Biological approach to understanding behavior (page 49)

19 Agustus 2019 11:26

Localization
- Localization is the idea that specific part fo the brain is responsible for a certain
behavior.
Brain Structure
○ The nervous system is a system of neurons- cells that perform the function
of communication in the body.
○ The central nervous system consists of the spinal cord and the brain
Cortex
○ It is the layer of neurons with a folded surface covering the brain on the
outside
○ Associated with higher-order functions such as abstract though or voluntary
action. This part developed the latest
○ Divided into four section called lobes
- Frontal lobes
Associated with reasoning, planning, thinking and decision
making, voluntary action, complex emotion and so on
- Parietal lobe
Associated with movement, orientation, perception and
recognition
- Occipital lobe
Associated with visual processing
- Temporal lobe
Associated with processing auditory information, memory and
speech
**associated with** with implies a mild form of localization. It is not
the only part of the brain that contributes with a certain behavior.
○ It is divided into the left and right hemisphere. It is connected by a structure
of neurons called corpus callosum
Cerebellum
○ The little brain
○ It has two hemisphere and a folded surface
○ Associated with coordination of movement and balance
Limbic System
○ Older subcortical structure
○ Emotional brain
- Thalamus
□ Sensory function
□ Nerves from all sensory organs reach the thalamus before they
are connected to the cortex
- Hypothalamus
□ It is below the thalamus
□ Involved in such functions as emotion, thirst and hunger
- Amygdala
□ Involved in memory, emotion and fear
- Hippocampus
□ Important
□ Learning, memory and transferring short-term memory to a
more permanent store, spatial orientation
Brain Stem
Underneath the limbic system

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 ○ Underneath the limbic system
○ Regulates the basic vital processes such as breathing or heartbeat.
○ Connects the human brain to the spinal cord
○ Similar to the brain found in lower animals
Research supporting strict localization
- The first studies were performed with patients with brain damage.
Paul Broca (1861)- TAN
- Speech center
AIM: to understand why did Louis Leborgne lose his ability to
speak
METHOD Observing Louis Leborgne until he eventually passed away
:
PROCED Louis Leborgne lost his ability to speak at age of 30 and
URE: had developed gangrene. Leborgne could only speak and
write one word, TAN. His intelligence was intact and he
tried to communicate back. His conditioned remain until
his death.
Broca carefully described Tan's condition, which is now
known as Broca's aphasia, the lost of articulated speech.
An autopsy was carried out once Leborgne died at age of
51.
RESULTS: The autopsy revealed that there was a lesion in the frontal
area of the left hemisphere, posterior inferior frontal
gyrus
CONCLU this area is called the Broca's area. It is the area that is
SION: responsible for producing language.
EVALUAT He described 25 additional with the same problem before
ION: finally asserting that speech articulation is controlled by
the left frontal lobe.
Ethical consideration: He had waited until the patient had
died to do the autopsy. He had also preserved the brain
rather than completely dissecting it. 100 years later it was
found that the area was much more complex than that.
Wernicke's Area
- Discovered by Carl Wernicke in 1874
- Located in the temporal lobe of the dominant hemisphere
- Responsible for comprehension of written and spoken language
- Wernicke's aphasia
□ General impairment of language comprehension while at the
same time speech production is intact
□ The patient can speak fluently and naturally however what is
spoken is meaningless
- Both Broca and Wernicke studied patients who had naturally occurring brain
lesion and conducted an autopsy once the patients died.
This however had several drawbacks
- Rarely neat and confined to a specific area
- You have to wait until the patients death
Wilder Penfield (1891- 1979)
- Neural stimulation
- He would stimulate various parts of the brain while the patient was
still conscious. He observed the effects this stimulation had on
behavior.

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 behavior.
- This allowed him to create a map of the sensory and motor cortex
known as the cortical homunculus.
- All these discoveries suggest that psychological functions have directly
corresponding regions in the brain.

Research opposing the idea of strict localization

- Karl Lashley (1890-1958)
AIM: to investigate if memory was localized in a certain part of
the brain
METHOD: removing parts of the cortex on trained rats
PROCEDURE: he trained rats to run through a maze in search of food.
After learning occurred, he removed an area from the
cortex, varying the portions of the cortex in different rats
from 10% to 50%.
He would then place the rats back into the maze.
His idea is that if memory is localized somewhere,
removing areas of the cortex would help pinpoint the
specific region
RESULTS: the results did not support his original hypothesis
CONCLUSION: he concluded that memory was distributed rather than
localized. The conclusion is supported by the following
observation
1. The principle of mass action:
○ Memory of the maze depended on the
percentage of cortex destroyed, but not on
the location of the lesion
2. Equipotentiality
○ The ability that one part of the cortex could
take over the functions of another part of the
cortex
Relativity of localization: the split- brain research
- Lateralization
- The division of functions between the two hemisphere of the cortex
- Pioneered by Roger Sperry, who conducted these studies with animals since
it was unethical to do it on humans at the time
- An opportunity to replicate with humans arise when surgically removing the
corpus call0sum helped in curing severe epilepsy with uncontrollable
seizures.
- Roger Sperry collaborated with Michael Gazzaniga. In 1967 Gazzaniga
published results of the first research with human split-brain patients.
- The aims of the study were to test the theory of lateralization and to see if
the two hemisphere have uniquely different functions.
- Observation: showed that the patient seemed to be remarkably
unaffected by the surgery
- The authors devised a technique where the participant had to sit in
front of a broad and look at the dot in the middle of it.
- Visual stimuli would then be presented for one tenth of a second
either to the left or the right visual field (the far left or far right on the
board)
□ Optic nerves from the LEFT eye are connected to the RIGHT
hemisphere and vice versa

