Course Title: Advanced Mobile Communications

Course Code: ECEG 6204

Msc.1st Year .2nd Semester.

History of Mobile Cellular : (Chapter1)

In order to classify the generations for mobile cellular
development, it may be logical to use the multiple access
schemes. The analog frequency division multiple access
(FDMA) systems are 1G system. The digital time division
multiple access (TDMA) systems with circuit switching are
2G systems.
The code division multiple access (CDMA) systems with
packet/circuit switching are 3G systems, and some
different advanced Mobile Access technology used with
an all Internet protocol (IP) network will be called 4G.

However, because each technology itself is advanced with

time, we use time periods to classify the generations.
Those, analog systems are 1G, digital voice systems are
2G, digital voice/data systems are B2G, and broadband
digital systems are 3G. Wireless local area
network/wireless metropolitan area network
(WLAN/WMAN) are B3G systems, and Very-high-speed
data-rate systems are 4G systems.

1st Generation systems

AMPS System (First-Generation System)

Advanced Mobile Phone Service was used since 1976,
and the system was deployed in 1984. Bell Labs in 1975
awarded OKI a contract to manufacture the first 200
mobile phones (car phones) AMPS systems were
Designed and used as car phones and the car battery
supplied the Power.
The coverage for each cell was around an area of 8 miles
radius. Then, the United Kingdom modified the AMPS
system with a channel bandwidth of 25 kHz, called Total
Access Communication System (TACS).
Therefore, Japan NTT (Nippon Telephone and Telegraph
Co.) deployed its version of AMPS in Tokyo in 1979,
which was the first commercial system in the world.
The NTT Systems had no diversity scheme at the base,
and the signalling used was multitone signalling
at a rate of 300 tones/s.
The service cost was high, and the voice quality was
unsatisfactory. AT&T made its standard for HCMTS1 the
First-generation cellular system. Later, the standard EIA
(Electronic Industrial Association)
Named the system IS-3 (Interim Standard 3).

Second-Generation System
In 1983, Europe started to develop GSM6− 9 (the original
name was called Group of Special Mobile then was
changed to Global System for Mobile). GSM is a digital
TDMA system and was first deployed in Germany in 1991.
It was the first digital mobile cellular system In the world.
Then, the North American TDMA (NA-TDMA) was voted
as a digital standard
In 1988 for trying to solve the capacity issue.
In 1989, Qualcomm was starting to develop CDMA with
great assistance from PacTel
In financial, technical, and spectrum issues; the CDMA
system could have a capacity That was 10 times more
than AMPS according to theoretical analysis at that time.

In 1989, the United Kingdom had released the PCN

(Personal Communications Networks) Licensed band in
1900 MHz and awarded four licenses through a beauty
contest.
In 2000, GSM had a data transmission enhancement
called GPRS (General Packet Radio Service), which could
use any number of time slots among the total
Eight slots for sending data. The data rate is from 14.4
kbps to 64 kbps. There is another
High-speed data enhancement called EDGE (Enhanced
Data Rates for GSM Evolution),

Which modulations are changed from GMSK (Gaussian

minimum shift keying) to 8 PSK (Phase shift keying). The
transmission data rate can be up to 500 kbps
The EDGE is described In 1990, Japan had developed its
PDC (Personal Digital Cellular).

The 12.5-kHz offset the 25-kHz channels, thus the number

of channels were increased in the system. It is a TDMA
cellular system operating at 800 MHz and 1.5 GHz. The
structure of PDC is very similar to that of NA-TDMA
In 1995.

the CDMA IS-95 was the first CDMA system (later called
cdmaOne in 1998) Using 1.25-MHz bandwidth. It was
suggested by PacTel that the operator could give up one
tenth of the spectrum from analog spectrum to create a
CDMA channel and generate at least twice the capacity of
the entire analog system for voice.

In 1999, cdma1X was developed. It can have a data rate

up to 64 kbps (see Section 5.6). In 2000, cdma1X created
an EVDO (Enhanced Version of Data Only) option14− 15.
It was using a 1.25-MHz channel dedicated for data only.
It can transmit 2 Mbps while the terminal is nomadical and
384 kbps While in motion.

