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The impacts of Diesel cycle engines on the operating costs of the Cessna
172 Skyhawk and JT-A aircraft.
Samuel Cunha Diniz, Eduardo Henrique de Assis Coelho, Gabriel Rodrigues de Oliveira,
Lucas de Cardoso Oliveira, Samuel Renan Costa Morais, Victor Britto Vasques and Luiz
Henrique Jorge Machado
Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais
Abstract Martins [3], John Barber first came with his patented gas turbine in
1791, but it was not until 1794 that Robert Street patented the first
piston engine. In 1805, Isaac de Rivaz manufactured the first gas-
Diesel engines have been on the aeronautical market for a long time,
powered piston engine coupled in a vehicle.
but despite this fact, there are very few studies showing the potential
cost savings of using this type of technology. The goal of this paper is
to find out whether or not it is advantageous to use an Otto or Diesel
cycle engine on general aviation light aircraft. Surely, both of them
have pros and cons, but the possibility of using Jet A-1 (kerosene) as
fuel gives the Diesel engine a clear advantage in a market like Brazil,
where the price of the regular piston fuel (AvGas) keeps rising to
astonishing values. Throughout this paper, a detailed study of the fixed
and variable costs of two similar aircraft, both Cessnas 172 equipped
with Otto and Diesel cycle engines is conducted, comparing fuel
consumption, performance levels, and other factors. Even though the
latter engine has a higher fixed operating cost, the advantages found in
this study put the Diesel motor a step forward of its competitor,
whether concerning the flight hour cost or performance.
Introduction
From the first documented flights of aircraft to date, the conventional
(Otto cycle) engine is the most commonly used option for small
airplanes in general aviation. Based on this fact it is possible to affirm
that much is known about the peculiarities and characteristics of this
engine. According to Nobrega [1], the aviation segment that makes use
of these engines is limited by the dependence of few alternatives when
it comes to this type of motor.
This stagnation in the market of conventional engines opened new Figure 1: First gas engine
doors and alternatives for the propellants of this category. The main
one is the Diesel cycle engine. According to Pope [2], Diesel cycle An engine is an apparatus capable of transforming other forms of
engines offer attractive economic advantages, such as low fuel energy into mechanical energy [3]. Currently, there are several types
consumption and the possibility of using aviation kerosene as fuel, of engines such as hydraulic turbines, wind turbines, external
which in Brazil costs less than traditional gasoline. combustion engines, internal combustion engines, compressed air
motors, electric motors, hybrid motors, among others that have been
The Cessna C-172 Skyhawk and C-172 JT-A aircraft have the same developed with the advancement of technology.
structural design and aerodynamic characteristics; however, they are
powered by different engines. The first with a conventional Otto cycle Piston engine: Otto and Diesel
engine and the second with a Diesel cycle engine, powered by Jet A-
1. The purpose of this article is to analyze the use of Diesel cycle
In recent years general aviation, which has been dominated by
engines from the operational costs perspective of a Brazilian general
conventional gasoline engines for decades, is being revitalized by a
aviation aircraft and to establish differences in performance and
new generation of diesel engines that promise to revolutionize the
maintenance of the Cessna C-172 aircraft equipped with two different
industry. Although the technology of diesel engines originates in the
engines.
year of 1892, according to Sullivan [4] the patent from Rudolf
Christian Karl`s Diesel engine with an innovative compression ignition
Aircraft and its engines system was not successful in the conservative aviation industry. There
The search for engine development dates back many years before the
first flight of Santos Dumont or the Wright brothers. According to
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were some attempts to implement diesel engines in aircraft, but this a dimensionless number that represents the ratio of cylinder volume
alternative so far did not show satisfactory results. when the piston is in the Top Dead Center (TDC) and the Bottom Dead
Center (BDC). Therefore, it is a number that represents how much the
The Diamond DA-62 and Cessna Skyhawk JT-A aircraft are beginning motor compresses the air inside the cylinders [7].
to be marketed with diesel-powered engines [5] certified to work with
aviation kerosene, which was previously unique to jet aircraft. Retrofit The compression ratio of gasoline engines varies from 10:1 to 14:1,
options are also emerging (conversion of aircraft from gasoline to while for diesel engines this value ranges from 18: 1 to 23:1 [8]. An
diesel engines). engine with a higher compression ratio provides more torque, and a
higher torque permits the use of a larger propeller, thus generating
more traction.
Besides, during the intake phase of an Otto cycle engine air is mixed
with the fuel. Thereafter, the mixture is compressed adiabatically
(without heat exchange within the environment). When the mixture is
compressed, ignition occurs by the spark produced by the spark plug,
which occurs explosively, increasing the pressure and temperature. In
this way, there may be losses in the air suction process that passes
through the throttle, giving greater efficiency to the diesel engine that
does not have this device [9].
Still, in the quest for improved and better efficiency in the use of diesel
engines, according to Wilson [9] the systems of injection in diesel
engines were purely mechanical, using the inputs for their operation
Figure 2: Diamond DA-62 from the rotation of the engine and the power desired by the pilot.