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 hemisphere and vice versa
 By presenting the stimulus to the left visual field the
researcher "sends it" to the right hemisphere, and stimuli
from the right visual field goes to the left hemisphere.
- A variety of objects were placed behind the screen so that participants
could feel them with their hands
- Results:
1) When shown the picture of a spoon to the left visual field and
asked to name or describe what they saw, the patients said
nothing
a) However, when asked to pick a corresponding object from
a group of objects behind the screen, they felt around and
picked a spoon (with their left hand, because it is
controlled by the right hemisphere). Patients could not
explain why they picked the spoon. The right hemisphere
saw the spoon and picked it from behind the screen using
the left hand, but the center of speech is in the left
hemisphere so the patients were unable to explain what
they saw and what they did.
b) This supports lateralization of language in the left
hemisphere
2) However when a simple word, such as "pencil", was flashed to
the right hemisphere, the patients were able to pick a pencil
from a group of objects behind the screen with their left hand.
This shows that the right hemisphere does have some amount
of language comprehension and language is not exclusive to the
left hemisphere. Language production, however, is confined to
the left hemisphere
3) When the word "heart" was flashed o the screen so that "he"
was presented in the left visual field and "art" in the right visual
field, the patients said that they saw "art" but pointed (with
their left hand) to the card with the word "he" on it. This
corroborates the previous finding, but also shows that the two
hemisphere process stimuli independently.
He art
4) Some patients were able to spell simple words with their left
hand, although it differed from person to person. For example,
when researchers placed four plastic letters in a pile behind the
screen, one patient was able spell "love" with his left hand (the
instruction was simple "spell a word").
- The four findings listed above demonstrate that the left hemisphere
dominates the concept of language.
- The left hemisphere produces speech and makes a person consciously
aware of something.
□ However, this lateralization is not strict: some forms of language
production and comprehension can be performed by the right
hemisphere.
 The right hemisphere performs better in tasks that involve
visual construction.
 Both hemisphere independently are capable of forming an
emotional response. In other words, emotions are not
lateralized.

Neuroplasticity

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Neuroplasticity
Neuroplasticity is the ability of the brain to adapt by forming or breaking connections
between neurons as a result of experience, learning or an injury.
When you learn something new the dendrites in the neurons connects with to other
neurons and establishes new connections (dendritic branching).
The reasons for the brain to change could be genetic and environmental.
Synaptic The ability of the neuron to form new synaptic connections and break
Plasticity up the old ones.
• Depends on the activity of neurons.
○ If two neurons are frequently activated at the same time, a
synaptic connection between them may gradually form.
○ If two neurons are rarely activated together, the existing
connection may gradually fall apart.
"neurons that fire together, wire together. Neurons that fire out
of sync, fail to link"
Cortical The phenomenon when brain area assumes the functions of brain area Y
Remapping
Remapping of the sensory cortex
Case study: Merzenich et al (1984)
Aim: to investigate cortical remapping after an injury
Method: Studying the cortical representations of the hand in eight adult
owl monkeys
Procedu i. (1st remapping) Sensory inputs form all hand digits were
re: mapped in the cortex by inserting electrodes into the cortical
area known to be responsible for the hand and then the hand
is stimulated, taking notes which electrode respond to which
digits. The monkeys were anesthetized before the procedure
ii. The third digit (middle finger) were amputated
iii. (2nd remapping) After 62 days another remapping was done ot
see how the area responsible for sensitivity form the hand
changed after the amputation.
Results:
(1st remapping) it was found that there were brain areas
responsible for each fingers and adjacent (connected)
fingers had adjacent areas in the brain as well.
(2nd remapping) the brain area for the amputated finger is
now occupied by the brain areas of adjacent fingers (2 and
4). The area for these fingers became larger while the other
remaining (1 and 5) remained the same.
Conclusi cortical remapping happens within 62 days in owl monkeys
on:

Neuroplasticity as a mechanism of learning

As you learn something new, the brain gradually reshapes itself

Case study: Draganski et al (2004)

Aim: To find out if the human brain can actually change its structure if the
environment demands it.
Method: dividing the sample into two and giving them instructions for the next
six months. In between those 6 months, their brains would be scanned

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 six months. In between those 6 months, their brains would be scanned
and compared.
Procedur i. The sample are volunteers divided into jugglers and non-jugglers.
e: Both groups does not have any juggling experience before. Non-
jugglers act as a control group
1st brain scan
ii. Jugglers spent 3 months learning a classic juggling routine with
three balls. The non-jugglers continued with their daily life
2nd brain scan
iii. The jugglers then were told to not practice juggling for 3 months.
The non-jugglers just lived their daily life.
3rd brain scan
Results: 1st brain scan: no difference in brain structure
2nd brain scan: jugglers has an increase of grey matter in the mid
temporal area, which is usually associated with the coordination of
movement
3rd brain scan: the difference decreased but jugglers still has greater
quantity of grey matter than it the first scan.
- Brain changes in participants who trained better were more
pronounced.
Conclusio the brain constantly changes to adapt the environment.
n:

Case study: Maguire et al (2000)

Aim: to investigate localization of function and neuroplasticity of spatial
memory
Method: scanning the brains of 16 right handed male licensed London taxi
drivers.
Procedu a sample of 16 healthy, right handed London cab drivers had their
re: brains scanned using MRI, and this was compared with MRI scans of 50
non-cab driving right handed males of the same average age. The cab
drivers had been driving for various lengths of time, ranging from 1.5 to
42 years
Results: increase of brain matter in the posterior hippocampus was present in
the taxi drivers compare to the control group. The control group had a
greater volume of grey matter in the anterior hippocampus. There
wasn’t a general volume difference of hippocampus, however there is a
significant redistribution of grey matter from the anterior to posterior
hippocampus.
The brain matter shifter from the front to the back.
Conclusi the hippocampus is the region of the brain associated with memory
on: and the posterior is believed to be related to spatial memory and
navigation. Experience cab drivers develop a mental map of London
that involved thousands of streets and landmarks. This causes an
increase in the posterior of the hippocampus.
Evaluati
on: - this study involved comparing 2 separate groups of participants,
with no random assignment into different conditions. Therefore
the results are correlational and it cannot be concluded with
certainty that driving a cab caused changes in the hippocampus.

