Behavioural Causes and Categories of Traffic Violations by Motorcyclists in Indonesian UrbanRoads - GOOD EXAMPLE

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Behavioural Causes and Categories of Traffic Violations

by Motorcyclists in Indonesian Urban Roads
a b c
Tri Basuki Joewono Graduate Program , Upali Vandebona & Yusak O. Susilo
a
Parahyangan Catholic University, Jl. Merdeka 30 Bandung, Indonesia 40117
b
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of New South Wales, Kensington
Campus, Sydney, Australia, 2052,
c
Department of Transport Science, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Teknikringen 10, 100
44 Stockholm, Sweden,
Accepted author version posted online: 14 Aug 2014.
To cite this article: Tri Basuki Joewono Graduate Program, Upali Vandebona & Yusak O. Susilo (2014): Behavioural Causes and
Categories of Traffic Violations by Motorcyclists in Indonesian Urban Roads, Journal of Transportation Safety & Security, DOI:
10.1080/19439962.2014.952467
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Behavioural Causes and Categories of Traffic Violations by Motorcyclists in Indonesian
Urban Roads
Tri Basuki JOEWONO*
Graduate Program
Parahyangan Catholic University

Downloaded by [Kungliga Tekniska Hogskola] at 02:29 25 August 2014
Jl. Merdeka 30 Bandung, Indonesia 40117
vftribas@unpar.ac.id
Upali VANDEBONA
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of New South Wales
Kensington Campus, Sydney, Australia, 2052
u.vandebona@unsw.edu.au
Yusak O. SUSILO
Department of Transport Science
KTH Royal Institute of Technology
Teknikringen 10, 100 44 Stockholm, Sweden
yusak.susilo@abe.kth.se
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* Corresponding author
Date of submission: 24 February 2014
Date of revised submission: 7 June 2014

Date of revised submission (second): 16 July 2014
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ABSTRACT
In order to prevent road accidents and formulate policies to promote road safety in urban roads, it
is crucial to understand factors that cause violation of traffic rules. Whilst such issues have been
investigated in developed countries, the availability of such knowledge in rapidly motorising

countries, such as Indonesia, is still poor. This study aims to investigate the factors influencing
violation behaviour by motorcyclists and types of such violations. The study is based on surveys
of three metropolitan cities, namely Bandung, Yogyakarta, and Surabaya, in Indonesia. Structural
equation modelling has been performed to investigate factors influencing motorcyclists to
commit traffic violations and their causal relationships. Although there are differences in the
ranking of factors influencing traffic violations among the three cities studied, the analysis has
been able to show patterns of similarities as well. The inadequacy of engineering and
maintenance conditions of the road infrastructure appears to be partly responsible for the
phenomenon of motorcyclists developing a lack of respect to traffic rules.
Keywords: motorcyclists, traffic violations, behavioural causes, urban roads, safety
improvement, rapidly motorising countries.
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1. Introduction
Impact of motorisation in the developing world has been a discussion in recent years by several
researchers, e.g. Susilo et al. (2007), Gwilliam (2002), Hickman et al. (2011) and Dharmowijoyo
(2014). On one hand, motorisation reflects the increase of personal wealth and produces many
positive outcomes, such as widening labour market participation, increasing economic activity,
expansion of employment and educational opportunities, which in turn lead to improvement of