The TDM scheme is used in the EVDO. Then, in 2004,

EVDV (Enhanced Version for Data and Voice) became
another option to implement on a 1.25-MHz channel to
have 2 Mbps data plus voice. EVDO and EVDV are
sometimes called CDMA2000 1X systems.
3G Systems :
In 1997, 3G (third generation) had been suggested mainly
by DoCoMo and Ericsson and cdmaOne was called 2.5G.
At that time, all the system providers around the world.

Wideband CDMA WCDMA,14 CDMA2000, 15

And UTRA-TDD (UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access -TDD
TD-SCDMA (Time Division-Synchrous CDMA)
Are all 5-MHz bandwidth channels.

Ericsson and DoCoMo mainly developed WCDMA. The

carrier bandwidth is 5 MHz and the chip rate is 3.84 Mcps.
One version of 3G systems, called FOMA (Freedom of
Mobile Multimedia Access), has been
Deployed in Japan.

4G Systems :
In the past 20 years, wireless networks have evolved from
an analog, single medium (voice),
and low data rate (a few kilobits per second) system to the
digital, multimedia, and high data rate (ten to hundreds of
megabits per second) system of today. Future systems will
be based on user’s demands as the fourth-generation

(4G) cellular system. Many rich applications need high-

speed data rates to achieve them.ITU in July 2003, had
made a requirement for 4G system as follows:16

1. At a standstill condition, the transmission data rate

should be 1 Gbps.2. At a moving condition, the
transmission data rate should be 100 Mbps.
Any proposed system that can meet these requirements
with less bandwidth and higher Mobile speed will be
considered. It is a beauty contest.
With this high-speed data system, many advanced
applications for the users can be realized. A potential 4G
system could be used in the family of OFDM (Orthogonal
Frequency Division Multiplexing),
Because the WMAN described in Section 7.4.2 using
OFDM can have a transmission data rate of 54– 70 Mbps,
which is much higher than the CDMA system can provide.
The 4G perspective systems using OFDM

WIRELESS DATA NETWORK:

The wireless data networks21− 24 can be classified
according to their coverage areas. The smallest coverage
area, where the network is called wireless personal area
network (PAN), is limited to an office.

A cell of such a small size would enable connecting

computers or electronic input devices. A wireless local
area network (LAN) connects users on a particular floor of
a building. A community area network serves an industrial
or university campus,Where the network can roam
throughout the campus.

A wireless metropolitan area network

(WMAN) connects the residents and visitors to a city. And
finally, the most extensive Network is a wireless wide area
network (WWAN), which connects the entire country.

A wireless PAN network can use Bluetooth, developed by

Ericsson in 1978. Bluetooth was named after a pirate king
in the Nordic countries. It is used for short distances up to
10 feet. The channel bandwidth is 200 kHz using QAM
modulation.

The data rate can be 1 Mbps. It is a short wire

replacement for wireless. Today, most cell phones are
equipped with Bluetooth. The Zigbee was developed from
the IEEE 802.15 standard in the United States. It can have
a range of 30 m, but the data rate is about 144 kbps. It
can be used as a networking video
In the 1990s, WLANs was divided into the radio-frequency
(RF) systems and infrared (IR) systems specified by the
FCC. The RF systems are subdivided into the licensed
nonspread- Spectrum (NSS) and the unlicensed spread
spectrum (SS)The wavelength of IR is slightly longer than
the wavelength of visible light.

It is used For data communications in wireless LANs; to

download data among PCs, PDAs, and cell Phones. IR
links are limited to distances under 15 m. There is a
diffuse IR that does not Require a line-of-sight path
between transmitter and receiver.

But it is suitable for fixed links, not for nomadic. A

standard point-to-point infrared at a 1–2 m range can have
up to 4 Mbps. Infrared can download data fast and have
little or no interference.
PAGING SYSTEMS:
Paging system29 is a one-way personal wireless alerting
and messaging system. Paging was Started in the 1960s.
The receiver is a tone page (beeper) with a dedicated
telephone number

To receive the message. The message primarily is the

caller’s phone number. In some tone Paging systems, a
voice message may be transmitted after the beep. Also,
the pager can be An alphanumeric pager, which has a
fairly large screen to display several text strings. It was
Introduced in the late 1970s and became popular in the
mid-1990s.

