Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 145 (2016) 493–501

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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/petrol

A new technique for synthetizing capillary pressure (Pc) curves using

NMR logs in tight gas sandstone reservoirs
Liang Xiao a, Chang-chun Zou a,n, Zhi-qiang Mao b, Yan Jin c, Ji-chang Zhu a
a
School of Geophysics and Information Technology, China University of Geosciences, Beijing, PR China
b
State Key Laboratory of Petroleum Resource and Prospecting, China University of Petroleum, Beijing, PR China
c
Southwest Oil and Gas Field Branch Company, PetroChina, Chengdu, Sichuan, PR China

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Formation pore structure prediction is of great importance in tight gas sands evaluation, and NMR logs
Received 8 December 2015 are considered to be an advantage in this aspect. The common method that is used to evaluate formation
Received in revised form pore structure from NMR logs is transforming the NMR T2 spectra as capillary pressure curves and then
20 April 2016
extracting the pore throat radius distribution from the synthetized capillary pressure curves and pre-
Accepted 3 June 2016
dicting pore structure evaluation parameters. However, field applications demonstrate that the existing
Available online 4 June 2016
methods are not always practicable; additionally, many existing methods involve input parameters that
Keywords: are difficult to obtain, especially in tight gas sandstone reservoirs. This study is based on the analysis of
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) logs the morphology of lab mercury injection capillary pressure (MICP) and nuclear magnetic resonance
Pore structure
(NMR). This experiment used 20 core samples that were drilled from tight gas sands of the central
Pore component percentage compositions
Sichuan basin. Our findings indicate that rock pore structure, the values of mercury injection saturation
Capillary pressure (Pc) curves
Construction (SHg) under every capillary pressure (Pc), and pore component percentage compositions are interrelated.
To quantitatively express this interrelationship, seven T2cutoffs, which are used to classify NMR T2 spectra
into eight parts, are defined to calculate eight pore component percentage compositions from the NMR
logs. A novel technique, which connects the SHgs and eight pore component percentage compositions, is
proposed to construct pseudo Pc curves. Once this technique is extended to field applications, con-
secutively synthetic Pc curves can be predicted in the intervals with which field NMR logs were acquired.
Additionally, pore throat size distribution and pore structure evaluation parameters can also be calcu-
lated. A field example of the Sichuan basin illustrates that this technique is reliable and that the predicted
results from the field NMR logs match the core experimental measurements very well. The greatest
advantage of this proposed technique is that no intermediate parameters need to be acquired from other
methods.
& 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction evaluating reservoir pore structure by using mercury injection

Tight gas sandstone reservoirs always present the similar
characteristics: ultra-low porosity, ultra-low permeability, rela-
tively high irreducible water saturation (Swirr), complicated pore
structure, and strong heterogeneity (Zou et al., 2012; Xiao et al.,
2015a). These characteristics make formation evaluation and
effective formation identification from conventional logs a sig-
nificant challenge. The difference between hydrocarbon bearing
formations and dry layers is inconspicuous, and as a result, many
effective hydrocarbon bearing formations are overlooked (Xiao
et al., 2012; Li et al., 2013; Fan et al., 2015). Quantitatively
n
Corresponding author at: School of Geophysics and Information Technology,
China University of Geosciences, Beijing, PR China.
E-mail address: zoucc@cugb.edu.cn (C.-c. Zou).
capillary pressure (MICP) curves is considered to be an effective
approach for improving tight gas sands evaluation (Reza et al.,
2012; Rashid et al., 2015; Moore et al., 2016). Generally, MICP
curves are used to classify rocks into several types, and good types
of rocks are considered to have potential (Zhao et al., 2007; Wang
et al., 2012). Meanwhile, some important parameters, such as pore
throat size distribution, average pore throat radius (RM), maximal
pore throat radius (RMAX), threshold pressure (PD), and separa-
tion coefficient, can also be predicted. However, the experimental
MICP measurements are limited due to environmental and eco-
nomic factors. This leads to the impossibility of predicting for-
mation pore structure accurately. Nuclear magnetic resonance
(NMR) logs are considered to be promising in evaluating rock pore
structure (Coates et al., 2000; Dunn et al., 2002). However, the
pore structure can only be qualitatively characterized from NMR

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2016.06.002
0920-4105/& 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
494 L. Xiao et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 145 (2016) 493–501

spectra. Pore throat size, which is associated with rock perme- Table 1
ability, cannot be directly calculated. To quantitatively predict rock Physical properties of our 20 target core samples.