quality of life of the population (Sperling and Clausen, 2003; CAE and NRC, 2003). On the
other hand, motorisation is also responsible for numerous negative outcomes, such as traffic
congestion, reduction of public transport market share (Joewono and Kubota, 2007), air quality
degradation and rising number of fatal road traffic crashes. According worldwide statistics total
number of road traffic deaths and injuries is forecasted to rise by about 65% between 2000 and
2020 (Kopits and Cropper 2003, Murray and Lopez 1996). The outlook is gloomier for
low-income and middle-income countries where road traffic fatalities are expected to increase by
as much as 80% (Peden et al. 2004). Crashes on roads have become a major problem in many
urban areas (Peden et al., 2004; and Zietlow, 2006), and Indonesia has not escaped this trend.
Characteristics and consequences of road crashes resulting in deaths and injuries in developing
countries differ from those in high-income countries. In the United States, 80% of fatalities in
road crashes are occupants of four-wheel motor vehicles (TRB, 2006). In low-income countries,
the poor are disproportionately affected, with most of the victims being pedestrians, bicycle
riders, motorcyclists, and even passengers of public transport systems (Peden et al., 2004). Many
of these crashes were linked into what travellers did or did not do; thus, the study of human
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factors is of much importance for road safety studies (Fuller 2008; Musselwhite et al. 2014). It is
important to include human behaviour when designing strategies to decrease crashes and
fatalities on roads.
Fuller and Santos (2008), for example, highlight the limitations of car drivers in relation to vision,
information processing and reaction time. Furthermore, they also argue that the driver perception
of road and traffic environment correlates with the age, driving experience, fatigue, stress, and
emotions of the driver.
Whilst there have been such studies in developed countries, little is understood about traffic
violations committed by motorcyclist in the developing world where motorcycle use has been
growing rapidly in recent times. The motorcycles hold a substantial share of modal split in some
Southeast Asian countries, such as Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam, or Thailand (Kaltheier 2002),
while motorcycles are also the main reasons for traffic crashes indicated by researchers. For
example, in Indonesia, there are 52.4 million units of motorcycles out of 70.7 million units of
motorized vehicles in the year of 2009 (BPS 2009). In Vietnam, 80-90% of the households in Ho
Chi Minh City have access to a motorcycle (PADECO 2000).
The existence of motorcycle creates significant impacts to road performance and accident rate
(Chang and Yeh 2006, Department of Environment Transport and the Regions 2000, Hossain and
Iamtrakul 2007). It is widely believed that motorcyclists have a relatively poor safety record
compared to other road user groups (Clarke et al. 2004). The motorcycle users are often regarded
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as aberrant road users triggering many crashes. Motorcyclists are seen as enjoying risk taking
and speeding behaviour than car drivers (Musselwhite et al., 2012). In Indonesia, motorcyclists
have the highest share in the number of recorded accident (Indriastuti and Sulistio, 2010;
Ministry of Transportation, 2004).
While current traffic conditions in many developing cities are worsening, the urban traffic
management in Indonesian cities rely heavily on engineering and regulations. Only little
consideration is given towards reorienting attitudes and behaviour of road users. In other words,
the current urban transport plans are driven by applying ‘hard’ solutions such as infrastructure
development and enforcement with little attention given to ‘soft’ solutions that could rely on
behaviour modification.
This study has been motivated by the observation of the poor safety record in many urban roads
in Indonesia at the present time. The aim of this study is to perform a quantitative analysis of the
factors influencing traffic violations by motorcyclists using urban roads in Indonesia. It is also
anticipated that identification of categories of violations and associated behavioural reasons may
assist the development of remedial measures and reduce motorcycle crashes. The analysis is
based on data collected from motorcyclists in three metropolitan areas in Indonesia, namely
Bandung, Yogyakarta and Surabaya.
2. Behavioural Aspects of Traffic Violations by Motorcyclists
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Most traffic crashes have a connection to human factors. Drivers regularly deviate from safe
operating practice for various reasons (Rothengatter 1997). Disobedience, driving errors, and
road traffic violations are the main reason of traffic crashes pointed out by many researchers (e.g.
Rothengatter 1997, Forward 2006, Forward 2009a, Yagil 1998, Rimmö and Åberg 1999).
O’Connell (2008) has stated that many undesirable aspects of driver behaviour arises as a
consequence of deliberate or intentional acts, i.e. they are unforced errors as opposed to forced
errors. A study by Watson et al. (2007) in Australia indicated that risky intentions of motorcycle
riders were primarily initiated by the desire for sensation seeking, while safe intentions were
based on the behavioural control in the form of personal discipline. Many studies show that risky
attitudes of road users can be explored by studying disobedience and violations. Detailed
discussions related to this topic are provided by Reason et al. (1990), Rothengatter (1997),
Underwood et al. (1997), Yagil (2005), Forward (2006), and Forward (2009b).
An approach to change the negative behaviour such as disobedience towards traffic rules is via
controlling factors influencing unpredictable actions such as speeding in residential areas and
changing lanes without indicating. It is argued that driving performance is affected by propensity
to commit driving errors and traffic violations; attitudes towards the driving style of their own
and other road users; attitudes towards the vehicle they control; and general personal attributes
(Rosenbloom and Shahar, 2007; Underwood et al. 1997). In other words, violations can be
related to rider attitudes towards that behaviour, social norm concerning these actions, perceived
behavioural control, and moral norms (Rothengatter and Manstead 1997). Jonah (1997) has
shown that another causal factor is the thrill seeking behaviour of the rider.
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Rothengatter (1997) has argued that it is important to differentiate between driver error and
propensity to violate traffic rules, in their contribution to major accidents. The concept of driving
error has often been contrasted with violations (Bjørnskau and Sagberg 2005). Reason et al.
(1990) have stated that errors and violations are mediated by different psychological mechanisms
to explain the difference. Forward (2009a) has also stated that crashes on roads are often
attributed to wilful violation of traffic rules. Several studies have shown that violations, not
errors or lapses, are associated with road crashes and regular violators are not only more likely to
collide with others, but also place themselves in situations where others collide with them
(Stradling and Parker 1997; Rothengatter and Manstead 1997).
Motorcyclist behaviour towards traffic violations, interestingly, is guided by different factors
than just attitudes and behaviours. Tunnicliff (2006) argued that the motorcyclist behaviour needs
to be studied distinctly from other road users. Paulozi (2005), for example, argue that the risk
taking behaviour among motorcyclists is influenced by the excessive number of their presence
on roads. Rowden et al. (2009) and Dandona et al. (2006) highlight the uniqueness of risk taking
behaviour of motorcyclists in Australia and India, compared to other road users. Chang and Yeh
(2007) points out that young male motorcyclists were more likely to disobey traffic regulations,
while Musselwhite et al. (2012) note that motorcyclists tend to view safety in terms of being able
to handle the bike and knowing limitations and capabilities of the two wheel vehicle. These
forms of rider behaviour and attitudes are difficult to be modified by only driving licence
requirements (Rowden et al. 2009).
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Joewono et al. (2012) found that attitudes, habits, preferences, and travel behaviour of
motorcyclists have significant correlations with their tendency to engage in violation of traffic
rules on a regular basis. However, Susilo et al. (2014) found that factors that construct the beliefs
and attitudes, social norms, and perceived behaviour control of the motorcyclists in Indonesia are
not necessarily the same as factors that usually construct such behavioural elements in developed
countries. This study aims to further investigate reasons underlying the violation behaviour of
motorcyclists in Indonesia, and how those reasons interact with each other.
3. Survey Methodology
3.1 Questionnaire design
A structured questionnaire was developed to collect information regarding motorcyclist
behaviour and attitudes about operating motorcycles in urban areas. Ethical guidelines were
complied with in developing the questionnaire. A preliminary report related to this work has been
documented by Joewono (2010). The questionnaire form consisted of six sections. The first
section elicited demographic characteristics of motorcyclists using six questions for age, gender,
marital status, status of the respondent in the household structure (as a husband, wife, child,
relative, friend or other), level of education, and employment status. Section two consisted of ten
questions which explored travel characteristics of the motorcyclist. These were trip purpose,
number of fellow travellers, frequency of motorcycle usage per day, average distance travelled
per motorcycle trip, total distance per day, average travel time per trip, total travel time per day,
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motorcycle ownership, reasons for using motorcycle, and type of driving license owned.
In this study, the factors influencing violations were recorded in two different parts, i.e. for
violations caused by internal factors and external factors. Section three of the questionnaire
asked 14 items about external factors that can influence the motorcyclist behaviour. These
external factors include road environment and vehicle conditions. The road environment
questions cover topics such as traffic conditions, road width and number of lanes, general
impression of the road alignment, perception about road side conditions as well as the condition
of road signs, lane markings and road surface. The part for recording vehicle features contained
four questions, i.e. engine type and capacity, age of motorcycle, modifications done to the
motorcycle, and maintenance status. Participants responded using a five-point scale, from 1 for
very often violate to 5 for never violate. The internal factors were explored in the section four of
the questionnaire. This section included four questions about physical condition of the
motorcyclist and five questions about his/her attitudes.
Three types of violations were examined in this questionnaire: violations related to road rules
when participants ride motorcycles (17 types); violations related to habits in riding motorcycle
(15 types); and violations related to prevailing community norms (6 types). These information
