German Unification Notes

Why was German Unification unlikely in 1815? (We have almost the entire first

chapter, so I have kept it short on purpose)

The German Confederation was set up at the Congress of Vienna (1815) with 39

separate states all being controlled by separate rulers. The Diet (Parliament) of the

Confederation included representatives from each state chosen by the individual

princes. It had little power as there was unanimous verdicts and no army or civil

service. ‘Peaceful Dualism’ meant that Austria and Prussia dominated and shared the

control of Germany. The southern catholic states tended to look towards Austria for

leadership and the northern, protestant states to Prussia. There was cultural, religious

and national disunity. Some non-Germans were part of the Confederation; some

Confederation states were ruled by non-Germans and parts of the Habsburg Empire

was outside of the Confederation. There was also the catholic/protestant divide. The

Junkers (aristocratic landowners) dominated society. The army and civil service were

dominated by the aristocracy and there was little industry or large towns.

What were the forces for Change between 1815 and 1848?

The Zollverein grew out of the Prussian Customs Union (1818) which got rid of

customs barriers within Prussia. It was felt that protectionism amongst all the German

states was holding German economic growth back and a customs union was needed.

According to political and economic thought at the time, this was going to lead to

economic prosperity.
However, other states were wary of Prussian economic domination. A Middle Union

was formed as a rival to the Zollverein, intended to ensure its failure. In 1830, Hesse-

Cassel left the rival Middle Union and joined the PCU. The Middle Union collapsed

and 18 states joined the PCU to form the Zollverein in 1834. By 1848 only Austria,

Hanover, Oldenburg, Mecklenburg and the Hanseatic towns were NOT in the

Zollverein. The Growth of German Nationalism was seen in German students and

educated middle classes demonstrating at Wartburg (1817) and Hambach (1832). The

growth of liberalism could be seen in the students and the educated Middle Classes

campaigned for a Constitution and liberal measures e.g. in Baden in the 1840s

(Hippenheilm – 1847).

Why did Revolutions Break Out?

Long Term: Rising Middle Class wanting political representation/liberalism; increase

in population which led to food shortages and industrialisation which led to a growth

of poor living and working conditions in the expanding towns. These poor living

conditions made people miserable, and attracted them to revolutionary violence and

feelings.

Short Term: Harvest failures in 1846 and 1847; Trade recession in Europe in 1847 and

other revolutions in Europe e.g. Paris, Hungary and Vienna.

What were the main developments in the Revolutions?

The Frankfurt Parliament

Set up by the ‘Vorparlement’, the Frankfurt Parliament was a liberal dominated

assembly of 596 men from all states given the task of drawing up a Constitution for a

United Germany.

However, it FAILED because it became a ‘talking shop’ without real action; there were

too many different representatives who called for different things e.g.

‘Kleindeutschland’ (a small Germany without Austria) or ‘Grossdeutschland’ (a larger

Germany to include Austria); it had no real power (no army or civil service); it lacked

the support of the masses; it took too long to decide on a Constitution, especially when

it wasted time on the Fifty Articles; It had weak leadership; the radicals and liberals

were divided and didn’t cooperate with each other. The death knell came when

Frederick William IV, after the Constitution had been decided, refused to take the

Crown he was being offered.

The Revolution in Prussia

Demonstrations and riots in Berlin 13th-19th March 1848 led to Frederick William IV

to accept the election of an Assembly to draw up a new Liberal Constitution and new

Liberal Ministers (21st March). The Assembly spent March-December trying but

failing to agree. In August in opposition the Junkers set up ‘The League for the

Protection of Landed Property’ (‘The Junker Parliament’) which aimed to abolish the

Prussian Assembly and new Ministers. After concluding the War with the Danish,

Frederick William IV regained control and gained the support of the Middle Classes

(as they disliked the worker riots). He dismissed the new Liberal Ministers and in
December 1848 dissolved the Assembly by Royal Decree. However, he granted his

own Constitution in December 1848 which had: an upper and lower house (Lower

house voted for by universal manhood suffrage); granted liberal measures e.g. Free

Press and legal system. However, he could alter it at any time e.g. in an emergency he

could suspend civil rights and collect taxes; he also appointed his own Ministers and

controlled the army. Effective and real power was still in his own hands. The

Constitution was clearly more conservative than liberal. Nevertheless Liberals and

Nationalists preferred it to the Frankfurt Parliament.

Revolution in Austria, 1848

Empire was vulnerable to revolutionary challenge. Ethnic minorities sought

nationalistic goals: Hungarians, Slavs, Czechs, Italians, Serbs, Croats, and others.

(More non Germans than Germans lived in the empire). Austrian government was

reactionary; liberal institutions were non-existent. Social reliance on serfdom

(working for the lord for free) doomed masses of people to a life without hope.