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 certainty that driving a cab caused changes in the hippocampus.
It is possible
- On the other hand, the study did find a correlation between
years of taxi driving experience and size of hippocampus. This
finding strongly suggests that the hippocampus did develop over
time as a result of constantly navigating London's streets.

Neurotransmitters and Behavior

The first principle of the biological approach to behavior state that behavior is the
product of physiology.
What is the function of the nervous system: How does it works? What processes are
sued to transfer information in the nervous system?
The nervous system is a system of neurons, the nervous cells. A neuron consists of 3
parts: the body, dendrites and axon. Dendrites and some receives signals from other
neurons, while the axon transmits the signal further.
Where the axon of one neuron approaches a dendrite or soma of another neuron a
synapse or synaptic gap is formed.
The nature of information transmission
- electrical
Every neuron has a certain threshold of excitation received from the other neurons. If
the excitation exceeds this threshold the neuron fires- ACTION POTENTIAL that travels
along the axon to other neurons, passing the excitation further.
Action potential is all or none- it either fires or doesn’t at all.
- chemical
As the pulse reaches the end of the axon and to the synaptic gap, the transmission
becomes chemical. A neurotransmitter is released from the axon terminal into the
synaptic gap. Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers, synthesized in the neuron
and moved to the axon terminal to be stored there.
Neurotransmitters is available in the synaptic gap in which it may be metabolized, pulled
back into the pre-synaptic axon terminal through reuptake, or it reaches the post
synaptic membrane and bind to one of its receptors on its surface
- this changes the membrane potential and contributes to activating an
electric pulse to post- synaptic neuron

Types of neurotransmitter
- Excitatory neurotransmitter
Allows the impulse to cross the synapse. They produce stimulating effects on the
brain
- Inhibitory neurotransmitter
Stops the impulse, they produce a calming effect in the brain.
These neurotransmitters are always in the a state of dynamic balance. When any of
them are out of their optimal ranges it may cause various behavioural malfunctions such
as mental disorders.

Agonists and antagonists

Agonists: chemicals that ENHANCES the action of a neurotransmitter
Antagonists: chemicals that COUNTERS a neurotransmitter and so prevents a signal from
being passed further.

SEROTONIN
Serotonin is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that is involved in sustaining stable mood,
sexual function and depression.
Effect of serotonin on prosocial behavior
Case study: Crockett et al (2010)

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Case study: Crockett et al (2010)
Aim: to investigate how serotonin affects prosocial behavior.
Method recruiting a group of 30 healthy subjects and placing them into 2 conditions.
:
Procedu Condition 1: participants were given a dose of citalopram. This drug is a SSRI,
re: selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor: a chemical that blocks the reuptake of
serotonin rom the synapse, boosting its concentration and prolonging its
effects.
Condition 2: participants were given a placebo, a harmless substance with no
active effect.

After taking the drug participants were given a series of moral dilemmas that
involved a utilitarian outcome and aversive harmful actions.
Aversive harmful actions are classified as two types: personal and
impersonal
impersonal personal
There is a runaway trolley There is only one track but you're
moving along the tracks standing on a bridge above it and there
and you see that there are is another man on the bridge. You have
five people on the tracks a choice to push the man off the bridge
ahead and the trolley is so that his body will stop the trolley and
about to him them. prevent it from hitting five people
you have a choice to press ahead.
the lever and divert the
trolley onto another track
where it will hit and kill one
person or do nothing

Results: Impersonal: after the dose of citalopram, it was unaffected

Personal: less likely to push the man off the bridge. As you receive a dose of
citalopram, you would oppose the idea more strongly.
Conclusi serotonin reduces acceptability of personal harm and in this way promotes
on: prosocial behavior. It modulates reactions of the brain to emotionally salient
situations so that inflicting harm on other people is judge as less acceptable.

Depression
It was revealed after a study that low level of serotonin in the brain could play a causal
role in developing depression.
Studies have mainly involved clinical trials with
two groups of patients. The experimental group
would be given a drug that affects levels of
serotonin in the brain and the control group would
be given a placebo (a harmless substance that the
patient believes to be a drug), after which the
symptoms of depression would be compared. If a
drug that is known to affect serotonin (for example,
an SSRI) leads to a reduction of symptoms in the
experimental group, it is concluded that the level of
serotonin is the cause of depression.

However this logic has flaws. Drugs affect the chemicals within minutes but the effects

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However this logic has flaws. Drugs affect the chemicals within minutes but the effects
does not happen immediately. This suggests that either the influence may be indirect or
there exist a longer path where changing levels of serotonin is just one stage. Also not
all patients benefits from the drugs, the link between serotonin and depression is not
universal.

However we can say that serotonin and depression does have a connection whether its
indirect, direct, universal or not. Depression is also affected when someone inherits the
gene 5-HTT (a serotonin transporter gene), this gene determines one's vulnerability to
developing depression in response to stressful life events

DOPAMINE
Dopamine is an excitatory neurotransmitter that is involved in our desire to get thigs
done (motivations), in controlling the brain's reward and pleasure centers and in
regulating emotional responses.
Case study: Fisher, Aron and Brown (2005)
Aim: studying the neural mechanisms of romantic love
Method: a sample of men and women were recruited and their brains were scanned
while they were engaged in a standardized procedure involving looking at
photographs, there were four stages in total.
Procedu Stage 1: 30 seconds of the participants viewing the photograph of their
re: beloved person
Stage 2; 40 second filler to count bac from a given number
Stage 3: another 30 seconds of viewing an emotionally neutral acquaintance
Stage 4: 20 seconds of counting back from a number.
The stages were repeated 6 times.
Results: A specific brain area were constantly activated when viewing the picture of
the participants beloved. The area activated are areas that are dopamine
rich, primarily the ventral tegmental areas (VTA) and caudate nucleus. The
regions from the key part of the dopaminergic pathway - a system that
generates and transmits dopamine and increases dopamine related activity
in the brain.
Conclusi since the dopaminergic pathway is a reward system that is associated with
on: motivation and feelings of pleasure, in this way dopamine activity in the brain
plays a role in romantic love