were gathered in the fifth section of the questionnaire. This section also explored the decision the
motorcyclist usually takes when caught for involvement in crashes. Participants were required to
provide a score on a four point scale from 1 for very often to 4 for never in these parts of the
questionnaire.
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3.2 Respondents
A total of 3000 motorcyclists were recruited from three cities, i.e. Bandung, Yogyakarta and
Surabaya, to participate in this study. An equal sample size was selected for each city, i.e. 1000
respondents per city. The target number was adopted based on Israel (1992), who recommended
a minimum sample size of 400 for a population size more than a hundred thousand motorcycles
to achieve a 5% level of precision. According to the vehicle registration data, number of
motorcycles in Bandung in 2006 was 448.651 (BPS Bandung, 2007), in Yogyakarta was 256.224
in 2007 (BPS Yogyakarta, 2009), while in Surabaya in 2010 was 3.122.901 units (Kompas,
2011).
The respondents are motorcyclist riders and they were recruited at variety of public areas, such
as transport terminals, bus and paratransit stops, shopping malls, schools, and offices. The
questionnaire is distributed as a self-administered questionnaire. In the occasion the respondent
did not want to write, the surveyor asked the questions as a face to face interview. It is
acknowledged that the process of sample selection may not be fully random as the members of
public were approached based on the availability of the respondent. The questionnaire was
administered only for those respondents who admitted to being motorcycle riders. The survey
took approximately 20 minutes to complete. Respondents received a small gift for participation
in the survey. The cost of gift was about 50 US cents. Packets of different types of commodities
(tea or coffee) were available for respondent to select.
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In Bandung, the survey was carried out between 20 and 29 September 2010, whereas in
Yogyakarta and Surabaya the surveys were carried out between 22 September and 1 October
2010. The success rate of selecting a potential respondent willing to complete the questionnaire
was around 90%. After reviewing the completeness of the collected questionnaires, it was found
that 983, 980, and 978 samples can be used for analysis to represent Bandung, Yogyakarta, and
Surabaya, respectively. There were some valid non-responses in relation to some questions. The
number of non-responses for such questions in the Bandung dataset varied from zero to 33,
which meant at most, 33 respondents (3.4%) did not answer a particular question. In Yogyakarta,
the maximum number of non-responses was 59 (6%), while in Surabaya, there were a maximum
of 20 non-responses (2%). To manage the missing values resulting from non-responses, an
average imputation method was applied. The average imputation method applied was simple and
did not change the mean values estimated and only reduced the variance (Stopher, 2012). This
method was selected here because the number of non-response was small. The method reduced
the standard deviation of the effected variables by a value up to 0.0025.
4. Survey Results
4.1 Demographic Characteristics
Demographic properties of participants of this study are presented in Table 1. Table 1 shows the
age distribution of motorcyclists in these three cities, where around 80% of them are in
economically productive age groups. Similar percentage values are shown for Yogyakarta and
Surabaya, while a larger number of young motorcyclists (17-29 years old) have been observed in
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Bandung. Yogyakarta has a higher percentage of senior citizens riding motorcycles when
compared with the other two urban areas.
Bandung has a higher proportion of male motorcycle riders than females. Similarly, there are
more single motorcyclists than married. It is interesting to notice that distribution of status of
respondents at home is similar in the three cities. It is also important to note the similarity of
level of education of the respondents, where those with senior high school as their highest
education is dominant (50%) followed by undergraduates (around 30%).
Motorcyclists in Bandung are predominantly students (52%) and a similar pattern is observed in
Yogyakarta (39.9%). In Surabaya, the majority of the motorcyclists is in private sector
employment (42.1%).
In this sample of motorcyclists, it is expected that the most common type of driving license is
designated only for motorcycle use. This license is known to locals as SIM C. The highest
percentage of people who own more than one driving license is found in Bandung (41.9%). It is
worrying to notice a high proportion of respondents who ride motorcycles without a valid driving
license. Around 8% to 15% of respondents in these three cities rides motorcycles without a valid
driving licence.
+++ Insert Table 1 around here +++
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4.2 Descriptive of the Attributes
Table 2 and Table 3 report the descriptive statistics of external and internal factors of respondents
in the three cities. External factors related to road environment have mean scores between 3.13
and 3.95 for respondents in Bandung. Respondents in Yogyakarta have corresponding mean
scores between 3.60 and 4.17, and scores for Surabaya are quite similar between 3.58 and 4.13.
In this tabulation, high score means less frequent. It is interesting to note that the lowest and
highest mean scores in all three cities are for the same attributes: the lowest score is for traffic
condition and the highest score is for police enforcement operations. For external features related
to vehicle conditions, the attribute of vehicle modification has the lowest score in Bandung and
Surabaya. The attribute of engine capacity has the lowest score in Yogyakarta. The attribute of
vehicle maintenance is found with the highest score in all three cities (see Table 2).
For the factor of physical conditions, Table 3 shows that in Bandung, being intoxicated has the
lowest score, while being fatigued has the lowest score in Yogyakarta and Surabaya. Attribute
with the highest score in the three cities is the body size, such as weight and height of the
motorcyclist. For the factor of attitudes, emotional stress has the lowest score, while the attribute
of environmental awareness has the highest score in all cities. For this factor, high score means
less frequent.
+++ Insert Table 2 and Table 3 around here +++
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Table 4 provides descriptive statistics of the type of violations reported by the respondents. As
before, higher score means lower frequency. There are three groups of violations, i.e. regulations,
habits, and norms. For factor of violations related to the regulations, the attributes of stopping
beyond stop line, not turning on turning signal, and not displaying correct registration number
plate have the smallest score in Bandung, Yogyakarta and Surabaya, respectively. Changing the
headlight to a non-standard headlight and modifying the motorcycle and its colour received the
highest score in Bandung. Installing a loud exhaust pipe has the highest score in Yogyakarta and
Surabaya.
For the habit factor, chatting with other motorcyclists or passengers has the lowest mean score in
Bandung and Yogyakarta, while overtaking on the wrong side has the lowest mean score in
Surabaya. Riding illegally on overpasses and footbridges, driving recklessly, and riding on
pedestrian sidewalks are attributes with the highest mean score for Bandung, Yogyakarta and
Surabaya, respectively. For the factor related to norms, turning on the engine power in narrow
alleys and prohibited areas has the smallest mean score, while using the horn in prohibited areas
has the highest mean score in Bandung, Yogyakarta and Surabaya.
For the factor of impacts and decisions, there are six attributes to explain as shown in Table 5.
The motorcyclists in all three cities show that accepting responsibility when there is a violation
as the attribute with the lowest mean score (most frequent), while hit and run is the attribute with
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the highest mean score (least frequent).
5. Model Estimations
5.1 Constructing a behavioural model
Based on findings from previous studies and attributes and factors that have been analysed,
several hypotheses were formulated and tested. For this purpose, collections of variables that are
of interest to this study are referred to as constructs. The constructs are explained as unobserved
variables (Strube, 2000), and often called factors (Klem, 2000), as a way to reflect the hypothesis
(often incompletely formed) involving a variety of behavioural indicators that correlate with one
another (Kline, 2005). The constructs are depicted in large ovals shown in Figure 1. The
hypotheses are symbolised using arrows in Figure 1. The hypotheses in word form are:
H1: the construct of influencing factors is built by four constructs, i.e. road environment,
vehicle conditions, physical conditions, and attitudes.
H2: the construct of type of violations is built by three constructs, i.e. regulations, habits, and
norms.
H3: the construct of violations is positively influenced by influencing factors.
H4: the construct of violations positively influences the impacts and decisions.
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Three models using the structural equation modelling has been estimated. Table 6 displays the
overall fit of the three models. The overall model chi-square values using datasets from Bandung,
Surabaya, and Yogyakarta are 2016.745, 2700.703, and 1992.277 with 425, 518, and 551 degrees
of freedom, respectively. The relevant p-values are much lower than 5%. However, given known
problems associated with using this test particularly when the effective sample size is large, it is
common practice to evaluate the ratio between the chi-squared value and the degree of freedom
in assessments. Models using dataset from Bandung and Yogyakarta have a ratio lower than 5,
while only Surabaya has a value slightly higher than 5. A ratio below 5 indicates a reasonable fit
according to Arbuckle and Wothke (1999).
Structural equation modelling software provides many goodness-of-fit statistics and Hair et al.
(2006) have suggested a rule of thumb to rely on at least one absolute fit index and one
incremental fit index, in addition to the chi-squared value. The values of RMSEA (Root Mean
Square Error of Approximation), an absolute fit index, are 0.062, 0.066, and 0.052, for models
for Bandung, Surabaya, and Yogyakarta, respectively. These values are lower than the threshold
value 0.08, and provide an acceptable error of approximation. The CFI (Comparative Fit Index),
as incremental fit index, has values of 0.889, 0.859, and 0.912, for the models using datasets
from Bandung, Surabaya, and Yogyakarta, respectively. The values are close to one, suggesting
that the estimated models provide a reasonable good fit. Further, using the RMSEA and the CFI
satisfies the rule of thumb that both a badness-of-fit index and a goodness-of-fit index be
evaluated. Other index values are also supportive, i.e. RMR (Root Mean Square Residual) which
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is lower than 0.08 and GFI (Goodness-of-fit Index) that is close to one. Thus, it can be concluded
that the hypothesis imbedded in the models are supported by data which were derived from
relevant measurements. A detail discussion regarding the statistics can be found in Hair et al.
(2006) and Byrne (2001).