pore structure from NMR logs, Volokitin et al. (1999) and Volokitin
Core Porosity (%) Permeability Irreducible water Lithology
and Looyestijn (2001) were the first to show that the lab NMR number (mD) saturation (%)
measurements can be transformed as the pseudo capillary pres-
sure (Pc) curves, and then, the synthetic Pc curves could be used to 1 9.40 1.03 40.22 Shaly sand
2 12.40 0.49 33.49 Sandstone
replace the experimental MICP curves to quantitatively evaluate
3 7.90 0.24 46.80 Sandstone
rock pore structure. This approach has been widely used over the 4 9.60 0.50 41.81 Sandstone
past decade. to acquire reasonable pseudo Pc curves from NMR 5 9.20 0.63 56.70 Shaly sand
measurements, different methods for establishing the conversion 6 12.90 0.57 40.19 Sandstone
7 7.50 0.63 50.15 Shaly sand
functions of NMR spectra and Pc curves have been proposed
8 8.20 0.27 43.72 Shaly sand
(Nørgaard et al., 1999; Volokitin and Looyestijn, 2001; Glorioso 9 4.70 0.13 64.22 Shaly sand
et al., 2003; Derrick et al., 2008; Kuang et al., 2010; Gao et al., 10 10.60 0.23 56.79 Sandstone
2011; Olubunmi et al., 2011; Xiao et al., 2012). These methods are 11 18.90 90.60 31.60 Sandstone
categorized into five types: (1) The linear function proposed by 12 16.10 0.58 39.87 Sandstone
13 14.40 0.27 46.35 Sandstone
Volokitin and Looyestijn (2001) and Liu et al. (2004); (2) The 14 11.40 0.21 48.01 Shaly sand
power function method proposed by He et al. (2005), based on the 15 9.40 0.21 47.20 Sandstone
fractal theory; (3) The piecewise power function calibration 16 6.50 0.20 58.96 Sandstone
method proposed by Kuang et al. (2010); (4) The technique of 17 4.80 0.15 51.15 Sandstone
18 15.10 5.87 36.81 Sandstone
constructing pseudo Pc curves from field NMR logs by combining 19 14.30 1.08 31.43 Sandstone
the J function with the SDR model proposed by Xiao et al. (2012); 20 13.20 3.06 34.56 Sandstone
and (5) Other empirical statistical models proposed by Liu et al.
(2008), Eslami et al. (2013), and Xiao et al. (2015b). These methods
have played an important role in quantitatively evaluating for-
mation pore structure by using NMR logs throughout the past
decade. However, practical applications have illustrated that there
are remaining problems that cannot be resolved by these methods.
The linear function method is simple, whereas the constructed Pc
curves that result from this method are heavily erroneous, leading
to an overestimation of formation pore structure, especially in
tight sandstone reservoirs. The power function method can be
used to accurately predict Pc curves from lab NMR experimental
measurements; however, it cannot be extended to field applica-
tions. Compared with the power function method, the piecewise
power function calibration method is much improved; it can be
extended to field applications. However, despite this advantage,
there are still problematic elements. For instance, some para-
meters, such as porosity and permeability, cannot be accurately
calculated and therefore need to be predicted before classifying
formations. Field applications in several Chinese tight sandstone
reservoirs illustrated that the method proposed by Xiao et al.
(2012) was effective; however, it was applicable only in formations
Fig. 1. Comparison of physical properties of 20 target core samples with routine
with similar properties (Xiao et al., 2016a). The existing empirical core-derived results.
statistical models may be useful under specific conditions, but
they cannot be widely used and many involve input parameters 2.2. Experimental environment
that are difficult to obtain (Xiao et al., 2016b).