Parkinson's Disease
- The Parkinson's disease is a degenerative disorder that mainly affects the motor
functions of the nervous system. Later in the development of the disease , thinking
and behavioral problems also occur
- Currently does not have any cure and the
Early symptoms: shaking, rigidity (stiffness) and difficulty with movement and
walking
Case study: Freed et al (2001)
Sample: 40 patients aged 34-75, mean duration of diseases is 40 years
Two groups: transplant group and sham (fake) surgery.
- Transplant group, nerve tissue containing dopamine-producing neurons was
taken from embryos aborted 7-8 weeks after conception and transplanted into the
patients putamen- a structure that is involved in movement regulation in the
limbic system.
- Surgery was done while the patient was awake and anesthesia was
administered to the skin of the forehead and four holes were drilled through

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 administered to the skin of the forehead and four holes were drilled through
the frontal bone, after which the tissues was transplanted through long
needles
- Sham surgery group, holes were drilled into te skull but the membrane that
surrounds the brain was not penetrated
- The patients were followed up longitudinally for one year
Results:
- PET scans revealed an increase growth of dopamine producing cells in the
putamen
- A reduction of symptoms was found in the transplant group but only the younger
ones (60 or younger)
Conclusion:
Transplantation of dopamine-producing neuros in the putamen of patients with
severe Parkinson's disease results in some clinal benefit in younger patients only

Techniques used to study the brain in relation to behavior

NEUROIMAGING is a non-invasive method that allows us to study the brain without
cutting the skull open.
COMPUTERIXED AXIAL TOMOGRAPHY (CAT)
- Produces a high resolution 3D image of brain structure
Principle: Differential absorption of x-rays
process
- The subject lays onto the machine (a long table that slides inside a cylindrical
apparatus) an x-rays scans the subject's head. The x-ray beams is then
picked up by a detector and analyzed.
- It is possible to reveal the structural features of the brain
advantages
- Quick and non-invasive
- CAT records images of hard, soft tissue and blood vessels
- Can be used with people who have implanted medical devices
Disadvantages
- Radiation to exposure

MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING (MRI)

- Does not involve X-rays
- Produces a high resolution 3D image of brain structure
Principle: atomic nuclei can emit energy when place in an external magnetic field
process
- These energy pulses are detected by the scanner and the relative distribution of
hydrogen atoms in the brain are then mapped. The analyzed pattern helps us see
inside the brain. After excitation each tissue return to its normal state, this time
differs in different types of tissue, this is also analyzed.
- The MRI scanner is loud due to the constant changing of the parameters of the
magnetic field which is necessary.
Advantages
- Non exposure to radiation. Resulting to less risk of radiation induced cancer
- MRI has better resolution. Helpful in detecting abnormalities in soft tissue
Disadvantages:
- Not suitable for people with implanted metal devices such as cardiac
pacemakers or shrapnel as the metal could eb attracted to the magnetic
field
- Claustrophobia
- The patient must stay still.
- Much more expensive that CAT scans

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 - Much more expensive that CAT scans
- May create anxiety when the scan produce incidental findings

spatial resolution Temporal resolution Random noise

• The ability to discriminate • It is the smallest time • Unwanted
between nearby location period in which distractions
• Measured using voxels, the changes in brain • head movements or
smallest brain particle activity can be even simply
• A voxel contains several registered breathing
million neurons and several • Measured in seconds • Could be "fixed;
billion synapses. This results • Certain process that when the number of
to a disadvantage as we can are instant such as trials are sufficient
only see a relatively crude information and powerful
picture of brain functioning registration might not statistical techniques
be picked up by are used.
certain scanners

FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE FINDINGS (f MRI)

- Image obtained is dynamic, show process
Process
- Subject is required to carry out different task
Principle: when a brain region is active during the performance of a task, an
increase of oxygenated blood flows into that region.
- The response of blood to rapidly changing magnetic fields differs depending on
the flow and level of oxygenation.
- The fmri uses BOLD (blood-oxygen-level dependent) signal to analyze the brain
activity. The flow of the blood directly correlates with the energy used by brain
cells and this directly corresponds to the level of activity in a specific brain region
Spatial and temporal resolution or fmri
- Spatial resolution is 1-2 mm and temporal resolution is 1 second
Advantages
- Good spatial resolution
- Allows us to see brain process
Disadvantages
- Poor temporal resolution compared to EEG
- All MRI disadvantages
POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY (PET)
- Uses blood flow as the indicator of brain activity
Process
- A radioactive tracer is used that binds itself to molecules naturally used in
the brain.
- The tracer is injected into the subject's blood stream, it has a short half-life
period.
- The scanner then registers the radio signals emitted by the decaying tracer.
- Brain areas that are more active require more blood supply, so the
distribution of the tracer in the brain will depend on what region are mostly
in use at the time of the scan
Spatial and temporal resolution
Spatial is 4 mm, pretty decent however the temporal resolution is only 30-40
seconds.

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 seconds.
Usage
Useful for detecting tumors and metastases, as well as other diffuse brain
diseases. It is often helpful in diagnosing causes of dementias.
Advantages
- Good spatial resolution
- PET scanners can be small
Disadvantages
- Poor temporal resolution
- Invasive
ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY (EEG)
- Measures electric pulses generated by neural circuits.
- When a large group of neurons fire synchronously electric potentials generated by
these impulses become detectable at the head surface
Process
- Electrodes are attached to the scalp in predetermined points and picks up
the changes in the electric potential of the scalp areas
Spatial and temporal resolution
Temporal is perfect, milliseconds however its spatial resolution sucks. EEG
does not give us the origin of the electrical signal
Advantages
- Low cost
- Measures neuronal activity directly
- EEG can be offered as a mobile service because the apparatus can manually
transported (FMRI is about 1 ton)
- EEG doesn’t produce noise
- Non invasive
Disadvantages
- EXTREMELY low spatial resolution
- Not good for detecting activity in the sub cortical area. The farther away the
signal is from the scalp the weaker the results
- Needs experience to interpret the findings (called an ENCEPHALOGRAM)
because a number of artifact contribute to noise in the data and the singla:
noise ratio is quite low.
□ Noise could be heartbeat, muscle movement, eye movements
and eye blinks and poor grounding of the apparatus connection.