Table 7 and Table 8 display the complete list of standardized loadings to show the magnitude of
the effects. The tabulations include information regarding the measures of validity, namely
variance extracted and construct reliability, to describe the extent to which the study is accurate.
Detail explanation regarding standardized loadings and the measurement of validity of structural
equation modelling can be also found in Hair et al. (2006). From all attributes, the lowest loading
obtained is 0.590 for sudden lane changes without signalling (a factor related to habits) using the
dataset from Bandung. The lowest loading in the model using dataset from Surabaya is 0.608
linking traffic condition and road surface condition to the factor of road environment. In
Yogyakarta, it is found that the lowest loading is 0.594 linking speeding in residential areas to
the factor of norms.
Table 8 has also shown that variance estimates range from 0.405 to 0.652. Most variances
extracted has exceeded the 0.50 rule of thumb. Construct reliabilities range from 0.726 to 0.905,
which means all exceed 0.70 suggesting adequate reliability. Collectively, these evidence
supports the convergent validity of the measurement model. Although some loading estimates
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are below the suggested value, it does not appear to significantly harm model fit or internal
consistency. Most variances extracted exceeded 0.5, and again all reliability estimates exceeded
0.7. These additional information also indicate that the models fit relatively well. Therefore, all
the items are retained at this point.
+++ Insert Table 7 and Table 8 around here +++

