Reservoir Simulation Course PDF

FUNDAMENTALS OF RESERVOIR
SIMULATION
Dr. Mai Cao Lan,

GEOPET, HCMUT, Vietnam
Jan, 2014
ABOUT THE COURSE
COURSE OBJECTIVE
COURSE OUTLINE
REFERENCES
9/11/16 Dr. Mai Cao Lan, F aculty of G eology & Petroleum Engineering, HCMUT, Vietnam 2
Course Objective
• To review the background of petroleum reservoir
simulation with an intensive focus on what and how
things are done in reservoir simulations
• To provide guidelines for hands-‐‑on practices with

Microsoft Excel
COURSE OUTLINE
INTRODUCTION
FLOW EQUATIONS FOR PETROLEUM RESERVOIRS
FINITE DIFFERENCE METHOD & NUMERICAL SOLUTION FOR
FLOW EQUATIONS
SINGLE-‐‑PHASE FLOW SIMULATION
MULTIPHASE FLOW SIMULATION

References
§ T. Eterkin et al., 2001. Basic Applied Reservoir Simulation,

SPE, Texas
§ J.H. Abou-‐‑Kassem et al., 2005. Petroleum Reservoir

Simulation – A Basic Approach, Gulf Publishing Company,
Houston, Texas.
§ C.Mattax & R. Dalton, 1990. Reservoir Simulation, SPE,

Texas.
9/11/16 Mai Cao Lân – Faculty of Geology & Petroleum Engineering - HCMUT 5
INTRODUCTION
NUMERICAL SIMULATION – AN OVERVIEW
COMPONENTS OF A RESERVOIR SIMULATOR
RESERVOIR SIMULATION BASICS
Numerical Simulation – An Overview
Mathematical Formulation
Numerical Methods for PDEs
Numerical Methods for Linear Equations
Components of a Reservoir Simulator
Physical Model Computer Code
Reservoir
Simulator
Mathematical Model Numerical Model
What is Reservoir Simulation?
• A powerful tool for evaluating reservoir performance

with the purpose of establishing a sound field
development plan
• A helpful tool for investigating problems associated with

the petroleum recovery process and searching for
appropriate solutions to the problems
Reservoir Simulation Basics
• The reservoir is divided into a number of cells
• Basic data is provided for each cell
• Wells are positioned within the cells
• The required well production rates are specified as a

function of time
• The equations are solved to give the pressure and

saturations for each block as well as the production of
each phase from each well.
Simulating Flow in Reservoirs
• Flow from one grid block to the next

• Flow from a grid block to the well completion
• Flow within the wells (and surface networks)
Flow = Transmissibility * Mobility * Potential Difference
Geometry & Fluid Well

Properties Properties Production
SINGLE-‐‑PHASE FLOW
EQUATIONS
ESSENTIAL PHYSICS
CONTINUITY EQUATION
MOMENTUM EQUATION
CONSTITUTIVE EQUATION
GENERAL 3D SINGLE-‐‑PHASE FLOW EQUATION
BOUNDARY & INITIAL CONDITIONS
Essential Physics
The basic differential equations are derived from the

following essential laws:
§ Mass conservation law
§ Momentum conservation law
§ Material behavior principles
Conservation of Mass
Mass conservation may be formulated across a control element with one fluid
of density ρ, flowing through it at a velocity u:
u
ρ
Δx
⎧Mass into the ⎫ ⎧Mass out of the ⎫ ⎧Rate of change of mass⎫

⎨ ⎬ − ⎨ ⎬ = ⎨ ⎬
⎩element at x ⎭ ⎩ element at x + Dx ⎭ ⎩ inside the element ⎭
Continuity Equation
Based on the mass conservation law, the continuity equation can be
expressed as follow:
∂ ∂
− ( Aρ u ) = A (φρ )
∂x ∂t
For constant cross section area, one has:
∂ ∂
− ( ρ u ) = (φρ )
∂x ∂t
Conservation of Momentum
Conservation of momentum for fluid flow in porous materials

is governed by the semi-‐‑empirical Darcy's equation, which for
one dimensional, horizontal flow is:
k ∂P
u=−
µ ∂x
Equation Governing Material Behaviors
§ The behaviors of rock and fluid during the production