RESEARCH STUDIES WITH NEUROIMAGING

Draganski et al (2004)
- Jugglers
Draganski et al (2006)
- Medical students
Maguire et al (2000)
- Taxi drivers
Freed et al (2001)
- Parkinson's disease
Fisher, Aron and Brown (2005)
- dopamine and loved person
f
Hormones
- Hormones are released into the blood stream and travel with the blood to reach
their destination. Hormones can reach places that. The nervous system does not
cover because the network of blood vessels is more elaborate.
- Hormones regulates long term ongoing processes.

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 - Hormones regulates long term ongoing processes.
- The degree of voluntary control over neural regulation higher than over hormonal
regulation
- Some chemicals can be both hormones and neurotransmitters
- Hormones are released by endocrine glands.
Adrenal glands Hypothalamus
Pineal gland Pituitary gland
thyroid Parathyroid
thymus Pancreas
testes ovaries
- Hormones can only influence cells that have receptors for this particular hormone,
these cells are called target cells. The result of the binding between receptor and
hormones result into gene activation or gene suppression.
Hormones does not affect behavior directly, however it does change the
probability that a certain behavior will occur in response to a certain
environmental stimulus.

OXYTOCIN
- Produced in the hypothalamus, released into the blood by the pituitary gland.
- Plays a role in sexual reproduction, childbirth and social bonding

Case study: Romero et al (2014)

Aim: to study the role of oxytocin in social bonding in mammals
Method: studying 16 dogs sprayed oxytocin or a placebo sprayed intra-nasally.
They are then placed into a room with their owner and another dog.
Procedur 16 dogs were either sprayed oxytocin or a placebo.
e: - They are then placed into a room with their owner and another
dog (unaffected) for an hour. The owner must change the
position of the chair every 10 minutes and not interact with the
dog.
- This is recorded through 4 cameras
Results: - Results show that dogs sprayed with oxytocin showed higher
affiliation towards their owners
- Affiliation here refers to sniffing, licking, gentle touching with
the nose or paw, play bouts and body contacts
Conclusi oxytocin affects social interaction and maintains close social bonds
on: between mammals.

Oxytocin in interpersonal trust

Case study: Kosfeld et al (2005)
Aim: to investigate the role of oxytocin in interpersonal trust
Method: 128 healthy male students divided into oxytocin or placebo group in
which they are then further divided into the role of investor of trustee
Procedu - The participants played a trust game with real monetary stakes in
re: role of investor or trustee.
Step 1: the investor and trustee has 12 monetary units each.
Step 2: investor must send either 0,4, 8 or 12 units to trustee. This
amount will then be multiplied by 3 and then sent to the trustee.
(4---> 12, 8--->24, 12---> 36). The trustee still has their own units so

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 (4---> 12, 8--->24, 12---> 36). The trustee still has their own units so
12 + (whatever sent by investor x 3)
Step 3: trustee must send back to the investor.
If investor trusts trustee, 12 monetary units --> 36 will be sent and
so investor trusts that trustee send back at least 18 units. Can the
investor trust the trustee so that they'll send 18 units, the investor/
trustee must overcome aversion risk
Results: level of trust is higher in the oxytocin group. The median transfer from
investors in oxytocin group was 10 and 8 in control group. 45% of
subjects in oxytocin group showed maximum trust level whereas only
21% in the placebo group showed the maximum trust level.
Conclusi oxytocin increases people's trust in other humans. It specifically affects
on: trust in interpersonal interactions.

Oxytocin in fidelity
- Fidelity means faithfulness to a person, cause or belief, demonstrated by
continuing loyalty and support
Case study: Scheel et al (2012)
Aim: To investigate the role of oxytocin in promoting fidelity in humans
Method: Studying 86 heterosexual men placed into 2 tests
Procedur • Oxytocin/ placebo administered intra-nasally
e • First test: stop-distance paradigm
• Subjects were positioned at one end with their toes on the
mark on the floor while an attractive female experimenter was
positioned on the other side of the room
• Subjects were then requested to move slowly towards the
female until to stop at a distance that made him slightly
uncomfortable.
• Second task: approach/ avoidance task
• Subjects viewed a series of pictures on a screen with their head
positioned on a chin rest at the viewing pictures of 4 categories
○ Positive social --> attractive women
○ Negative social --> mutilations
○ Positive non-social --> beautiful landscapes
○ Negative non-social --> dirt
• Participants are seated with a joystick. If they like the picture
they had to pull the joystick and if they did not they would then
push the joystick

Results: 1st task: oxytocin stimulated men in relationships but not single ones
to create a much greater distance between women that was not his
partner
2nd task: only affected positive social pictures in which they have a
slower reaction time, this only applies to men in relationships however
Oxytocin may promote fidelity.
conclusi
on

Oxytocin and inter-group conflict

Case study: De Dreu et al (2012)
AIM The role of oxytocin in intergroup conflict (specifically defense

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 AIM The role of oxytocin in intergroup conflict (specifically defense
motivated non-cooperation
METHOD 102 males were self-administered either a dose of oxytocin or placebo
through nasal spray. They are then assigned into a three-person
group. They then play Prisoner's dilemma in which they must play
against another group of 3
PROCED The participants were asked to either cooperate or compete, 5 trials
URE were run
Both groups cooperate: all parties receive 7 point
Both groups compete: all parties receives 6
If one group cooperate and the other competes: competing receives 8
and cooperate group receives 1 but participants receives 5 points

RESULTS
CONCLUS Oxytocin induced non-cooperation is motivated by the desire to
ION protect the vulnerable group members, this reinforces the role of
oxytocin in creating bonds with the members. It also shows how
oxytocin has a reverse, negative side

Pheromones
- Chemicals that carry stimulation
- Umbrella term for chemical communication among members of the same species
- Shown to pay a role in mammals mating behavior.