Furthermore, Table 9 shows the standardized structural parameter estimates for indicated paths in
Figure 1. All structural path estimates are significant with a high degree of confidence, i.e. at
0.001 level of significance, and in the expected direction. Thus, it can be concluded that the
hypothesised paths are supported for the three models.
5.2 Discussion
The structural equation models for all three cities explain that the construct of violations is
positively influenced by the construct of influencing factors (hypothesis 3). This construct is
positively influenced by four constructs referred to as external and internal features, i.e. road
environment, vehicle conditions, physical conditions, and attitudes (hypothesis 1). Moreover, the
construct of violations is positively influenced by three constructs regulations, habits, and norms
(hypothesis 2). The models also show that the construct of violations positively influences the
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construct of the impacts including decisions motorcyclists make following incidents (hypothesis
4). These relationships are found to be significant in the three models calibrated separately for
each city. They imply that motorcyclists in these three cities have similar behaviour when riding
motorcycles in urban road. Thus, it is believed that these behavioural characteristics be
applicable to other cities in Indonesia and would be a subject of a future study. Findings of this
study are consistent with results from previous studies presented by Ajzen (1991), Cooper (1997),
Jakobsson et al. (2002), and Forward (2009a, b).
It is worth noting that the analysis presented here could be viewed as applicable to functional
riding where trips are performed for a specific travel purpose rather than riding enjoyment
(expressive riding). It is acknowledged that separation of the database to functional and
expressive riding responses could have been a worthwhile contribution to follow up on the
earlier work by Broughton and Stradling (2005) and Broughton et al. (2009) who have discussed
the differentiation between these two types motorcycle riding. In our study, about 90% of
respondents used motorcycles for a functional trip purpose. Susilo et al. (2014) have documented
details about trip purpose patterns of the respondents considered in the present study.
The primary purpose of this study has been to identify measureable attributes suitable as
constructs of structural equation models. Modelling results have shown that attributes that
explain reasons for involvement in violations are almost same for the three cities. Only few
instances showed a different pattern. Therefore, there is a potential for introduction of
behavioural change policy by the central government while allowing for local variations to be
determined in consultation with regional governments.
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The constructs of road environment and attitudes, two constructs to influence actions of traffic
violations, have variations in the number and type of attributes. Six attributes of the construct of
road environments are significant in explaining the model in all three cities. These attributes
were traffic condition, road width, road geometry, road surface condition, road signs, and
roadside condition. These findings indicate that motorcyclists are involved in road violations as a
response to the poor quality of roads being not in line with user expectations. Road quality is a
country level problem and requires policy initiatives from the central government as the road
network is developed using national standards published by the Ministry of Public Works
Besides those six attributes, the presence of passengers is significant in the model for Bandung
and Yogyakarta, while the weather and time of day are significant in the model for Surabaya and
Yogyakarta. These attributes have different magnitudes of effects to the motorcyclist in these
three cities. Since Surabaya and Yogyakarta have a higher outdoor temperature than in Bandung,
it is understandable that motorcyclists try to reach destinations as soon as possible. This is an
environmental aspect that has a significant influence to the motorcyclist behaviour on the road. It
is also understandable that accompanying passengers have significant influence in Bandung and
Yogyakarta, since these two cities are well known to contain high number of university students.
The construct of attitudes has three significant attributes in all three cities (law obedience,
driving manner, and emotional stress). On one hand, these three attributes imply a common
reason for motorcyclists to be involved in traffic violations. On the other hand, remaining
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attributes show unique characteristics of motorcyclists in a given city. The attribute of dress style,
as a way to explain the fashion style of the motorcyclist in wearing clothes and accessories, is
found significant in the model of Surabaya and Yogyakarta, while the attributes of environmental
awareness is significant only in the model of Surabaya.
The constructs of vehicle conditions and physical aspects have shown that there is a similarity in
reasons for motorcyclist traffic violations in the three cities. In the construct of vehicle conditions,
four attributes are significant, i.e. vehicle maintenance, vehicle modification, vehicle age, and
engine capacity. A possible reason for this phenomenon is the widespread availability of
information regarding motorcycle technology, accessories and life-style. It becomes a genre for
motorcycle lovers to have a club follow the up-to-date technology and latest trends. Three
attributes in the construct of physical conditions are also significant, i.e. physical ability, fatigue,
and intoxication. These physical aspects seem to underline stereotypical motorcyclist behaviour.
There are other significant attributes in the construct of type of violations with variations among
cities. For the construct of regulations, Surabaya and Yogyakarta have stronger similarity with
six significant explanatory attributes (i.e. not wearing regular helmet, disobeying traffic signs and
signals, stopping beyond stop lines, not installing rear-view mirrors, switching off headlight
during the day, and failure to correctly display registration number plate), while only two
attributes (illegal crossing at traffic signals and using illegal short cuts) are significant in
Bandung.
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In the construct of habit, three attributes are significant in all three city models (pushing
motorcycle between vehicle lanes, speeding and street racing, and driving recklessly). The
attribute of overtaking on the wrong side is found significant in Bandung and Yogyakarta models,
while sudden turning movement without signalling and blocking road lane are found significant
only in Bandung model. Moreover, in the construct of norms, two attributes are significant in the
three cities, i.e. speeding in residential areas and being inconsiderate to other road users. These
norms are seen as well entrenched in this region. However, it is anticipated that this type of
culture will lose its strength with modernisation.
The models have been able to support the phenomenon that there are general patterns of attitudes
of motorcyclists in Indonesian cities, with some variations among individuals. In general, actions
become acceptable in many cities regardless of the type of local cultural background. Traffic
violations could contradict the traditional norm of being considerate to others. In the past, people
refrained from speeding in residential areas to avoid disturbing others and out of respect to the
elderly. But, now many motorcyclists do not follow that tradition. On the other hand, certain
attributes have a local context. For example, violations related to illegally crossing traffic signal
is significant only in Bandung. A possible reason is the perceived lack of interest of local
institutions to handle such violations. As local institutions appear to be not interested, more and
more motorcyclists adopt a negative behaviour. This is not significant in results from the other
two cities, where the local institutions do attempt to eliminate such behaviour.
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Furthermore, two attributes (i.e. arrested by police and involved in a crash) are significant in the
construct of impacts and decisions in all three models. Hit and run decision is found to be
significant in Bandung and Yogyakarta, while decision to escape from the site following a
violation is found to be significant in Bandung and Surabaya. This finding indicates that
involvement in crashes as well as being arrested by police are anticipated as possible outcomes
of violations. Violations are committed while motorcyclists are aware of impacts and risks
associated with their behaviour.
The way motorcyclists are involved in violations and reasons are mainly a result of local
characteristics. Thus, it is required to modify the road user behaviour with measures that suit
local situations. Related stakeholders need to work together to understand the particular
circumstances and formulate appropriate measures. As characteristics of road networks in one
city can be different from another city, traffic management systems need to consider such
differences. Similarly, selection of the location and type of traffic calming methods to manage
vehicle speed in residential areas should account for network characteristics as well as local
conditions.
Modelling results imply the important role of norms and habits as well. Eastern cultures are
experiencing changes with considerable damage to the local heritage that used to mould
individual behaviour in the past. An approach is needed to harness the strength of local
knowledge and manners to effectively manage road users.
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The role of information and education can also have a significant impact on control of traffic
violations. It is an effective way to make public aware of risks of careless behaviour on roads.
This study has shown that information can change behaviour in the way users maintain and
modify the motorcycles. It is also shown that motorcyclists share information about risks
associated with their behaviour. The challenge is to use the role of information to change
motorcyclists to fully understand implications of their behaviour. Also, road managers and
related experts should be knowledgeable about needs and perceptions of road users.
There has to be a strong push at the national level to provide a high quality road network and
urban planning framework to negate the need and opportunities to violate traffic rules.
Community and public participation could be necessary in such attempts. This study has shown
reasons why people behave contradictory to their own knowledge about risks. It suggests that
reasons outweigh the risks from road user perspective. Better understanding of needs of road
users may assist in reducing the propensity of people to violate traffic rules. This
recommendation is in line with Rosenbloom and Shahar (2007). They concluded that there is a
need for a range of solutions including upgrading of driving skills. There is evidence connecting
driving behaviour with demographic factors, such as gender and age (see Yagil, 1998) to
environmental and infrastructural factors (such as traffic congestion and characteristics of
message signs), situational factors (such as fatigue) and personality factors (such as sensation
seeking and aggression).
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Behavioural modifications are potentially useful in reducing traffic violations and resulting
crashes on roads. An opportunity should be given to encourage people to share positive
behaviour on roads using campaigns or advertisements. Such modifications could incorporate the
information and technology advancements to produce knowledgeable road users. Lacroix and
Silcock (2004) have earlier proposed a campaign style traffic education program for general
public. This suggestion is in agreement with Jacobson et al. (2002) who have argued that norms,
trust, and shared values between individuals and within social groups are significant in shaping
the behaviour of individuals. Also, Susilo and Joewono (2013) have argued that modifying and
influencing socially ‘acceptable’ behaviour could be relatively easy to achieve in Indonesia,
where the influence of ‘elders’ and community based guidance are still strong.
6. Conclusions
Based on responses of motorcyclists in three cities in Indonesia, this article reports a study
regarding reasons behind actions of motorcyclists involved in a range of different violations. The
causal relationships of reasons, the type of violations, and impacts are addressed. This study
found many similarities of behaviour among motorcyclists in the three cities surveyed, while
particular differences were also found. The similarities are likely due to the common behaviour
among motorcyclists resulting from the influence of standards and guidelines of roads,
motorcycle technology, as well as changes in norms of eastern societies, while the differences are
due to unique local conditions.
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The estimated model is able to rank the range of reasons for actions of motorcyclists, where they
commit traffic violations. It can be inferred that road users react positively to the quality of
infrastructure and related traffic management systems when provided with a quality product and
level of service. Road users react to poor roads with an indifferent attitude leading to traffic
violations. Related to this aspect is the law enforcement. This study has indicated that the
enthusiasm of local institutions to enforce traffic regulations shapes the behaviour of road users.
Further studies are required to better understand the problem of traffic violations in developing
countries. It is necessary to evaluate violations according to different demographic characteristics
to unravel the confounding variables. It is also important to explore traffic violations according
to motorcycle trip characteristics (functional and expressive riding) to draw meaningful lessons
from developed countries.
Acknowledgment
Authors thank the Directorate General of Higher Education, Ministry of Cultural and Education,
Republic of Indonesia for funding this research project under the scheme of Competence Grant
for the second year based on the decree of Director for Research and Community Services No.
285/D3/PL/2010 dated 24 February 2010. This article is a part of the research project entitled
“Understanding the Construct of Traffic Psychology as a Base for Developing Urban Traffic
Management in Indonesia.” Authors also express their appreciation to all parties who provided
assistances to complete this research work. The reviewers are especially thanked for their
guidance and constructive suggestions that greatly improved this document.
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Table 1 Demographic properties of respondents
Proportion
Characteristics Bandung Yogyakarta Surabaya
(n=983) (n=980) (n=978)
Age Younger than 17 years old 3.8 4.2 3.1
17-29 years old 64.4 49.3 49.1
30-39 years old 20.2 25.6 33.9