phase of a reservoir are governed by the constitutive
equations or also known as the equations of state.
§ In general, these equations express the relationships

between rock & fluid properties with respect to the
reservoir pressure.
Constitutive Equation of Rock
The behavior of reservoir rock corresponding to the
pressure declines can be expressed by the definition of the
formation compaction
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ ∂φ ⎞
c f = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ φ ⎠ ⎝ ∂P ⎠T
For isothermal processes, the constitutive equation of rock

becomes
dφ
= φc f
dP
Constitutive Equation of Fluids
The behavior of reservoir fluids corresponding to the
pressure declines can be expressed by the definition of fluid
compressibility (for liquid)
1 ⎛ ∂V ⎞
cl = − ⎜ ⎟ , l = o, w, g
V ⎝ ∂P ⎠T
For natural gas, the well-‐‑known equation of state is used:
PV = nZRT
Single-‐‑Phase Fluid System
Normally, in single-‐‑phase reservoir simulation, we would

deal with one of the following fluids:
Fluid System
One Phase Gas One Phase Water One Phase Oil
Single-‐‑Phase Gas
The gas must be single phase in the reservoir, which means

that crossing of the dew point line is not permitted in order
to avoid condensate fall-‐‑out in the pores. Gas behavior is
governed by:
ρ gs constant
ρg = =
Bg Bg
Single-‐‑Phase Water
One phase water, which strictly speaking means that the

reservoir pressure is higher than the saturation pressure of
the water in case gas is dissolved in it, has a density
described by:
ρws constant
ρw = =
Bw Bw
Single-‐‑Phase Oil
In order for the oil to be single phase in the reservoir, it

must be undersaturated, which means that the reservoir
pressure is higher than the bubble point pressure. In the
Black Oil fluid model, oil density is described by:
ρ oS + ρ gS Rso
ρo =
Bo
Single-‐‑Phase Fluid Model
For all three fluid systems, the one phase density or

constitutive equation can be expressed as:
constant
ρ=
B
Single-‐‑Phase Flow Equation
The continuity equation for a one phase, one-‐‑dimensional system of
constant cross-‐‑sectional area is:
∂ ∂
− (ρu ) = (φρ )
∂x ∂t
The fluid model:
The conservation of
k ∂P constant
momentum for 1D,
horizontal flow is:
u=− ρ=
B
µ ∂x
Substituting the momentum equation and the fluid model into the
continuity equation, and including a source/sink term, we obtain the
single phase flow in a 1D porous medium:
∂ ⎛ k ∂P ⎞ qsc ∂ ⎛ φ ⎞
⎜ ⎟ + = ⎜ ⎟
∂x ⎝ µ B ∂x ⎠ Vb ∂t ⎝ B ⎠
Single-‐‑Phase Flow Equation for Slightly
Compressible Fluids
∂ ⎛ k ∂P ⎞ qsc ⎡ c f d (1/ B) ⎤ ∂P
⎜ ⎟ + = φ ⎢ + ⎥
∂x ⎝ µ B ∂x ⎠ Vb ⎣ B dP ⎦ ∂t
Based on the fluid model, compressibility can now be defined in terms of
the formation volume factor as:
d (1/ B)
cl = B , l = o, g , w
dP
Then, an alternative form of the flow equation is:
∂ ⎛ k ∂P ⎞ qsc φ ∂P φ ct ∂P
⎜ ⎟ + = ⎡⎣c f + cl ⎤⎦ ≡
∂x ⎝ µ B ∂x ⎠ Vb B ∂t B ∂t
Single-‐‑Phase Flow Equation for Compressible
Fluids
∂ ⎛ k ∂P ⎞ qsc ∂ ⎛ φ ⎞
⎜ ⎟ + = ⎜ ⎟
∂x ⎝ µ B ∂x ⎠ Vb ∂t ⎝ B ⎠
Boundary Conditions (BCs)
Mathematically, there are two types of boundary conditions:
• Dirichlet BCs: Values of the unknown at the boundaries

are specified or given.
• Neumann BCs: The values of the first derivative of the

unknown are specified or given.
Boundary Conditions (BCs)
From the reservoir engineering point of view:
§ Dirichlet BCs: Pressure values at the boundaries are

specified as known constraints.
§ Neumann BCs: The flow rates are specified as the known