Localization of processing pheromone information in the brain of mammals

○ Since most pheromones have a smell, it was though it would be processed in
the main olfactory bulb
○ However it is processed instead in the VomeroNasal Organ (VNO) which is
connected to the accessory olfactory bulb
○ Humans do no possess the VNO or the accessory olfactory bulb, they did but
it eventually disappears once they are birthed
○ Some humans do have the VNO but it seems to not function as it does not
connect to the central nervous system.
○ If pheromonal information is processed in the brain, it gotta be processed
somewhere else than the main olfactory bulb.

Search for a human sex pheromone (laboratory experiment)

Case study: Lundstrom and Olsson (2005)
Aim To determine if ANDROSTADIENONE (AND) from male sweat
elevates a woman's mood in the presence of a ma
Procedure Sample of women were exposed to AND or a control solution
and were observed by either a male or female experimenter
within a group experiment
Results AND increases the women's mood and attentiveness in the
process of a male but not female experimenter
Conclusion LIMITATIONS to not assume that AND intensifies women's
reactions:
• The concentration of AND used in the experiment and
concentration of AND found in male sweat had a
different value, experiment used being higher.

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 different value, experiment used being higher.
• It is hard to separate the effects of the pheromone
from the effects of the experimenter.

Case study: Hare et al (2017)

Aim: Investigate whether A.N.D. and estratetraenol EST signal
gender and affect mate perception
Method A repeated measure in which heterosexual participants
completed two-computer based tasks. Each day they were
exposed to one of the pheromones while the other day they
were exposed to a control scnet
Procedure Heterosexual sample performed a computer task involving
identifying the gender of gender neutral face morphs and a
second task of rating opposite sex photographs from 1 -10
Each task was performed twice on two consecutive days,
participants had cotton balls of either AND or EST and clove
oil as control alternating conditions for each day
results The results of both tasks showed no difference between
groups, AND & EST does not act signals of gender or
attractiveness.
conclusion EST & AND does not qualify as sex pheromones

Search for human sex pheromone: field experiments

Case study: Cutler, Friedmann and McCoy (1998)
Aim To investigate whether synthesized male pheromones
increase sociosexual behavior in men
Method 38 men were recruited to shave regularly and report on their
activities for the next two weeks
Procedure Participants must be male, heterosexual, 25-42 years old, in
good health, not taking any medication, with regular
appearance, shaving regularly (3 times a week) , and having
adequate social skills with women. Baseline observation of 2
weeks of these measures:
• Petting, affection and/or kissing
• Sleeping next to a romantic partner
• Sexual intercourse
• Informal dates
• Formal dates
• Masturbation
Then a 6 week trial period where the aftershave was added
ethanol (control) or pheromone with ethanol. The
pheromone was a synthesized version of a pheromone
naturally secreted by men.
Results In the pheromone group there were significantly an increase
in the first four and 47% of men in reported an increase in the
frequency of sexual intercourse. The researchers does not
take into count of formal dates and masturbation as it relies
on the willingness of the female partner.
Conclusion Human pheromone used increased the attractiveness of men
to women and their libido as well

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 to women and their libido as well
Criticism of research into human pheromones
- Population validity
○ Most samples for the studies were self-selected.
- Which means that most samples are young, relatively educated
participants
- Participant bias
○ Aka demand characteristics
○ Most researchers does not disclose the true nature until the very end
○ Researchers use deception and tells subjects that the experiment is to look
at the effects of odors
- Many volunteers participate in more than one experiment and they
may know that researchers use deception
- Participants are aware of the exclusion criteria
- Study surveys include questions about personal information such as
sexual orientation
- Ecological validity
○ Studies typically use a concentration solution of the pheromone much
higher than that found in natural sweat
○ This could result to the participants possibly identifying the smell and report
that the applied solution smells like sweat, urine and clothes
- This may distort their behaviors in ways that does not occur naturally
- Internal validity
○ Other smells act as confounding variable and may disturb the results.
- Experimenter bias
○ Since the study of pheromones focuses on participants' responses to other
people there are important sources of bias that are more crucial in
pheromone research than anywhere else.
- Construct validity
○ Even if the influence of a chemical substance or a scent on the behavior of
human subjects is demonstrated, this does not mean that the chemical
substance is a pheromone. To be a pheromone, the substance must perform
the function of communication between two individuals.

GENES AND BEHAVIOUR; genetic similarities

Genotype and phenotype
- Chromosomes
○ Thread like structures that contains a DNA molecule
○ Tightly coiled many times around supporting proteins
- DNA
○ Deoxyribonucleic acid
○ Stores information
○ 4 chemical bases that forms base pairs
- Adenine - Thymine
- Guanine - Cytosine
○ and sugar phosphate backbone
○ Forms a double helix structure
○ Consists about 3 billion bases
○ Long sequence of bases is broke up into 23 chromosones
- One from mother and one from father
- Have a code for identical characteristics
- Gene
○ Unit of heredity
A region of DNA that encodes a specific trait/ function