“February Revolution” in France sparked rebellion for liberal reforms.

March 13 – rioting breaks out in Vienna which then led to the Austrian empire

collapsing; Metternich fled. The Constituent assembly meets to try and appease the

revolt. Serfdom abolished, revolution withers. Revolutionary government failed to

govern effectively which leads to Ferdinand I’s abdication. Habsburgs restored under

Franz Joseph (r. 1848-1916).

Austria, however, reasserted control in Vienna. At the time, the Frankfurt parliament

finally drafted a Constitution in which there was going to be an Emperor from within
the German kings and princes. It offered emperorship to Prussian King. Frederick

William declined, and this meant that the Frankfurt Parliament clearly lost all

legitimacy. Some of the liberals now recognized that the Parliament was dead.

Radicals took to the barricades. Prussian army crushed all resistance.

The Success of Revolution:

1) Discredited Conservative ideas

The Failures of Revolution:

1) Discredited Liberal Ideas

2) Too many Chiefs not enough Indians – As in, there was little popular support

3) Union of Liberals and Democrats not followed up and Democrats were

alienated

4) Rule of Force the only winner

5) Liberalism died in Germany – Militarism and the idea of hierarchy are

triumphant.

Impact of Revolution on Those Who Controlled the Federation

The Erfurt Union: Following the failure of the Frankfurt Parliament, the Prussian

Army General von Radowitz proposed the setting up of the Erfurts Union, a

‘kleindeustchland’ led by Prussia with ‘special links’ to Austria. This was done for the

purpose of ensuring Prussian domination of other German states. Set up in May 1850,
28 states joined. Austrian Chief Minister Schwarzenberg saw the Erfurt Union as an

attempt by Prussia to take over the control of Germany. He summoned a meeting of

the old Confederation Diet and proposed a ‘Grossdeutschland’ under the leadership

of Austria.

A Revolution in Hesse-Cassel broke out and they turned to the Diet for help in sorting

out their problems. However, it was a member of the Erfurt Union. Austria and

Prussia therefore conflicted on who should help and it led to small scale fighting

between the two in October 1850.

The Olmutz Declaration: anxious to avoid war, the Prussian Minister President,

Manteuffel agreed to abandon the Erfurt Union at Olmutz on the 29th November 1850.

However, Prussia confirmed its economic control after Austria attempted to set up a

rival Customs Union to the Zollverein called the Zollunion. Its failure meant that

Prussia kept economic control while Austria kept political control.

What were the main developments in the Prussia 1850-62?

Prussia had an ‘Industrial Revolution’ due to an abundance of raw materials in the

Saar, Ruhr and in Silesia. The Railways developed massively: 1845: 3,280 km to 1860:

11,633 km. This helped with trade to other countries and would later help mobilise

the Prussian Army. Foreign trade doubled. Entrepreneurs and Iron and Steel

Magnates like Alfred Krupp and his Needle gun would assist economic

developments which would later help the army. Prussia developed an extensive

Banking System. It was now in a position of clear economic strength.

What were the main political developments in Prussia 1850-62?

The Crimean War led to Austria proposing a Prussian/Austrian Alliance against

Russia. This upset the Russians and ended the ‘Holy Alliance’. Prussia stayed neutral.

William I becomes the Prussian King in 1858. He keeps the Constitution but replaces

Manteuffel with a ministry of conservatives and liberals. In 1859, Austria is humiliated

in defeat at War with France and Piedmont which cripples her army and economy

(North Italian War). The Liberals in Parliament in 1859 set up the ‘Nationalverein’

which aimed at German unity through Prussian Leadership. In 1860-62, the new

Minister for War General Von Roon tried to pass an ‘Army Bill’ (to increase

conscription time from 2-3 years; doubling the size of the army and reducing the role

of the ‘Landwehr’ or middle class civilian militia). Parliament repeatedly refused to

pass the Bill. In June 1861, Radical liberals set up the ‘Progressive Party’ which aimed

to have a people’s army controlled by a parliament rather than an army controlled by

the King. They gained 110 seats in Parliament in Dec1861 and had an overall majority

in May 1862. This became a major constitutional crisis. As a result, Von Roon

persuaded William I to appoint Bismarck as Minister President to sort the problem

out and to get the Army Bill passed.

On Bismarck

Bismarck was appointed Minister President in 1862. He quickly solves the

Constitutional crisis by overriding Parliament. When the Progressives told people not

to pay taxes, Bismarck replied he had an army of 200,000 soldiers ready to persuade

them to pay! Bismarck then ruled Germany without Parliament for the next 4 years.