40-49 years old 8.7 12.1 10.1
50-59 years old 2.6 7.3 3.3
60 years old or older 0.2 1.4 0.5
Gender Male 82.1 62.8 57.2
Female 17.9 37.2 42.8
Marital Single 65.4 61.1 58.5
status Married 34.6 38.9 41.5
Status at Husband 28.2 25.0 25.7
home Wife 6.3 13.0 14.6
Child 55.0 48.3 45.9
Relative 3.5 3.6 4.4
Friend 2.7 3.2 5.3
Other 4.3 7.0 4.1
Education Elementary or lower 1.9 2.4 1.0
Junior high school 7.4 8.2 6.1
Senior high school 48.6 48.4 51.9
Diploma 7.4 8.9 7.8
Bachelor degree 30.9 28.7 29.7
Post graduate 3.7 3.5 3.5
Occupation Student 52.0 39.9 27.8
Civil servant /soldier 6.9 8.0 7.1
Private employee 17.7 25.2 42.1
Self employed 17.7 19.6 16.8
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Housewife 3.4 4.7 4.3

Retired / unemployed 2.3 2.7 1.9
Type of None 7.5 12.9 14.9
driving For conventional motor car (SIM A) 2.8 1.2 7.1
license For heavy vehicles such as trucks and 0.3 0.1 0.6
owned buses (SIM B)
For motorcycles (SIM C) 47.4 68.1 56.4
More than one type of driving license 41.9 17.8 21.0
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Table 2 Properties of external factors
Descriptive statistics
External Factors Bandung (n=983) Yogyakarta (n=980) Surabaya (n=978)
Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D.
Road environment
Traffic condition 3.13 1.002 3.60 1.010 3.58 0.956
Road width 3.36 1.039 3.79 1.014 3.78 0.965
Road geometry 3.50 1.050 3.99 0.991 3.96 0.983
Road surface condition 3.45 1.074 3.91 1.014 3.79 1.064

Road signs 3.45 1.007 3.82 0.970 3.96 0.990
Roadside condition 3.48 1.033 3.88 0.993 3.78 1.076
Weather 3.36 1.068 3.79 1.009 3.71 1.119
Time of day 3.23 1.061 3.70 1.003 3.74 1.027
Police enforcement operation 3.95 1.083 4.17 1.064 4.13 1.030
Characteristics of passenger 3.77 0.973 4.06 0.945 4.02 0.982
Vehicle conditions
Engine capacity 3.60 1.154 3.99 1.051 4.07 0.985
Vehicle age 3.68 1.051 4.05 0.994 4.11 1.021
Vehicle modifications 3.48 1.267 4.01 1.059 4.04 1.123
Vehicle maintenance 3.83 1.089 4.11 0.952 4.15 1.053
Note: 1 for very often violate to 5 for never violate
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Table 3 Properties of internal factors
Internal Factors Bandung (n=983) Yogyakarta (n=980) Surabaya (n=978)
Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D.
Physical
Body size 3.93 1.006 4.15 0.972 4.11 0.959
Intoxicated 3.47 1.494 3.91 1.325 3.95 1.383
Fatigued 3.56 1.131 3.84 1.058 3.79 1.138
Visual acuity 3.85 1.212 4.03 1.146 3.99 1.262