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 ○
○ A region of DNA that encodes a specific trait/ function
- Alleles
○ Different forms of genes
○ Can be dominant or recessive
- Height
Tall (T) Short(t)
Tall(T) TT Tt
Short (t) tT tt
- The person would be short only if the allele activated is the (tt)
combination
- Genotype
○ The set of traits encoded in the DNA
- Phenotype
○ Set of traits that manifests
○ Observable and unobservable characteristics and behavior
Nature- nurture debate
- Nature: genetics and brain structure
- Nurture: environmental factors
- Its is understandable now both nature and nurture contributes to human behavior
- We now ask questions like this:
○ What are the relative contribution of biological and environmental factors
into a specific trait or behavior?
○ How do biological and environmental influences interact?
Methods of research
1. Twin studies
○ Estimating the similarities between MZ twins and comparing it to the
similarity between DZ twins
- MZ twins: identical twins, come from the same egg, share 100%
genotype
DZ twins: developed from different eggs and share 50% genotype
- If MZ twins are more similar to each other than fraternal twins, we can
attribute it to genetic influences
2. Family studies
○ Principle of genetics relatedness, but compares relative on a broader scale
and across generation
3. Adoption studies
○ These compare adopted children to their adoptive parents, biological
parents, adoptive siblings and biological siblings
○ We can infer genetic influence if adopted children are more similar to their
biological parents than to their adoptive parents
Falconer Model
- Genetic heritability
○ The quantitative measure of the relative contribution of genetic influences
into a trait or behavior
- Falconer model
○ 1=A+C+E
- Genetics (A)
- Shared environment ©
□ Environment that is common to the twins
- Individual environment
□ Environment that are unique to each of the twins
○ 1 means that the combination of A, C and E theoretically can explain 100%
of observed variation in the phenotype.

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 of observed variation in the phenotype.
○ Meaning that no other factors influences a certain trait
Niche-picking
- The phenomenon when genetic predisposition causes individuals to select
environment that affects their behavior.
- psychological theory that people choose environments that complement
their heredity.
- Explain one property of heritability coefficients: they change during life, typically
becoming larger.
- Your genetic Programme 'unfolds' causing you to choose certain 'niches' in the
environment.
Heritability of Intelligence: Twin Studies
- Bouchard and McGue (1981)
○ Meta analysis of 111 studies of 1Q correlation between relatives
○ MZ twins share 100% of their genes and DZ twins share 50% of their genes
to each other. There is no genetic similarity between adopting parents and
their adopted children.
○ Results of the IQ tests (not all but most important ones)
IQ correlation between Median Correlation (out of 1)
MZ twins reared together 0.85
MZ twins reared apart 0.67
DZ twins reared together 0.58
○ From these results we could conclude that genes influences intelligence and
if we put the results of the correlation between MZ twins and DZ twins
reared together into the Falconer model we get 54%.
From the study we can say that intelligence is 54% inherited.
○ For MZ twins, even though they're reared together and share 100% of their
genes, they still don’t have a correlation of 1. It is because each twin has
their own individual environment. These environments such as friends affect
the development of IQ.
○ Evaluation:
- Many twin pairs were not separated immediately after birth, so they
experienced some formative months or years together. This could
mean that twins reared apart are similar not only because of genotype
(specifically MZ twins)
- Twin pairs, even separated, may have grown in similar cultural and
environments
- Twins share a common prenatal environment
- Twin studies are very unique as the circumstances of the sample are
rare and usually small in size. This causes fewer opportunities for
replication.
- Twin study might not be representative of the general population.
Heritability of intelligence: adoption studies
- Adoption studies gives us a direct test of environment correlation with cognitive
abilities,
- In adoption studies we study the correlation between the abilities of the adopted
child and their adoptive parents and comparing it with the abilities of the adoptive
child and their biological parents
- We also compare the abilities of adopted children and their siblings that are
biological and non-biological (raised by their biological parents).
- These two approaches produces contradictory results
The studies support that IQ is higher when adopted into higher SES families,

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 ○ The studies support that IQ is higher when adopted into higher SES families,
however they also show that adopted child- biological parent correlation is
higher that adopted child- adoptive parents. This suggests that genetic
influence is strong in cognitive abilities.
○ Additive influence of genetics and environment on the development of
intelligence

- Kendler et al (2015)
○ Study of sibling pairs in which one was adopted away and the other home
reared
○ Sample: Swedish register of male-male siblings, 436 male sibling sets.
○ IQ scores were taken from the military conscription register, this data also
includes educational attainment of both biological and adoptive parents.
○ Mean education level of adoptive parents was higher than that of biological
parents
○ This could lead to selective placement that could make the results not
universal to the general population
○ Findings:
Mean IQ at Education of Education of
age 18 biological parents adoptive parents
Adoptive 96.9 0.20 0.18
siblings
Home-reared 92.0 0.34 -
siblings
○ We could interpret the findings that cognitive ability is environmentally
malleable. This is supported as there is a correlation between the
educational levels of the adoptive parents and the adopted child.
○ There also evidence that genetics influences cognitive ability: correlation of
cognitive ability of adoptive child and the educational level of biological
parents.
○ ADDITIVE INFLUENCE of environment and genetics could be seen in the
results: the largest IQ scores were observed in adopted children from well-
educated biological families adopted into well- educated families
From smart to smart
- Scarr and Weinberg (1983)
○ Longitudinal study
Transracial adoption study Adolescent adoption study
aim To determine whether adopted To investigate the
black children into white families accumulation of cognitive
score as well on IQ tests and school ability over the years until
achievements as other (non-black) adolescence.
adoptees
method
procedure 101 adoptive families with both Studied participants adopted
biological children, some black within 12 months since birth
some white that had spent an averae of 18
All children took IQ and school years with adoptive family
achievement tests • Adopted children,
biological parents,
adoptive parents and
THEIR biological children

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 THEIR biological children
all took IQ tests
results • Black children placed in white • Correlation between
families had higher IQ scores than biological siblings (0.35) but 0
block children raised in their own correlation between adoptive
homes siblings.
• 106: 90
• The effect was more significant in
black children adopted early,
within 12 months
• correlation between children and
adoptive parents was lower than
biological children
• Researchers concluded an
additive influence just as in
Kendler et al

conclusion Siblings, adoptive or biological

are more similar growing up
due to similar environment,
but after 18 years the
environmental influence no
longer exists and only genetic
similarities would exist, niche
picking basically

Gene expression
- The product of genotype and phenotype
- Functional product - protein. They generate certain traits
○ Transcription
- Sequence of genes
- Photocopy of the DNA
○ Translation
- Reading aloud of the photocopy
- RNA - ribonucleic acid
- Regulation of gene expression
- Methylation is the process when chemicals are added to DNA molecule, and so
repress gene transcription
- Regulation of gene expression results in epigenetic changes
○ Epigenetic changes are deviations of phenotypes from the genetic code in
the DNA sequence. It could be the result of environmental influences and in
a sense is a study of how nurture influences nature.