The bandwidth of the Paging channel is 25 kHz. Each

paging channel can serve 50,000 pagers. Each paging
tower Can be 100 m high and can cover an area of 16-km
radius. Therefore, the paging system Is the most spectrally
efficient system.
Also, the paging frequencies operate at around 35 MHz,
150 MHz, 450 MHz, and 900 MHz. In these low-frequency
ranges,
The propagation loss is minimal compared to the
operation system with frequencies above 1 GHz.
There are several kinds of paging systems based on their
air interfaces.
SPECTRUM ALLOCATION:
The spectrum is a limited natural resource. Wireless
communication equipment depends on the appropriate
and available frequency bands.
The signal propagation characteristics are different with
different frequency bands. Also, the scope of the service
for the new system used in that band determines the
bandwidth of that band.

The higher the data rate, the wider bandwidth is needed.

Manufacturers want to allocate a desired spectrum
Band and have an investment leverage of economic scale.

The task of authorizing the allocation and licensing of the

available spectrum to different systems (allocation band)
and to different service operators (licenses) falls to
different frequency administrative bodies throughout the
world.
It is a process of restructuring of frequency band
allocations and allows the new systems and services to
migrate toward higher frequency bands.
The spectrum allocation of terrestrial

Communication systems has only come from the regional

authorities. As of today, the Global roaming of terrestrial
communication systems forces the spectrum allocations of
the systems to be planned globally as well; the GSM
system is an example.
SPECTRUM EFFICIENCY CONSIDERATIONS:
A major problem facing the radio communication industry
is the limitation of the available radio-frequency spectrum.
In setting allocation policy, the FCC seeks systems that
need minimal bandwidth but provide high usage and
consumer satisfaction. It often sends out NPRM (Notice of
Proposed Rule Making) and asks for feedback from the
industry.

The ideal mobile telephone system would operate within a

limited assigned frequency band and would serve an
almost unlimited number of users in unlimited areas.
Three major approaches to achieve the ideal are

Modulation schemes
A. Apply to analog systems
1. Single-sideband (SSB), which divides the allocated
frequency band into maximum
numbers of channels.
2. Frequency modulation (FM), which uses frequency
deviation (an early application
of spread spectrum) to reduce the noise.
3. Cellular, which reuses the allocated frequency band in
different geographic locations.
B. Apply to digital systems
1. Frequency shift keying (FSK), Gaussian FSK (GFSK),
minimum FSK (MSK): an abrupt frequency changes at the
symbol transitions.
2. Phase shift keying (PSK), Quadrature PSK (QPSK): an
abrupt phase change at the Symbol transitions.
3. Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM): a
combination of amplitude (ASK) and Phase shift keying.
4. Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM):
consists of a sum of subcarriers That is modulated by
using PSK or QAM.
5. Spread spectrum or frequency-hopped, which
generates many codes over a wide Frequency band.
Antenna configurations: smart antennas

A. Diverse antennas at base station

1. Receiving diversity antennas: does not cause any
interference in the air.
2. Transmit diversity antennas: gain the diversity without
diversity antennas at the
mobile station.
B. Adaptive antenna array
1. Beam forming
2. Beam steering
C. Space-Time code antenna systems
D. MIMO (multiple in and multiple out) antenna systems.

INTRODUCTION TO CELLULAR SYSTEMS:

To describe cellular systems in general, it is necessary to
include discussion of the basic
Cellular systems, their performance criteria, the
uniqueness of the mobile radio environment,
the operation of the cellular systems, reduction of co
channel interference, handoffs.

BASIC CELLULAR SYSTEMS:

There are two basic cellular systems; one is the circuit-
switched system and the other is the Packet-switched
system.