Attitudes
Emotional stress 2.40 1.134 3.08 1.100 2.94 1.160
Driving manner 3.26 1.061 3.82 1.014 3.81 1.069
Law obedience 3.50 1.009 3.92 0.967 3.89 1.051
Dress style 3.73 1.034 3.98 1.022 4.00 1.092
Environmental awareness 3.77 1.047 4.00 0.955 4.01 1.059
Note: 1 for very often violate to 5 for never violate
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Table 4 Properties of type of violations
Type of Violations Bandung (n=983) Yogyakarta (n=980) Surabaya (n=978)
Mean S.D. Rank Mean S.D. Rank Mean S.D. Rank
Violations related to road rules
Not carrying driving

3.00 0.96 8 2.79 0.99 10 2.77 1.04 11
licence or other proof
Not wearing regular
2.85 1.03 13 2.63 1.17 12 2.56 1.14 13
helmet
Disobeying traffic signs
2.67 0.88 16 2.52 1.00 15 2.44 1.03 16
and signals
Stopping beyond stop
2.60 0.84 17 2.59 1.07 13 2.62 1.03 12
lines
Illegal crossing at traffic
3.05 0.76 6 3.15 0.65 8 3.33 0.70 7
signals
Using illegal short cuts 2.91 0.78 10 3.09 0.71 9 3.26 0.70 9
Illegally parking any where 2.96 0.74 9 3.20 0.73 7 3.31 0.71 8
Driving against traffic flow 3.25 0.73 5 3.32 0.68 6 3.42 0.73 6
Not installing rear-view
2.87 1.08 12 2.54 1.23 14 2.52 1.19 14
mirror
Installing non-standard
3.37 0.84 1 3.59 0.70 3 3.46 0.81 5
headlights
Failure to use turn signals 2.69 1.03 15 2.43 1.16 17 2.49 1.10 15
Switching off headlight
2.70 1.03 14 2.69 0.98 11 2.80 1.01 10
during the day
Failure to correctly
display registration 2.89 1.15 11 2.52 1.31 15 2.36 1.24 17
number plate
Installing loud illegal 3.34 0.90 3 3.65 0.66 1 3.69 0.64 1
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exhaust pipe
Modifying motorcycle or
3.37 0.88 1 3.61 0.68 2 3.61 0.69 2
changing the paint colour
Failure to give way to
3.01 0.83 7 3.46 0.68 5 3.51 0.67 4
other vehicles to overtake
Carrying overweight
goods or too many 3.28 0.75 4 3.50 0.65 4 3.57 0.63 3
passengers
Violations related to habits
Overtaking on the wrong
2.56 0.79 14 2.72 0.75 14 2.87 0.82 15

side
Pushing motorcycle
2.66 0.82 12 2.96 0.78 11 2.98 0.81 12
between vehicles lanes
Speeding and street racing 2.57 0.85 13 2.79 0.87 13 2.90 0.85 14
Riding recklessly 3.32 0.80 3 3.51 0.71 1 3.51 0.73 2
Riding slowly in the fast
3.34 0.71 2 3.48 0.65 2 3.50 0.67 3
lane
Sudden turning movement
3.10 0.65 5 3.22 0.65 8 3.40 0.64 7
without signalling
Blocking the road lane 2.99 0.82 8 3.44 0.68 4 3.44 0.70 6
Listening to music while
2.96 0.97 9 3.36 0.81 6 3.29 0.86 8
riding
Smoking, eating, or
3.00 0.88 7 3.26 0.83 7 3.45 0.78 5
drinking while riding
Using a mobile phone
2.86 0.81 11 3.19 0.77 9 3.23 0.77 10
while riding to text or call
Chatting with other
motorcyclists or 2.47 0.82 15 2.69 0.79 15 2.91 0.78 13
passengers while riding
Failure to wear helmet or
recommended safety 3.01 0.76 6 3.14 0.73 10 3.25 0.74 9
appliance
Not wearing a jacket or
2.94 0.79 10 2.91 0.79 12 3.08 0.80 11
similar recommended
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clothing
Riding on illegally on
overpasses and 3.50 0.74 1 3.47 0.72 3 3.48 0.79 4
footbridges
Driving on pedestrian
3.25 0.74 4 3.42 0.70 5 3.52 0.70 1
sidewalk
Violations related to norms
Using horn in prohibited
3.56 0.63 1 3.69 0.55 1 3.73 0.57 1
areas
Excessive use of high
3.26 0.77 3 3.40 0.72 5 3.46 0.71 4

beam
Turning on the headlight
3.29 0.77 2 3.45 0.72 4 3.45 0.70 5
in prohibited areas
Turning on the engine
power in narrow alleys 2.88 0.75 6 3.18 0.67 6 3.43 0.67 6
and prohibited areas
Being inconsiderate to
3.25 0.73 4 3.49 0.61 3 3.61 0.62 3
other road users
Speeding in residential
3.24 0.72 5 3.59 0.61 2 3.63 0.62 2
areas
Note: 1 for very often to 4 for never; Rank is based on mean values
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Table 5 Properties of type of impacts and decisions
Type of Violations Bandung (n=983) Yogyakarta (n=980) Surabaya (n=978)
Mean S.D. Rank Mean S.D. Rank Mean S.D. Rank
Impacts and decisions in the event of breach
Involved in a crash 3.22 0.67 4 3.26 0.64 4 3.36 0.67 4

Arrested by police 3.31 0.67 3 3.28 0.62 3 3.47 0.65 3
Attempted to hit and run 3.78 0.57 1 3.85 0.45 1 3.84 0.47 1
Did not experience any
2.97 0.98 5 3.13 0.95 5 3.26 0.95 5
impact or damage
Accepted responsibility 2.88 0.82 6 2.92 0.91 6 3.02 0.87 6
Escaped from the location
3.49 0.75 2 3.69 0.51 2 3.69 0.67 2
when violate
Note: 1 for very often to 4 for never; Rank is based on mean values
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Table 6 Goodness of fit indices
Statistics
Indices
Bandung Surabaya Yogyakarta

 2016.745 2700.703 1992.277
df (degree of freedom) 425 518 551
p-value 0.000 0.000 0.000
df 4.745 5.214 3.616
RMR (Root Mean Square Residual) 0.051 0.057 0.043
RMSEA (Root Mean Square Error of Approximation) 0.062 0.066 0.052
GFI (Goodness-of-fit Index) 0.878 0.846 0.889
CFI (Comparative Fit Index) 0.889 0.859 0.912
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Table 7 Standardized loading factors of factors influencing violation of road rules