constraints.
Dirichlet Boundary Conditions
For the one-‐‑dimension single phase flow, the Dirichlet boundary
conditions are the pressure the pressures at the reservoir boundaries,
such as follows:
P(x = 0, t > 0) = PL
P(x = L, t > 0) = PR
A pressure condition will normally be specified as a bottom-‐‑hole

pressure of a production or injection well, at some position of the
reservoir.
Newmann Boundary Conditions
In Neumann boundary conditions, the flow rates at the end faces of the
system are specified. Using Darcy's equation, the conditions become:
kA ⎛ ∂P ⎞ kA ⎛ ∂P ⎞
Q0 = − ⎜ ⎟ QL = − ⎜ ⎟
µ ⎝ ∂x ⎠ x=0 µ ⎝ ∂x ⎠ x = L
For reservoir flow, a rate condition may be specified as a production or

injection rate of a well, at some position of the reservoir, or it is
specified as a zero-‐‑rate across a sealed boundary or fault, or between
non-‐‑communicating layers.
General 3D Single-‐‑Phase Flow Equations
The general equation for 3D single-‐‑phase flow in field units (customary
units) is as follows:
∂ ⎛ Ax k x ∂Φ ⎞ ∂ ⎛ Ay k y ∂Φ ⎞
⎜ β c ⎟ Δx + ⎜ β c ⎟ Δy
∂x ⎝ µ B ∂x ⎠ ∂y ⎝ µ B ∂y ⎠
∂ ⎛ Az k z ∂Φ ⎞ Vb ∂ ⎛ φ ⎞
+ ⎜ β c ⎟ Δz + qsc = ⎜ ⎟
∂z ⎝ µ B ∂z ⎠ α c ∂t ⎝ B ⎠
∇Φ = ∇p − γ∇Z Z: Elevation, positive in downward direction
αc, βc, γc: Unit conversion factors
γ = γcρg
3D Single-‐‑Phase Flow Equations for
Horizontal Reservoirs
The equation for 3D single-‐‑phase flow in field units for horizontal
reservoir is as follow:
∂ ⎛ Ax k x ∂p ⎞ ∂ ⎛ Ay k y ∂p ⎞
⎜ β c ⎟ Δx + ⎜ β c ⎟ Δy
∂x ⎝ µ B ∂x ⎠ ∂y ⎝ µ B ∂y ⎠
∂ ⎛ Az k z ∂p ⎞ Vb ∂ ⎛ φ ⎞
+ ⎜ β c ⎟ Δz + qsc = ⎜ ⎟
∂z ⎝ µ B ∂z ⎠ α c ∂t ⎝ B ⎠
1D Single-‐‑Phase Flow Equation with
Depth Gradient
∂ ⎛ Ax k x ∂p ⎞ Vb ∂ ⎛ φ ⎞
⎜⎜ β c ⎟⎟Δx + qsc = ⎜ ⎟
∂x ⎝ µB ∂x ⎠ α c ∂t ⎝ B ⎠
∂ ⎛ Ax k x ∂Z ⎞
+ ⎜⎜ β c γ ⎟⎟Δx
∂x ⎝ µB ∂x ⎠
Quantities in Flow Equations
Quantities in Flow Equations
FINITE DIFFERENCE METHOD &
NUMERICAL SOLUTION OF SINGLE-‐‑PHASE
FLOW EQUATIONS
FUNDAMENTALS OF FINITE DIFFERENCE METHOD
FDM SOLUTION OF THE SINGLE-‐‑PHASE FLOW EQUATIONS
Numerical Solution of Flow Equations
§ The equations describing flui flows in reservoirs are of

partial differential equations (PDEs)
§ Finite difference method (FDM) is traditionally used for

the numerical solution of the flow equations
Fundamentals of FDM
In FDM, derivatives are replaced by a proper difference formula based on
the Taylor series expansions of a function:
(Δx)1 ∂f (Δx)2 ∂ 2 f (Δx)3 ∂ 3 f (Δx) 4 ∂ 4 f