Today, mechanical injection systems have been replaced by
Diesel cycle technology promises better performance, reliability, fuel sophisticated electronic injectors and a high-pressure pump (up to
consumption and reduced operating costs [6]. These developments 40,000 psi) that provide improved power combustion, higher fuel
encouraged the development of this work, which seeks to evaluate the economy, and reduced emissions. As a result, modern diesel engines
impacts of these types of engines on the operational costs of the Cessna are easy to start, produce fewer particles, are quieter and produce
C-172 Skyhawk and JT-A aircraft in the context of Brazilian general greater power.
aviation.
The operating costs of Brazilian general aviation
piston engine aircraft
According to Alves [10], among the 500 cities served in Brazil by
regular air transport companies, less than 100 are serviced by the main
airlines operating in the country. This data presents the gap filled by
the Brazilian regional aviation market. For Leurquin [11] regional
aviation depends on a density economy, which means that profit
concentration is needed to be able to develop it.
The aircraft operated by the presented public, as well as those used in Figure 4 shows the fares charged for general aviation. [13]
instruction flights, crop dusting, aeromedical transport, and police
aviation, are submitted to general aviation regulations: the RBAC 91
in Brazil or FAR 91 in the USA. This document does not rule regular
transportation, air taxi, charter flights, and military.
Variable costs
For this research, variable costs can be defined by the cost that varies
according to the resources use. For example, gasoline is a variable cost
of a car since its value depends on the use of the car. For general
aviation, AOPA [12] defines as variable costs: fuel expenses,
maintenance, airport charges, and oil
To define fuel costs, it is assumed that the fuel used can be aviation
gasoline for Otto cycle engines and aviation kerosene for diesel cycle
engines. Therefore, it is necessary to multiply the fuel consumption by
the number of hours of operation and by the fuel price. For endurance
calculations, as mentioned by RBAC 91, the pilot must consider the
destination time, as well as the alternative time plus 45 minutes of
standby fuel.
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As the depreciation of the aircraft with its equipment will occur
regardless of its use, it can be considered a fixed cost. According to the
FAA [18], conventional engines equipped aircraft a depreciation of 6%
year is applied to the current value of the aircraft.
Figure 7. Apron Fees The crew cost is a difficult cost to be modeled since its value is variable
and is not commonly shared. The salary floor defined in item 2.2.4 of
the Regular Aviation Collective Labor Convention [16], issued by the
National Aeronaut Union (SNA) and the National Union of Airline
Companies, will be used as a basis for an aircraft captain, which is
R$5.031,09. Since the rest of the crew is variable according to the
situation, it will not be considered in this research.
As the labor charges vary according to the salary and the type of
contract defined between employee and employer, it would not have a
mathematical rigor to control that cost so it will not be considered in
this research.
Figure 8. TAN Fees According to article 183, paragraph 2 of Brazilian law 6.404/76,
depreciation is the loss of the value of the rights that are held for
objects and physical goods subject to wear and tear or loss of utility
whether by use, the action of nature or even obsolescence.
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Performance Comparison
Turbocharge
Air intake Aspirated
d
The performance data for these aircraft engines were taken from their
respective manuals and the BMEP was calculated for two situations. It is noteworthy that the JT-A has a range 50% higher than the
Equations 2 and 3 show the results for the takeoff situation of conventional version, even carrying about 16% less fuel in the tanks.
Lycoming and Continental engines respectively: This fact, associated with the possibility of operation at higher
altitudes, shows the greater efficiency of the diesel cycle engine.
Methodology
To obtain the total cost flight time cost, the method that was used
consisted of adding up all fixed expenses, defined in section 3.2, and
dividing by the number of hours flown per month. Besides, to obtain
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the variable cost, three flights with different characteristics were this leg was 200.4 nautical miles and the chosen cruise altitude was
simulated, and from them, the average flight hour value was obtained. 10,000ft.
To cover a wider range of situations, simulations were made based on
the Skyhawk's maximum range. As a result, flight distances The second simulated leg corresponds to a flight between Pampulha
corresponded to 20%, 30% and 60% of the maximum range of the Airport and Santa Genoveva Airport, in Goiânia, totaling 398.3
Skyhawk. They were Belo Horizonte to Ipatinga, Belo Horizonte to nautical miles. The chosen cruising altitude was 12,000ft since the
Rio de Janeiro and Belo Horizonte to Goiânia. route follows a magnetic bearing between 181 ° and 360 °, which
requires an even flight level, under the ICA 100-12 [21]
Fuel prices were defined based on the market value of AvGas and Jet-
A1 at Pampulha airport on April 4, 2018, which was R$ 7.30 and R$ The third and last simulated leg is short flight between Belo Horizonte
3.53 per liter, respectively. Beyond that, in the three cases, some and Ipatinga, traveling 119.1 nautical miles, and flying at a cruising
assumptions were used, with data taken from the Cessna Aircraft altitude of 8,000ft.