Regulating response to stress

Case study: Weaver et al (2004)
Aim To investigate the epigenetic implications of varying degree
procedure Rats as pups were observed a being nurtured more or less by their
mother.
The rats were then placed in a narrow tube and their
GLUCOCORTICOID levels were measured
results Correlation between rats being nurtured less and higher production
of glucocorticoid results in having a higher degree of stress in their

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 of glucocorticoid results in having a higher degree of stress in their
response.
The level of nurturing received that the rat had wass theb able to
be linked to the expression of the glucocorticoid receptor gene, and
more glucocorticoid was released as a result.
conclusion
Case study: McGowan et al (2009)
aim To determine if victims of suicide had epigenetic changes involving the
hormone glucocorticoid
procedur 24 brains of suicide victims were dissected post mortem, half of whom
e were abused as a childe
results The glucocorticoid recepter gene in brain cells was less expressed in
the abused victims than in the others, resulting higher production of
glucocorticoid and effects of stress. There are no receptors available
for the synthesizing of the hormone

Behavioral epigenetics: personality traits

Case study: Kaminsky et al 2008
A; to determine if personality differences in MZ twins are due to
epigenetic expression
P: one set of identical female twins: one was a war journalist who had
seen war zones, the other settled down early with a family and a law
career; epigenetic testing of blood cells and personality questionairres
R: epigenetic testing showed that the DLX1 gene was methylated
differently between the twins, which is responsible for production of
neurons responsible for the stress center of the brain; questionairres
showed that the "law twin" was more risk averse and anxious than the
"war twin"; accounting for the epigenetic differences
CT: triangulation: both personality and biologic tests, internal validity: MZ
twins; only one pair, blood cell methylation may be different than in
brain cells

Regulation of gene expression

Regulation of gene expression
- A wide range of sophisticated mechanisms that increases or decreases the production
of proteins based on genetic code.
- Gene expression is the process in which genotype
must go through to manifest into a phenotype.
- Each gene contains instructions for the synthesis of a functional product

Transcription
- It uses the base pairs in the DNA (A, C, G, T)
- Happens in the nucleus
- The sequence of gene is copied to make a RNA

Translation
- In translation, the RNA is decoded into a sequence of amino acid into a protein
- Happens in cell organelles

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- Gene expression could be regulated and modulated from the DNA- RNA transcription
and the modification of a protein after translation. Certin genes could be expressed
while some could be suppressed. The suppression of a gene is known as methylation.
The regulation of gene expression (the decision whether a gene is to be expressed or
suppressed) results in epigenetic changes. This could attributed to environmental
changes and through this we could observe how nurture influence nature. These
processes help regulate gene expression as they either produce, suppress or express
the genes and

Evolutionary explanations for behavior (page 108/114)

- Evolution
○ Change of traits from generation to generation
○ Theory of evolution
- Need to survive and reproduce
- Differential fitness
□ Organisms that have adapted into their environments to varying
degrees
- Survival of the fittest
□ Those organism that have adapted well have higher chances to
survive and reproduce
- Natural selection
□ Those that have not adapted so much does not pass their genes,
the genes disappear from the population gene pool

○ When there are scarce resources, organisms fight for survival

- this may cause conflict
- Scarce resources: food, mate
○ Has a great explanatory power
○ Human DNA are 99.5% similar to each other
- Chimpanzees and humans share 98% of their genes
- 90% with cats
- 69% with rats
- 60% with chickens and fruit flies.

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 -

- Range of evolutionary explanations

○ Mental Disorders
○ Altruism
- Pro-social behavior
- Does not fit well with natural selection
- KIN SELECTION THEORY
- When one organism help another with no reward and even at some
cost to itself
- Increase if survival of one's genes rather than an individual
○ Attachment
○ Theory of Mind
- Case Studies
○ Chiao and Blizinsky (2010)
○ Hamilton (1964)
○ Madsen (2007)
○ LeDoux (1996)
○ Harlow's (1958)
○ Shaver and Hazan's (1988)

EVOLUTIONARY EXPLANATION FOR DISGUST

- Evolution- process which organisms change from generation due to changes in
heritable character

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 heritable character
- Different fitness- organisms having different trait are adapted to their
environment
- Survival of the fittest- the organisms that are able to adapt to environment
- Natural selection- adapted organisms produce more offspring so their genes in
genes pool gets stronger

- Evolutionary psychology attempts to explain psychological traits or behaviors as

adaptation

- Curtis, Aunger and Rabie (2004)

○ Disgust is an evolution as a protection from risk of disease
○ Conditions to be fulfilled by the experiments
- Disgust is much more prominent when in the presence of disease-
salient stimulus
- Should operate across culture
- Much more prominent with females since they have to protect their
babies
- Disgusts becomes weaker as the person grows older
- Should be stronger in contact with strangers than with close relatives
as strangers may carry diseases
○ Used a survey placed on the BBC science website
- Completed by over 77,000 people form 165 countries
- Final sample size was slightly less than 40,000 after data cleaning
1) Set of demographic questions
2) Rate 20 photographs from 1 (not disgusting) to 5 (very
disgusting)
a) 14 photographs, 7 pairs of disease salient vs less salient
stimuli
3) One question in the survey that asked about who they would be
less likely to share a toothbrush
a) Postman
b) The boss
c) The weatherman
d) A sibling
e) A best friend
f) The spouse or partner
- Showed support on all five hypothesis
i. Disease salient stimuli were rated as more disgusting that less
salient ones
ii. Results were consistent across cultures
iii. Females rate the disease salient pictures as more disgusting
than men
iv. Age based decline in sensitivity to disease-salient stimuli
v. The last question showed support as it shows that disgust is felt
more strongly in contact with strangers than close people.
○ The test supported that disgust is the produce of response that reduces risk
of disease

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