Circuit-Switched Systems

In a circuit-switched system, each traffic channel is

dedicated to a user until its cell is terminated. We can
further distinguish two circuit-switched systems: one for an
analog system and one for a digital system.
A. Analog System
A basic analog cellular system1–3 consists of three
subsystems: a mobile unit, a cell site,
And a mobile telephone switching office (MTSO), as Fig.
Shows, with connections to link the three subsystems.

1. Mobile units. A mobile telephone unit contains a control

unit, a transceiver, and an Antenna system.
2. Cell site. The cell site provides interface between the
MTSO and the mobile units. It has a control unit, radio
cabinets, antennas, a power plant, and data terminals.
3. MTSO. The switching office, the central coordinating
element for all cell sites, contains
The cellular processor and cellular switch. It interfaces
with Telephone Company
Zone offices, controls call processing, provide operation
and maintenance, and handles
Billing activities.
4. Connections. The radio and high-speed data links
connect the three subsystems. Each
Mobile unit can only use one channel at a time for its
communication link. But the Channel is not fixed; it can be
any one in the entire band assigned by the serving area,
with each site having multichannel capabilities that can
connect simultaneously to
Many mobile units.
The MTSO is the heart of the analog cellular mobile
system. Its processor provides central coordination and
cellular administration.
The cellular switch, which can be either analog or digital,
switches calls to connect mobile subscribers to other
mobile subscribers and to the nationwide telephone
network.

It uses voice trunks similar to telephone company

interoffice voice trunks. It also contains Data links
providing supervision links between the processor and the
switch and between the cell sites and the processor

The radio link carries the voice and signalling between

the mobile unit and the cell site. The high-speed data links
cannot be transmitted over the standard telephone trunks
and therefore must use either microwave links or T-
carriers (wire lines). Microwave radio links or T-carriers
carry both voice and data between cell Site and the
MTSO.
Digital Systems

A basic digital system consists of four elements: mobile

station, base transceiver station (BTS), base station
controller (BSC), and switching subsystems, as shown in
Fig.

MS: It consists of two parts, mobile equipment (ME) and

subscriber identify module (SIM). SIM contains all
subscriber-specific data stored on the MS side. BTS:
Besides having the same function as the analog BTS, it
has the Transcoder/Rate Adapter Unit (TRAU),

Which carries out coding and decoding as well as rate

adaptation in case data rate varies.

BSC: A new element in digital systems that performs the

Radio Resource (RR) management for the cells under its
control.
BSC also handles handovers, power management time
and frequency synchronization, and frequency reallocation
among BTSs. Switching subsystems:
A MSC: The main function of MSC is to coordinate the
setup of calls between MS and PSTN users.
b. VLR (Visitor Location Register): A database of all
mobiles roaming in the MSC’s area of control.
c. HLR (Home Location Register): Acentralized database
of all subscribers registered
In a Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN).
d. AUC (Authentication Center): Provides HLR with
authentication parameters and ciphering keys that are
used for security purposes.
e. EIR (Equipment Identity Register): A database for
storing all registered mobile equipment numbers.
f. IWF: Provides the subscriber with data services that can
access data rate and protocol conversion facilities and
interfaces with public and private data networks.
g. EC (Echo Canceller): Used on the PSTN side of the
MSC for all voice circuits.
h. XC (Transcoder): Usually installs in each BTS. But for
the cost reason, it can be installed in BSC or MSC.
I. OMC (Operational and Maintenance Center): This
function resided in analog MSC but became a separated
entity in digital systems.
Packet-Switched System:
A cellular packet-switched system is shown in Fig.
There are six elements: MS, Node B, RNC, SGSN,
GGSN, and GF as shown in Fig.
MS: Provides the voice and packet data services. It is also
called UE (User Equipment).
Node B: The name for base station in GSM.

RNC (Radio Network Controller): Controls the radio

resources of the Node Bs that are connected to it. Its
function is similar to BSC.
A device PCU (Packet Control Unit) converts the data
stream into packet format.
SGSN (Service GPRS Support Node): Analogous to
MSC/VLR in the circuit-switched system. This includes
mobility management, security, and access control
functions. It interfaces to HLR.
GGSN (Gateway GPRS Support Node): The point of
interface with external packet data networks such as the
Internet.
CGF (Changing Gateway Function): Mainly for billing.
RNS (Radio Network Subsystem): It consists of RNC and
Node B. UTRAN consists
of two or more RNS.