website: takeoff weight equal to 1,157 kg (equivalent to the maximum
takeoff weight), the climb speed of 70 knots for the JT-A and 73 for Thus, we obtain the table below that lists the costs of these three routes.
the Skyhawk and maximum range speed at cruising altitude. Also, the
instrument flight rules (IFR) were followed and reserves were made as Table 4. Direct costs
recommended by the aircraft manual. Consumption was calculated
based on the Cessna Skyhawk Pilots Operating Handbook (POH) and Average cost (R$)
the Continental Motors CD-155 engine manual. Withal, the
International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) +10 temperature was Variables JT-A Skyhawk
considered. Expenses related to each of the three flights were
calculated based on each airport's charges. Fuel 170.76 547.38
Lastly, expenditure on periodic maintenance was accounted according Landing Fees 131.27 131.27
to the occurrences foreseen in each aircraft manual.
Navigation Fees 114.36 114.36
Costs (R$) JT-A Skyhawk The Continental engine is equipped with Full Authority Digital Engine
Control (FADEC) technology, which makes the engine more efficient
Aircraft Price 1,458,000.00 1,227,960.00 in terms of performance, but more expensive when it comes to
maintenance. According to the maintenance manuals of the two
Crew's Wage 5,000.00/month 5,000.00/month
engines studied, the inspections to be carried out in the first two
Annual
thousand hours flown are 56 for the Lycoming and 20 for the CD-155.
Depreciation 87,480.00/year 73,677.60/year
According to data sent from an e-mail by Cessna, the expenses for two
Hangar service 3,000.00/month 3,000.00/month thousand flight hours related to scheduled maintenance are R\$ 171.26
for JT-A and R$ 141.86 for Skyhawk. According to the Go Air Escola
RETA Insurance 1,793.49/year 1,793.49/year de Aviação (COM No. 0902-42), the overhaul of the Lycoming O-360
engine costs R$97.000, including labor and parts. Regarding the CD-
Total 186,417.00 172,614.00
155, the replacement of the engine core requires an investment of
R$158.000, according to the manufacturer's data. The total
maintenance costs for two and six thousand hour cycles were
summarized in table 5.
Variable costs
Table 5. Maintenance costs
The first flight consisted of a taxi and take-off from Pampulha Airport
and landing at Santos Dumont Airport. The total distance traveled in Cost per flight hour (R$)
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Even having a higher cost, according to the engine manufacturer data,
after six thousand hours, the Continental engine will go through 60
scheduled maintenance, while Lycoming will have 168. This makes
the JT-A operation desirable for those operators who need a long
aircraft displacement to carry out the periodic maintenance, since with
this aircraft, the expenses with ferry flights, which were not accounted
for in this article, will be reduced.
Total Costs
Taking into consideration the fixed and variable costs directly related
to the proposed flights in addition to the periodic maintenance costs
for the Lycoming (Otto cycle) and Continental (Diesel cycle) engines,
the chart below was created. The data refers to expenses at the end of
a cycle of six thousand flight hours, in the three situations described
above, that is, aircraft flying 20, 50 and 100 hours per month.
Figure 11. Skyhawk's costs source
The values for the first case were R$ 1,304.56 for the JT-A and R$
1,330.21 for the Skyhawk. For the aircraft flying 50 hours per month,
the values were R$ 841.38 for the JT-A and R$ 901.53 for the
Skyhawk. Finally, for the situation where the operator flies 100 hours
a month, the values were R$ 686.98 for JT-A and R$ 758.64 for the
Skyhawk.
Figure 10. Flight hour cost Analyzing images 11 and 12, it can be seen that for the Skyhawk, fixed
costs represent 31.70%, while variable costs represent the other 68.30
% of total expenses. For JT-A, fixed costs represent 36.70% of total
expenditure, and variable costs account for the other 63.30%. At first,
it does not seem to be much difference between both aircraft, but
looking more carefully at the origin of the costs of each aircraft, some
important differences can be seen.
The main variable costs that the Skyhawk operator will face is fuel,
which due to the high price of Avgas represents 21.70% of the total
cost, and with periodic maintenance which accounts for 15.70% of
total expenses. In the case of the operator of a JT-A, the main cost will
be with scheduled maintenance, which accounts for 20.40% of the
expense. The improved efficiency of the diesel engine coupled with
the Jet-A1 price makes fuel costs only 7.50% of the total spending for
each hour flown in JT-A.
Conclusions
General aviation, which uses conventional engines to this day,
according to Nobrega [1], is stagnant. This fact motivated the
idealization of the present work, which seeks to analyze the impacts
and operational costs of using new propulsion technologies for light
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Name: Samuel Cunha Diniz
Adress: Claudio Manoel St, 750 – Funcionários, Belo Horizonte,
Minas Gerais, Brazil.
Email: samuelcunhad@gmail.com
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