He later got the Prussian Parliament to pass the Indemnity Bill which forgave him for

all his actions taken during the 4 years that he had ruled without them.
 Was Bismarck a Master Planner or a great Opportunist?

Bismarck later declared that he had carefully planned unification of Germany in 5

clear steps from 1862. He said that he had planned:

1. To Obtain Russian Neutrality

2. To trick Austria into declaring War

3. To ensure French Neutrality

4. To Treat Austria Leniently after Defeat.

5. To Trick France into Declaring War.

Opportunism:

There is no doubt that Bismarck had a favourable ‘deck of cards’ handed to him in

1862 and not all events were planned as he suggested. He inherited: a favourable

European diplomatic situation; a formidable economy, a powerful army and a liberal

education system.

The Polish Revolt 1863

CAUSES:

Poland had been divided between Russia, Austria, Prussia and Poland in the 18th

Century. Poles in Russia revolted in 1863 because they wanted independence from
the absolutist rule of the Tsar. Bismarck feared the Poles in Prussia would also revolt

and decided to take action.

EVENTS:

Bismarck offered assistance against the Russian Poles but was refused. At the

‘Alvensleben Convention’ Bismarck agrees to send any Polish rebels back to Russia

if they escaped over the border. Austria and France condemn this action and

Prussian Liberals call for his dismissal. As a result, Bismarck is forced to deny the

agreement existed.

CONSEQUENCES:

Russia was angered by Bismarck’s denials. However, she was more angry at Austria

after the Crimean War. Therefore Russia was likely to remain neutral if a war broke

out between Austria and Prussia

War with Denmark

CAUSES:

King Frederick VII of Denmark who ruled North German states of Schleswig and

Holstein died leaving no heir. It led to a succession dispute between the German

Prince of Augustenburg and the Danish Christian of Glucksburg.

EVENTS:

Prussia supported the German Prince and Austria, scared that German states would

see Prussia as upholding German interests decided to join with Prussia to invade

Schleswig and Holstein on Augustenburg’s behalf. Prussia and Austria defeated the

Danes quickly. At the Treaty of Vienna in October 1864 Prussia and Austria agreed to

jointly control both territories. However, Prussia wanted to control the territories

while Austria wanted control to go to Augustenburg. The Convention of Bad-Gastein

decided that Prussia would govern Schleswig and Austria would govern Holstein.

This geographical situation meant that this situation now meant that relations

between Prussia and Austria began to deteriorate rapidly. It ultimately led to the

outbreak of the Seven Weeks War between them.

Tensions between the two states grew over Schleswig and Holstein. Prussia made a

secret alliance with Italy in April 1866 whereby Prussia promised to declare war on

Austria within 3 months and hand Venetia over to Italy in the event of victory.

Bismarck meets Napoleon III at Biarritz in October 1865 to try to gain French neutrality

in the event of an Austro-Prussian War. Napoleon agrees to gain Venetia which she

would then hand to Italy. Bismarck puts forward plans to reform the German

Constitution which would give Prussia increasing control. The Austrians obviously

oppose it and in anticipation of further trouble, in defence, they mobilise their armies

in April 1866. Prussia is now given the excuse they needed and invades Holstein.

However, the Austrians withdraw to the annoyance of Bismarck. He then asks for

states support against Austria and when he receives none, he invades and takes over

Hanover, Hesse-Cassel and Saxony. With the help of the Italians (Austria has to fight
on 2 fronts) Prussia decisively defeat the Austrians at Konnigratz/Sadowa on 3rd July

1866.

William I, von Roon and other leading Generals like von Moltke wanted to march onto

Vienna and bring Austria under Prussian control. Bismarck dramatically advised

against this and advises that Prussia should end the War. (He was worried that France

and Russia might get involved to stop them). Bismarck organises for the Prussians

and the Austrians to meet at Prague in August 1866.

CONSEQUENCES:

The Treaty of Prague in August 1866 was incredibly lenient on Austria. The North

German Confederation is set up and Germany is now divided into: The North German

Confederation (led by Prussia) and Austria and 4 independent South German States

which formed themselves into a union (Bavaria, Wurrtenberg, Baden and Hesse-

Darmctadt) also Austria lost Venetia to the Italians (through France). Secret Military

alliances were soon made with the Southern States whereby the Southern States

whereby the Southern States promised to fight with the Prussia in the event of war

with another country. In 1867 the Zollverein was remodelled to include a

Zollparlament – who’s job it was to discuss Zollverein policy, of which the southern

states were members. Austria was militarily and economically crippled and France

had not joined the War as a result of Bismarck ending it early.