To improve the construction of pseudo Pc curves, it is necessary In consideration of the experimental environment and in the
to develop a novel technique. In this study, we drilled 20 typical interest of using our available time efficiently, a long plug sample
core samples from a tight gas sandstone reservoir of the central was cut into two parts, and they were applied simultaneously for
Sichuan basin (southwest China) to apply for lab NMR and MICP lab NMR and MICP measurements. Because these two core sam-
measurements simultaneously. Based on the analysis and com- ples are cut from the same plug sample, they were considered to
parison of NMR and MICP measurements, this study proposes a be the same samples. All of the NMR measurements are applied
new technique for predicting pseudo Pc curves from NMR logs. under fully saturated with brine and centrifugal conditions, se-
parately. The NMR measurements were obtained using a MARAN-
2 nuclear magnetic resonance core apparatus, and the experi-
2. Core experiments mental parameters consisted of the following: polarization time
(TW): 6.0 s; inter-echo spacing (TE): 0.2 ms; the number of echoes
2.1. Physical properties of core samples per echo train (NE): 4096; scanning number: 128. Fig. 2 displays
the lab NMR spectra under fully brine saturated. This figure il-
In our study, 20 core samples were drilled from the Xujiahe For- lustrates that the T2 distributions are mainly unimodal and that
mation of the Central Sichuan basin. The porosities and permeabilities the main T2 peaks are located in the left. This means that micro-
of these samples are listed in Table 1. The porosities range from 2.7% to pores are dominant.
18.9%, and the permeabilities range from 0.013 to 90.6 mD. These During the capillary pressure experiments, the mercury intrusion
measurements were coincided with routine core-derived results method was used. The applied mercury injection pressures are the
(Fig. 1), which ensured that our 20 core samples were representative. same for all core samples, and they range from 0.005 to 20.48 MPa,
 L. Xiao et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 145 (2016) 493–501
Fig. 2. The NMR T2 spectra for our 20 target core samples.
which covers 13 pressure increments. The mercury injection pres-
sure increments can be expressed as follows:
Pc (i) = 0. 005 × 2i − 1, i = 1, 2, … 13
where Pc(i) is the applied ith injection pressure in MPa and i is the
number for applied mercury injection pressure.
Fig. 3 displays the MICP curves for all 20 core samples. This
figure illustrates that the pore structure of the Xujiahe Formation
is poor, as their threshold pressures mainly range from 0.2 to
1.28 MPa, and the pore structures of the samples are similar with
the exception of one sample. This particular core sample, which
had low threshold pressure and good pore structure, was drilled
from thin sand with high porosity and permeability. Lab NMR
experiments illustrate that irreducible water saturations (Swirr) of
these 20 core samples range from 31.43% to 64.22%. These results
coincide with the minimal wettability saturations acquired from
the MICP curves. These insure that the mercury injection pressure
increments that were used are appropriate. The MICP curves can
be used to reproduce the pore structure of core samples.
3. Novel method of constructing pseudo Pc curve from NMR
measurements
3.1. The experimental data analysis
From Eq. (1) and Fig. 3, we have introduced that the mercury
100
10
1 nents are dominant and large pore components are rapidly
0.1
0.01
0.001
100 80 60 40 20
Mercury injection saturation (SHg), %
Fig. 3. The MICP curves for all 20 core samples.
495
injection pressure increments used for all 20 core samples are the
same, meaning that the Y-axis in Fig. 3 is unified, and the mor-
phology of the MICP curves is determined by the value of mercury
injection saturation (SHg) under the same Pc. For example, for the
core sample with good pore structure, SHg under the same Pc will
be high, and on the contrary, there will be a low SHg under the
same Pc standards for poor pore structure (Xiao et al., 2012).
Hence, if we can predict SHgs under every defined mercury injec-
tion pressure increment, the Pc curves can be reconstructed. The
NMR logs are advantageous in evaluating formation pore struc-
ture, and several different types of porosities and saturations can
be estimated (Coates et al., 2000; Dunn et al., 2002). As a result,
the NMR logs can be associated with non-wetting phase satura-
tions. In the next section, based on the comparisons and analysis
of lab MICP and NMR experiments, we will introduce a new
technique for estimating SHgs from NMR measurements.