PERFORMANCE CRITERIA:
Voice quality is very hard to judge without subjective tests
for users’ opinions. In this technical area, engineers
cannot decide how to build a system without knowing the
voice quality that will satisfy the users. In military
communications, the situation differs: armed forces
personnel must use the assigned equipment.
Data Quality
There are several ways to measure the data quality such
as bit error rate, chip error rate, Symbol error rate, and
frame error rate. The chip error rate and symbol error rate
are measuring the quality of data along the transmission
path. The frame error rate and the bit Error rate are
measuring the quality of data at the throughput.
Picture/Vision Quality
There are color acuity, depth perception, flicker
perception, motion perception, noise perception,
And visual acuity. The percentage of pixel (picture
element) loss rate can be characterized in vertical
resolution loss and horizontal resolution loss of a pixel.
Service Quality
Three items are required for service quality.
1. Coverage. The system should serve an area as large
as possible. With radio coverage, however, because of
irregular terrain configurations, it is usually not practical to
cover 100 percent of the area for two reasons:
a. The transmitted power would have to be very high to
illuminate weak spots with sufficient reception, a
significant added cost factor.
b. The higher the transmitted power, the harder it
becomes to control interference.
Required grade of service. For a normal start-up system,
the grade of service is specified for a blocking probability
of .02 for initiating calls at the busy hour.
Number of dropped calls. During Q calls in an hour, if a
call is dropped and Q− 1 calls are completed, then the call
drop rate is 1/Q. This drop rate must be kept low. A high
drop rate could be caused by either coverage problems or
handoff problems related to inadequate channel
availability or weak reception.

Special Features

A system would like to provide as many special features

as possible, such as call forwarding,
Call waiting, voice stored (VSR) box, automatic roaming,
short message service (SMS), multimedia service (MMS),
push-to-talk (PTT), or navigation services. However,
sometimes the customers have to pay extra charges for
these special services.

UNIQUENESS OF MOBILE RADIO

ENVIRONMENT:
The Propagation Attenuation. In general, the
propagation path loss increases not only with frequency
but also with distance. If the antenna height at the cell site
is 30 to 100 m and at the mobile unit about 3 m above the
ground,

And the distance between the cell site and the mobile unit
is usually 2 km or more, and then the incident angles of
both the direct wave and the reflected wave are very
small, as Fig. 2.4 shows. The incident angle of the direct
wave is θ1, and the incident angle of the reflected wave is
θ2. Θ1 is also called the elevation angle.
The propagation path loss would be 40 dB/dec,4 where
“dec” is an abbreviation of decade, i.e., a period of 10.

This means that a 40-dB loss at a signal receiver will be

observed by the mobile unit as it moves from 1 to 10 km.
Therefore C is inversely proportional to R.4
C ∝ R− 4 = αR− 4
Where C = received carrier power
R = distance measured from the transmitter to the
receiver
α = constant.

The difference in power reception at two different

distances R1 and R2 will result in
C2 /C1 = (R2/R1) − 4
and the decibel expression of Equation is
ΔC (in dB) = C2 − C1 (in dB)
= 10 log C2/C1= 40 log R1/R2
When R2 = 2R1, ΔC = − 12 dB; when R2 = 10R1, ΔC =
− 40 dB.
This 40 dB/dec is the general rule for the mobile radio
environment and is easy to remember. It is also easy to
compare to the free-space propagation rule of 20 dB/dec.
The linear and decibel scale expressions are C ∝ R− 2
(free space).

Severe Fading. Because the antenna height of the mobile

unit is lower than its typical surroundings, and the carrier
frequency wavelength is much less than the sizes of the
surrounding structures,
Multipath waves are generated. At the mobile unit, the
sum of the multipath waves causes a signal-fading
phenomenon.
The signal fluctuates in a range of about 40 dB (10 dB
above and 30 dB below the average signal). We can
visualize the Nulls of the fluctuation at the baseband at
about every half wavelength in space,