Loading factors
Influencing Factors
Road environment
Traffic condition 0.686 0.608 0.665
Road width 0.704 0.669 0.668
Road geometry 0.748 0.626 0.700
Road surface condition 0.701 0.608 0.632
Road signs 0.689 0.655 0.682
Roadside condition 0.632 0.678 0.668

Passengers 0.599 0.613
Weather 0.651 0.674
Time of day 0.712 0.666
Variance extracted 0.464 0.425 0.440
Construct reliability 0.852 0.849 0.877
Vehicle conditions
Vehicle maintenance 0.740 0.737 0.624
Vehicle modifications 0.740 0.689 0.736
Vehicle age 0.769 0.793 0.806
Engine capacity 0.769 0.764 0.825
Physical
Physical ability (such as visual acuity) 0.762 0.843 0.815
Fatigued 0.790 0.763 0.758
Intoxicated 0.764 0.806 0.785
Attitudes
Law obedience 0.715 0.706 0.693
Dress style 0.683 0.630
Environmental awareness 0.682
Driving manner 0.837 0.689 0.773
Emotional stress 0.673 0.627 0.729
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Table 8 Standardized loading factors of type of violations and impacts
Loading factors
Type of violations and Impacts
Violations related to road rules
Not wearing regular helmet 0.733 0.723
Disobeying traffic signs and signals 0.776 0.776

Stopping beyond stop lines 0.681 0.766
Illegal crossing at traffic signals 0.739
Using illegal short cuts 0.724
Not installing rear-view mirror 0.819 0.874
Switching off headlight during the day 0.695 0.809
Failure to correctly display registration number
0.835 0.884
plate
Violation related to habits
Overtaking on the wrong side 0.742 0.649
Pushing motorcycle between vehicles lanes 0.805 0.695 0.783
Speeding and street racing 0.682 0.813 0.709
Riding recklessly 0.678 0.704 0.680
Sudden turning movement without signalling 0.590
Blocking the road lane 0.702
Violations related to norms
Speeding in residential areas 0.653 0.712 0.594
Being inconsiderate to other road users 0.739 0.804 0.721
Impacts and decisions in the event of breach
Escape from the location when violate 0.706 0.623
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Attempted to hit and run 0.747 0.650

Arrested by police 0.663 0.654 0.632
Involved in a crash 0.690 0.631 0.701
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Table 9 Standardized regression weights
Regression weights*
Relationships between constructs
Violations  Influencing factors 0.638 0.767 0.756
Road environment  Influencing factors 0.905 0.868 0.874
Vehicle conditions  Influencing factors 0.765 0.849 0.797
Physical conditions  Influencing factors 0.690 0.584 0.659
Attitude  Influencing factors 0.871 0.961 0.951

Regulations  Violations 0.868 0.184 0.248
Habits  Violations 0.916 0.671 0.832
Impact and Decisions  Violations 0.689 0.734 0.504
Norm  Violations 0.880 0.684 0.780
* significantly different from zero at the 0.001 level
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Figure 1 Hypothesized model of influencing factors and types of violations
Road
Environment
Vehicle
Conditions
Influencing
Violations Impacts
Factors
Physical
Conditions
Attitudes
Law &
Norms Habits
Regulations
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Behavioural Causes and Categories of Traffic Violations by Motorcyclists in Indonesian UrbanRoads - GOOD EXAMPLE

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This article was downloaded by: [Kungliga Tekniska Hogskola]

On: 25 August 2014, At: 02:29

Journal of Transportation Safety & Security

Behavioural Causes and Categories of Traffic Violations

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19439962.2014.952467

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Behavioural Causes and Categories of Traffic Violations by Motorcyclists in Indonesian

Tri Basuki JOEWONO*

Parahyangan Catholic University

Jl. Merdeka 30 Bandung, Indonesia 40117

School of Civil and Environmental Engineering

University of New South Wales

Kensington Campus, Sydney, Australia, 2052

Department of Transport Science

KTH Royal Institute of Technology

Teknikringen 10, 100 44 Stockholm, Sweden

Date of submission: 24 February 2014

Date of revised submission: 7 June 2014

Date of revised submission (second): 16 July 2014

investigated in developed countries, the availability of such knowledge in rapidly motorising

equation modelling has been performed to investigate factors influencing motorcyclists to

phenomenon of motorcyclists developing a lack of respect to traffic rules.

Keywords: motorcyclists, traffic violations, behavioural causes, urban roads, safety

improvement, rapidly motorising countries.

expansion of employment and educational opportunities, which in turn lead to improvement of

emotions of the driver.

Chi Minh City have access to a motorcycle (PADECO 2000).

Ministry of Transportation, 2004).

Bandung, Yogyakarta and Surabaya.

2. Behavioural Aspects of Traffic Violations by Motorcyclists

(Stradling and Parker 1997; Rothengatter and Manstead 1997).

Motorcyclist behaviour towards traffic violations, interestingly, is guided by different factors

requirements (Rowden et al. 2009).

3.1 Questionnaire design

A structured questionnaire was developed to collect information regarding motorcyclist

motorcyclist and five questions about his/her attitudes.

to achieve a 5% level of precision. According to the vehicle registration data, number of

questionnaire is distributed as a self-administered questionnaire. In the occasion the respondent

(tea or coffee) were available for respondent to select.

of 20 non-responses (2%). To manage the missing values resulting from non-responses, an

the standard deviation of the effected variables by a value up to 0.0025.

4.1 Demographic Characteristics

compared with the other two urban areas.

education is dominant (50%) followed by undergraduates (around 30%).

Yogyakarta (39.9%). In Surabaya, the majority of the motorcyclists is in private sector

+++ Insert Table 1 around here +++

4.2 Descriptive of the Attributes

+++ Insert Table 2 and Table 3 around here +++

has the highest mean score in Bandung, Yogyakarta and Surabaya.

+++ Insert Table 4 around here +++

the highest mean score (least frequent).

+++ Insert Table 5 around here +++

5.1 Constructing a behavioural model

vehicle conditions, physical conditions, and attitudes.

H3: the construct of violations is positively influenced by influencing factors.

+++ Insert Figure 1 around here +++

according to Arbuckle and Wothke (1999).

(2006) and Byrne (2001).

+++ Insert Table 6 around here +++

the factor of norms.

the items are retained at this point.

+++ Insert Table 7 and Table 8 around here +++

hypothesised paths are supported for the three models.

+++ Insert Table 9 around here +++