3.2. Comparisons of lab MICP and NMR experiments
To understand the relationships of SHgs with NMR logs, the
morphological characteristics of experimental MICP curves and
NMR T2 spectra for all 20 core samples are compared. Fig. 4 dis-
(1) plays the MICP curves and the corresponding NMR T2 spectra for
four typical core samples. Observing Fig. 4, we can determine that
by increasing the threshold pressures, the corresponding main T2
peaks of NMR spectra move to the left. These two types of curves
correspond with each other. Based on the experimental results
shown in Fig. 4, the relationship of MICP curves and NMR mea-
surements for core samples with different pore structure is ana-
lyzed as follows:
(1) For core samples with good pore structure, such as core
sample No. 11 in Fig. 4, the MICP curve lies at the bottom, the
inflexion point between the larger and smaller pore throats is
obvious, and the SHgs under every mercury injection pressure
increment is relatively high. The corresponding NMR T2
spectrum is wide, the main T2 relaxation time ranges from
3.0 to 2000.0 ms, the location of the main T2 peak is close to
300.0 ms, and the large pore components are dominant.
(2) With rock pore structures are gradually worse, such as core
samples No. 1 and No. 7, the location of MICP curves are gra-
dually moved to the upside and the inflexion point between
the larger and smaller pore throats fades away. The corre-
sponding NMR T2 distributions are narrower than those of
core sample No. 11 and the location of the main T2 peak has
moved to the left. The proportions of large pore components
are subdued, and the small pore components are gradually
dominant.
(3) Core sample No. 17 represents the worst pore structure. In this
sample, the MICP curves lie on the top and no inflexion point
exists. The corresponding NMR T2 spectrum is the narrowest,
and the transverse relaxation time of the main T2 peak is
lower than 10.0 ms. The proportions of small pore compo-
reduced.
Based on the above analysis, we can conclude that the SHgs and
pore components under every mercury injection pressure incre-
ment are all valuable in characterizing rock pore structure. For
example, rocks with good pore structure always contain higher SHg
under the same mercury injection pressure increment, and the
corresponding large pore components are dominant, and vice
0 versa. Hence, SHg under every Pc is also indirectly associated with
different types of pore components. For example, core samples
with higher SHgs will also contain dominant large pore compo-
nents, and tiny small pore components. If we can establish the
496 L. Xiao et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 145 (2016) 493–501

Fig. 4. Comparison of morphological characteristics of MICP curves and NMR T2 spectra for four typical core samples.

relationship of SHgs with different types of pore components, SHgs which is used to classify T2 spectrum and estimate the pore
can be predicted, and pseudo Pc curves can be synthetized. component percentage compositions; units are in microseconds. S
(T) is the porosity distribution function, which is associated with
3.3. Novel technique of predicting pseudo Pc curves from NMR logs the T2 relaxation time.
The same 20 core samples are reused after eight types of pore
The above analysis has illustrated that SHgs under every Pc are component percentage compositions are estimated from NMR
associated with rock pore components. If we want to establish measurements by using Eqs. (2)–(4), in which we attempt to es-
these relationships among them, the pore components should first tablish the relationships of SHgs under every Pc with these eight
be characterized. The cutoff value of T2 transverse relaxation time pore component percentage compositions. Fortunately, good re-
is always used to characterize rock pore (Coates et al., 2000; Dunn levancy exists between these two types of data sets. This relevancy
et al., 2002). For example, in the Timur-Coates permeability esti- can be expressed as follows:
mation model, the T2 cutoff is used to classify T2 spectrum to
⎛ S ( 1) ⎞ ⎛ X1⎞ ⎛ b1 ⎞
calculate BVI and FFI (Straley et al., 1994). Xiao et al. (2013) used ⎜ Hg ⎟ ⎛ a11, a12, a13, ... a18 ⎞ ⎜ X 2 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ SHg (2) ⎟ ⎜ a21, a22, ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ b2 ⎟
three different T2 cutoff values, 30.0 ms, 40.0 ms, and 50.0 ms, to a23, ... a28 ⎟ ⎜ X 3⎟ ⎜ . ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ . ⎟ .
predict different irreducible water saturation and to characterize
⎜
.