The Franco Prussian War

CAUSES:

The Luxemburg crisis: In 1866 Napoleon III, worried about Prussia’s increasing

strength, demanded Luxemburg from the King of Holland. Bismarck initially

supports the French claim, but by the end of 1866 is trying to gain support for a

German ruled Luxemburg.

The Hohenzollern Candidature Crisis: In 1868 revolutionaries drove the Queen of

Spain out of the country leaving a Spanish succession crisis. In February 1870 the

Spanish Parliament offers the throne to Leopold of Hohenzollern, who was related to

the Prussian Royal family. Prussia had a choice: to accept the throne would give them

Spain as an Ally but it would worry the French.

The Ems Telegram:

On the 12th July 1870 Leopold of Hohenzollern’s father withdrew his son as a

candidate. On the 13th July 1870 the French Ambassador Count Benedetti met William

I at the German town of Ems. William accepted the withdrawal of Leopold, but

refused to accept the further French demand that Leopold withdraws permanently.

William sends Bismarck a telegram describing his talks with Benedetti and gives

Bismarck permission to release it to the press.

Bismarck releases his own version of the telegram which angers the French so much

that they declare war on Prussia on the 19th July 1870.

EVENTS:

The highly effective and efficient Prussian Army (including representatives from the

4 southern states) cut a large section of the French Army off at the French city of Metz.
On the 2nd September 1870 the Prussians defeat the French at the Battle of Sedan

Hill.On the same day the French surrendered to the Prussians – Napoleon III was

taken prisoner and held in Cassel until the Spring of 1872 before he fled to England

and died the following year.

The Prussians kept advancing until they reached Paris and on the 18th January they

humiliated the French by declaring a fully united German Empire led by King William

I at Versailles.

A united German Empire with William I as the Emperor was set up on thE 18th

January 1871.

Did Bismarck have a ‘Master Plan’ for Unification?

What other factors were involved in the Unification process? (Factors outside of

Bismarck’s control that he used as an opportunity).

To what extent were the actions of others responsible for unification? E.g. Napoleon

III

MASTER PLAN?

Bismarck later declared that he had carefully planned unification of Germany in 5

clear steps from 1862. He said that he had planned:

1. To Obtain Russian Neutrality

 2. To trick Austria into declaring War

3. To ensure French Neutrality

4. To Treat Austria Leniently after Defeat.

He said he obtained Russian neutrality through the ‘Alvensleben Convention’ of 1863.

He said he tricked Austria into War with Prussia by setting up the argument over

Schleswig and Holstein. He ensured French neutrality for the Austro-Prussian War by

making an agreement with Napoleon at Biarritz in October 1865.

He ensured Austrian neutrality in the future Franco-Prussian War by treating the

Austrians leniently at the Treaty of Prague in August 1866. He did persuade William

and von Roon NOT to march onto Vienna. He did ensure that most states were united

in the North German Confederation in the Treaty of Prague. He manipulated France

into declaring War on Prussia (and he had already made secret military agreements

to gain the support of the Southern States) through the Hohenzollern Candidature

Crisis and his skilful editing of the Ems Telegram.

This view is supported by Bismarck himself and early German historians as well.

Bismarck had a favourable ‘deck of cards’ handed to him in 1862. He inherited: a

favourable European diplomatic situation; a formidable economy, a powerful army

and a liberal education system. However, many historians believe that after 1862 there

were circumstances outside of Bismarck’s control that he used to benefit Prussia and

therefore they believe he was more of an Opportunist.

EVIDENCE:
Actions of the Poles: How could Bismarck have known in advance that the poles

would rebel? It is more likely he offered Russia support because he feared revolts in

Prussian Poland. The fact he nearly lost his job as a result of Liberals and Britain and

France condemning his agreement with Russia suggests his actions were NOT

planned.

The Neutrality of Russia: Bismarck actually upset the Russian Tsar through denial of

the Alvensleben Convention. He was lucky that Austria had upset the Tsar more

during the Crimean War. He could not guarantee Russian neutrality as result.

The Schleswig-Holstein Affair: Bismarck kept trying to use diplomacy instead of War

right up to the outbreak of War. If he planned War why did he do this?

Actions of Napoleon III: It was Napoleon and NOT Bismarck who started the tension

between France and Prussia by demanding Luxemburg in 1866. It was also aggressive

French diplomacy over the Hohenzollern issue (Benedetti demanding William

permanently ban his Hohenzollern cousin from accepting the Spanish throne) which

allowed Bismarck to publish his version of the Ems Telegram. He could not have

known in advance about how aggressive France was going to be!

Bismarck was a skillful politician who was most probably a Prussian Supremacist who

wanted Prussian expansion at the expense of the Austrians. It is most unlikely that he

planned unification from the start and more likely that he used opportunities when

they presented themselves to benefit Prussia, initially and later, for Germany.