be accountable to superior
officer, was system followed by the British government. This legacy is being followed in India as well.

The British Parliament took up Indian administration in 1857 and continued to rule the country till 1947
when country joined the family of free nations.

The nature of the British rule in India during the British Period can be understood from the following :

(a) Rule of Splendor : The Britishers, all along, ruled over India with splendor. This was done with two
ends in view. Firstly, they wanted the splendor of the Mughal days should be maintained because it paid
dividend to the rulers. Secondly, that the Britishers felt that ruling with splendor will make Indians fell
that their rule was indigenous.

(b) Superior Posts for the Britishers: The Queen had declared that the Indians will be given a share in
running their administration on the basis of integrity, ability and qualifications.This was honoured in
breach. For all practical purposes all superior posts in administration were manned by the Britishers. As
late as in 1904 Lord Curzon declared that the highest ranks in civil administration in India as a general
rule should not be held by the Indians. Until 1924 even those Indians who qualified in I.C.S, were
considered of inferior status. They were also subjected to occasional humiliation.

(c) Non Cooperation of Executive Officers: Throughout the British rule all high executive posts were held
by the British officers who did not extend their co-operative to the Indian counter parts for smooth
running of administration. They looked forward to Governors and the Governor General for
patronization. Even co-operation in police administration was not forthcoming. On this pretext Indians

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were not given high administrative executive jobs but only judicial posts in administration were given to
them.

(d) Respect of Customs: The Queen made declaration in 1858 that Indian customs and traditions will
always be respected. She also made it clear that the British Government will not interfere in religion,
tradition and customs of Indian for the convenience of administration. Throughout British rule this
principle was more or less adhered.

(e) No Ministerial Responsibility: The Governors did not encourage principle of joint and collective
ministerial responsibility with the result that many difficulties and complications came in the way of
smooth running of administration.

(f) Stress on Training: In was felt that for smooth running of administration it was essential that all civil
servants must be given both theoretical and practical training. Whereas theoretical training was taken
care of in training institutions, for practical training usually civil servants were posted on lower
administrative jobs and subsequently gradually brought them down to above.

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