. ⎟ ⎜ . ⎟ ⎜ X 4⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ b ⎟
the proportions of small pore components. In this study, we also ⎜ S (i) ⎟ = ⎜ ai1, ai2, ai3, ... ai8 ⎟ ⎜ X 5 ⎟ ⎜ i ⎟
× +
⎜ Hg ⎟ ⎜ . ⎟ b
define several T2 cutoffs to classify rock T2 spectrum, as well as
⎜ . ⎜
⎟ ⎜ . ⎟ ⎜ X 6⎟ ⎜ i ⎟
. ⎜ ⎟
calculate the corresponding pore component percentage compo- ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ a13,1, a13,2, a13,3, ... a13,8⎟⎠ ⎜ X 7 ⎟ ⎜ bi ⎟
sitions. To meet the empirical NMR interpretation method, we S
⎝ Hg (13 ) ⎠ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ X 8 ⎠ ⎝ b13⎠ (5)
used seven T2 cutoffs, titled as T2cutoff (i), i ¼1,…,7. Their values are
selected as follows: 1.0 ms, 3.0 ms, 10.0 ms, 33.0 ms, 100.0 ms, where i is the number of the applied Pc, its value is 13; SHg(i)
300.0 ms, and 1000.0 ms. Based on these seven T2 cutoffs, T2 dis- stands for the ith mercury injection saturation in %; X1 to X8 are
tributions are classified into eight parts, and eight pore component eight pore component percentage compositions, their unit is %;
percentage compositions can be predicted. The equations used to ⎛ a11, a12, a13, ... a18 ⎞ ⎛ b ⎞
⎜ a , a , a , ... a ⎟ ⎜ 1⎟
predict the eight pore component percentage compositions are as ⎜ b2 ⎟
⎜ 21 22 23 28 ⎟
follows: ⎜
.
⎟ ⎜ . ⎟
. . ⎟
⎜ ⎟ is the coefficient matrixes, and ⎜ is the
T ai1, ai2, ai3, ... ai8 ⎜ bi ⎟
∫T 2cutoff (1) S(T )dt ⎜ . ⎟
⎜ . ⎟
X1 = 2min ⎜ . ⎟
T ⎜ a , a , a , ... a ⎟ ⎜ . ⎟
∫T 2max S(T )dt ⎝ 13,1 13,2 13,3 13,8 ⎠ ⎜ ⎟
2min (2) ⎝ b13⎠
constant matrixes, their values can be calibrated by using the
T (i ) target lab MICP and NMR experiments.
∫T 2cutoff(i − 1) S(T )dt After simplifying, Eq. (5), it can be expressed as follows:
2cutoff
Xi = T
∫T 2max S(T )dt Y = A*X + B (6)
2min , i = 2, … ,7 (3)
where A and B are the undetermined coefficients, X is the com-
T2 max bination of pore component percentage compositions and Y is the
∫T S(T )dt
2cutoff (7) combination of SHgs.
X8 = T
∫T 2max S(T )dt Eq. (6) expresses the relationship of eight pore component
2min (4) percentage compositions with 13 mercury injection saturations. If
where X(i) is the estimated ith pore component percentage com- we want to use these formulae to predict SHgs, the values of the
position from NMR logs by using the defined T2 cutoff, T2min is the coefficient matrixes and the constant matrixes need to be cali-
minimum transverse relaxation time, T2max is the maximum brated first.
transverse relaxation time and T2cutoff (i) is the defined ithT2 cutoff, To calibrate the values of the coefficient matrixes and the
 L. Xiao et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 145 (2016) 493–501 497

constant matrixes mentioned in Eq. (5), several procedures should ⎛ SHg (1) ⎞
⎜ ⎟
be followed: ⎜ SHg (2) ⎟ ⎛ 0.00, 0.00, 0.00, 0.00, 0.00, 0.00, 0.00, 0.00 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ SHg (3) ⎟ ⎜ 0.00, 0.00, 0.00, 0.00, 0.00, 0.00, 0.00, 0.00 ⎟
(1) Collecting a data set including both lab MICP and NMR ex- ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 0.00, 0.00, 0.00, 0.00, 0.00, 0.00, 0.00, 0.00 ⎟
⎜ SHg (4) ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
perimental measurements on the same set of core samples. ⎜ S (5) ⎟ ⎜ 0.00, 0.00, 0.00, 0.00, 0.00, 0.00, 0.00, 0.00 ⎟
(2) Grouping the capillary pressure data set according to the ap- ⎜ Hg ⎟ ⎜ 0.001, − 4.78, − 3.58, − 4.48, − 3.93, − 3.89, − 2.89, 4.82 ⎟
⎜ SHg (6) ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
plied mercury injection pressure – that is, grouping the data of ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 0.0003, − 4.46, − 3.13, − 4.42, − 3.45, − 3.30, − 2.49, 5.30 ⎟
mercury injection saturations into 13 sub-data sets for all core ⎜ SHg (7) ⎟ = 0.0025, − 4.08, − 2.63, − 4.14, − 2.91, − 2.40, − 2.50, 5.68 ⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
samples in our target rocks. ⎜ SHg (8) ⎟ ⎜ 0.0006, − 6.56, − 3.72, − 5.88, − 4.54, − 3.30, − 4.33, 3.13 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 0.0001, 3.78, 3.90, 3.72, 4.17, 5.53, 2.93, 15.75 ⎟
(3) Defining seven T2cutoffs to divide the NMR T2 spectrum ⎜ SHg (9) ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
into eight parts, and calculating eight pore component per- ⎜ S (10)⎟ ⎜ −0.002, 11.42, 10.48, 10.48, 10.93, 12.09, 10.13, 18.77 ⎟
⎜ Hg ⎟ ⎜ −0.0016, 9.88, 8.59, 8.80, 9.25, 10.23, 8.44, 15.96 ⎟
centage compositions from the NMR logs. The defined seven ⎜ SHg (11)⎟ ⎜ ⎟
T2cutoffs are 1.0 ms, 3.0 ms, 10.0 ms, 33.0 ms, 100.0 ms, ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 0.007, 6.29, 5.41, 5.59, 6.05, 6.81, 5.26, 12.15 ⎟
⎜ SHg (12)⎟ ⎝ ⎜ ⎟
−0.005, 3.33, 2.80, 2.97, 3.56, 4.00, 2.37, 9.55 ⎠
300.0 ms, and 1000.0 ms. The method used to calculate ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
pore component percentage compositions is displayed in Eqs. ⎝ SHg (13)⎠
(2)–(4). ⎛ 0.00 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
(4) Determining the input parameters involved in the models. In ⎜ 0.00 ⎟
combination with the data sets of lab MICP and NMR mea- ⎜ 0.00 ⎟
⎛ X 1⎞ ⎜ ⎟
surements, the multi-variable regression method is used to ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 0.00 ⎟
⎜ X 2 ⎟ ⎜ 396.03 ⎟
calibrate the values of the coefficient matrixes and constant ⎜ X 3⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ X 4 ⎟ ⎜ 361.74 ⎟
matrixes. In this procedure, under the Pc(i), the SHg(i) is used ×⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ 317.16 ⎟
as the dependent variable, and eight pore component per- ⎜ X 5 ⎟ ⎜ 472.60 ⎟
⎜ X6⎟ ⎜ ⎟
centage compositions are considered to be the independent ⎜ X 7 ⎟ ⎜ −384.25 ⎟
variables, and then the multi-variable regression method is ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ −1042.75⎟
⎝ X8⎠
⎜ −856.80 ⎟
used to calibrate the values of ail to ai8 and bi. Hence, to obtain ⎜ ⎟
complete values of coefficient matrixes and constant matrixes ⎜ −521.24 ⎟
⎝ −244.74 ⎠ (7)
in Eq. (5), the multi-variable regression method should be
used 13 times. It is important to note that only core sample No. 11 was drilled
(5) Constructing the pseudo capillary pressure curve. SHgs under from thin sands and therefore displays good pore structure. To
every mercury injection pressure can be predicted from filed ensure that the calibrated Eq. (7) can be widely used, core sample
NMR logs once the calibrated models are applied in field ap- No. 11 must be chosen in calibrating the involved parameters.
plications. By combining these values with the predicted SHgs By using Eq. (7), SHgs under every mercury injection pressure
and fixed mercury injection pressure increments, pseudo Pc can be predicted; then, the pseudo Pc curves are synthetized.
curves can be constructed.
4.2. Reliability verification of the proposed models

To verify the reliability of the calibrated Eq. (7), it is extended to

4. Field applications in tight gas sands
4.1. Models of predicting pseudo Pc curves from NMR logs in the tight
gas sands of Sichuan basin
To calibrate the values of A and B in Eq. (6), 20 core samples
are reused. Carefully observing the shapes of the MICP curves
displayed in Fig. 3, we find that the threshold pressures for the
overwhelming majority of core samples are higher than
0.08 MPa, and this means that the non-wetting phase mercury
can be injected into the pore space only when the applied Pcs are
higher than 0.08 MPa. If the Pcs are lower than 0.08 MPa, little
mercury can be injected into the pore space, and these parts are
less active in characterizing rock pore structure. Hence, in this
study, we predict only SHgs with Pcs higher than 0.08 MPa; for
these parts with Pcs lower than 0.08 MPa, the corresponding SHgs
are defined as 0.0. Hence, in Eq. (5), the values of the coefficient
matrixes and constant matrixes for the first four lines are all
designated 0.0.
Meanwhile, to verify the reliability of the proposed technique,
the experimental data of 16 core samples are used to establish
SHg(i) prediction models, and the rest of the four core samples are
used to confirm the applicability of these models.
Following with the above procedures, the values of the coeffi-
cient matrixes and constant matrixes, which are used to predict
SHgs from NMR logs under every mercury injection pressure, are
calibrated, and Eq. (5) can be expressed as follows:
field applications, and the pseudo Pc curves are consecutively
constructed in the intervals with which field NMR logs were ac-
quired. The constructed pseudo Pc curves that correspond to the
depths of the rest of the four core samples in this study are chosen
and then compared with the lab experimental MICP curves in
Fig. 5. From these comparisons, we can observe that these two
types of capillary pressure curves coincide with each other very
well and that the threshold pressures and maximal mercury in-
jection saturations for all samples are adjacent, meaning that the
proposed technique and procedure for constructing synthetic ca-
pillary pressure curves from NMR logs is reliable.
Meanwhile, the pore structure evaluation parameters, such as
average pore throat radius (RM), maximal pore throat radius
(Rmax), median pore throat radius (R50), threshold pressure (PD)
and median pressure (P50), are calculated from the pseudo Pc
curves, and they are also compared with the analyzed results de-
rived from four typical unused core samples. These comparisons
are displayed through Fig. 6a to e, separately. In Fig. 6, all pore
structure evaluation parameters from this experiment are dis-
played on the X-axis, and the predicted results from pseudo Pc
curves are displayed on the Y-axis. The solid lines in these figures
represent the diagonal lines, which clarify the discrepancy be-
tween the calculated pore structure evaluation parameters with
the core analyzed results. These figures demonstrate that the pore
structure evaluation parameters estimated from the pseudo Pc
curves and the results of this experiment are located in the area of
the diagonal lines, which means that the predicted pore structure
evaluation parameters from the pseudo Pc curves are accurate.
498 L. Xiao et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 145 (2016) 493–501
Fig. 5. Comparisons of capillary pressure curves obtained from mercury injection experiment and predicted from the models mentioned in this paper.
Hence, the constructed pseudo Pc curves are available; therefore,
the proposed technique in this study is reliable.
4.3. Case study
Figs. 5 and 6 have verified that the proposed technique is
reliable and once it is widely extended to field applications,
consecutive pseudo Pc curves can be constructed in the intervals
with which field NMR logs were acquired, and they can be used
to replace lab MICP curves to consecutively and quantitatively
evaluate formation pore structure and indicate effective hydro-
carbon-bearing formations. Meanwhile, the Swanson parameter
model established based on lab MICP curves can be used to
precisely predict tight gas sandstone reservoirs’ permeability
(Xiao et al., 2014), while the conventional methods are not useful
for this purpose. Fig. 7 displays a field example of how pseudo Pc
curves were constructed from field NMR logs, calculating pore
structure evaluation parameters and predicting formation per-
meability in the Sichuan basin. In the first track of this figure, the
displayed curves are gamma ray (GR) and borehole diameter
(CAL), and their contribution is an indication of effective forma-
tion. The density log (DEN), compensated neutron log (CML) and
interval transit time log (AC) are shown in the second track, and
they are used for porosity estimation. RT displayed in the third
track indicates deep lateral resistivity, and RXO is shallow lateral
resistivity. T2_DIST displayed in the fourth track is field NMR
spectra, which were acquired from Schlumberger’s CMR-Plus
tool, and T2LM is the logarithmic mean of NMR T2 spectrum. In
the fifth track, we display eight pore component percentage
compositions and to demonstrate the otherness through X1 to
X8, they are accumulated in order. This track illustrates that the
X2 and X3 are dominant, meaning that the T2 spectra are mainly
distributed as 1.0–10.0 ms. The comparison of the Pc curves ob-
tained from these two methods is displayed in the sixth track,
where the red lines represent the discrete lab MICP curves, and
the black lines represent the pseudo Pc curves. RC_DIST displayed
in the seventh track is the derivative pore throat radius dis-
tribution from pseudo Pc curves, and they are also compared with
those of the core-derived results. These comparisons illustrate
that the constructed pseudo Pc curves and derived pore throat
radius distributions coincided with core-derived results. In the
eighth tracks, we displayed the comparison of estimated Swan-
son parameters (Swanson) from pseudo Pc curves with core-de-
rived results (CSwanson). The permeabilities estimated from the
pseudo Pc curves based on the Swanson parameters model are
compared with core analyzed results in the ninth track. High
consistency indicates that the Swanson parameters and perme-
ability are precisely predicted, which can also be used to in-
directly prove the reliability of the proposed technique. Through
the tenth to twelfth tracks, we compare the pore structure
 L. Xiao et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 145 (2016) 493–501 499

Fig. 6. Comparisons of estimated pore structure evaluation parameters from pseudo Pc curves with core-derived results in four typical unused core samples.

evaluation parameters extracted from pseudo Pc curves and de-
rived from routine core analysis. These pore structure evaluation
parameters are average pore throat radius (RM), maximum pore
throat radius (RMAX), and threshold pressure (PD). The letter “C”
before these three parameter symbols stands for the results de-
rived from the core samples. These comparisons illustrate that
the predicted pore structure evaluation parameters match with
the core analyzed results very well. This can further verify that
the proposed technique is useful for constructing pseudo Pc
curves from NMR logs. In combination with these extracted
results, formation pore structure can be quantitatively evaluated,
and effective reservoirs can be identified from dry layers.
5. Conclusions
Rock pore structure can be expressed by the values of SHg under
every Pc. Core samples with good pore structure always display high
SHgs under the same Pc, and vice versa. After the values of SHgs
under every Pc are predicted, the Pc curves can then be constructed.
500 L. Xiao et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 145 (2016) 493–501
Fig. 7. A field example of constructing pseudo Pc curves from field NMR logs and predicting pore structure evaluation parameters.
SHgs under every Pc are heavily associated with rock pore
components. For core samples with high SHgs, the main NMR peak
lies in the right, and the large pore components are dominant; the
contrary occurs for core samples with low SHgs. In these samples,
the main NMR peak moves to the left, and the small pore com-
ponents are dominant.
After seven T2 cutoff s are defined, the NMR T2 spectrum can be
divided into eight parts, and eight pore component percentage
compositions can be estimated from NMR T2 distribution to
characterize the component percentage. The quantitative re-
lationships of SHgs under every Pc with eight pore component
percentage compositions are established. With these relationships,
SHgs under every Pc can be predicted from NMR logs, and pseudo
Pc curves can be constructed by combining the fixed Pc value.
After this technique is extended to field applications, con-
secutive pseudo Pc curves can be synthesized from field NMR logs,
and they can be used to replace lab MICP data to quantitatively
evaluate formation pore structure and classify formations. Field
examples illustrate that this technique is reliable, and it can be
widely used for tight sandstone reservoirs evaluation.
Acknowledgements
This research work was supported by National Natural Science
Foundation of China (No. 41302106); the China Postdoctoral Sci-
ence Foundation funded project (No. 2012M520347, 2013T60147);
the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities,
China (2652014015); and Open Fund of Key Laboratory of Geo-
detection (China University of Geosciences, Beijing), Ministry of
Education (No. GDL1204).
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