f ( x + Δx) = f ( x) + + + + + ⋅⋅⋅
1! ∂x x 2! ∂x 2 x
3! ∂ x 3
x
4! ∂ x 4
x
The first derivative can be written by re-‐‑arranging the terms:
∂f f ( x + Δx) − f ( x) Δx ∂ 2 f (Δx)2 ∂ 3 f
= − − − ⋅⋅⋅
∂x x Δx 2! ∂x 2 x
3! ∂x x 3
Denoting all except the first terms by O (Δx) yields
∂f f ( x + Δx) − f ( x)
= + O(Δx)
∂x x Δx
The difference formula above is of order 1 with the truncation error being
proportional to Δx
Fundamentals of FDM (cont.)
To obtain higher order difference formula for the first derivative, Taylor series
expansion of the function is used from both side of x
(Δx)1 ∂f (Δx)2 ∂ 2 f (Δx)3 ∂ 3 f (Δx) 4 ∂ 4 f

f ( x + Δx) = f ( x) + + + + + ⋅⋅⋅
1! ∂x x 2! ∂x 2 x
3! ∂ x 3
x
4! ∂ x 4
x
(−Δx)1 ∂f (−Δx)2 ∂ 2 f (−Δx)3 ∂ 3 f (−Δx)4 ∂ 4 f

f ( x − Δx) = f ( x) + + + + + ⋅⋅⋅
1! ∂x x 2! ∂x 2 x
3! ∂ x 3
x
4! ∂ x 4
x
Subtracting the second from the first equation yields
∂f f ( x + Δx) − f ( x − Δx) (Δx) 2 ∂ 3 f

= − 3
− ⋅⋅⋅
∂x x 2Δx 3! ∂x x
The difference formula above is of order 2 with the truncation error being
proportional to (Δx)2
∂f f ( x + Δx) − f ( x − Δx)
= + O(Δx 2 )
∂x x 2Δx
Typical Difference Formulas
Forward difference for first derivatives (1D)
∂f f ( x + Δx) − f ( x)
= + O(Δx)
∂x x Δx
or in space index form
∂f f −f
= i +1 i + O(Δx)
∂x i Δx
i-1 i i+1
Δx
Backward difference for first derivatives (1D)
∂f f ( x) − f ( x − Δx)
= + O(Δx)
∂x x Δx
∂f fi − fi −1
= + O(Δx)
∂x i Δx
i-1 i i+1
Δx
Centered difference for first derivatives (1D)
∂f f ( x + Δx) − f ( x − Δx)
= + O(Δx 2 )
∂x x 2Δx
∂f fi +1 − fi −1
= + O(Δx 2 )
∂x i 2Δx
i-1 i i+1
Δx
Centered difference for second derivatives (1D)
∂2 f f ( x + Δx) − 2 f ( x) + f ( x − Δx) 2
= + O ( Δx )
∂x 2 x
Δx 2
∂2 f fi +1 − 2 fi + fi −1 2
2
= 2
+ O ( Δx )
∂x i Δx
i-1 i i+1
Δx
Forward difference for first derivatives (2D)
∂f f ( x, y + Δy) − f ( x, y)
= + O(Δy)
∂y ( x, y ) Δy

i,j+1
∂f fi , j +1 − fi , j
= + O(Δy)
∂y (i , j ) Δy i-1,j i,j i+1,j
i,j-1
Backward difference for first derivatives (2D)
∂f f ( x, y) − f ( x, y − Δy )
= + O(Δy)
∂y ( x, y ) Δy

i,j+1
∂f fi , j − fi , j −1
= + O(Δy) i-1,j i,j i+1,j
∂y (i , j ) Δy
i,j-1
Centered difference for first derivatives (2D)
∂f f ( x, y + Δy) − f ( x, y − Δy)
= + O(Δy 2 )
∂y ( x , y ) 2Δy

i,j+1
∂f fi , j +1 − fi , j −1
= + O(Δy 2 ) i-1,j i,j i+1,j
∂y (i , j ) 2Δy
i,j-1
Centered difference for second derivatives (2D)
∂2 f f ( x, y + Δy) − 2 f ( x, y) + f ( x, y − Δy) 2
= + O ( Δy )
∂y 2 ( x, y )
Δy 2

i,j+1
∂2 f fi , j +1 − 2 fi , j + fi , j −1
= + O(Δy 2 ) i-1,j i,j i+1,j
∂y 2 (i , j )
Δy 2
i,j-1
Solving time-‐‑independent PDEs
§ Divide the computational domain into subdomains
§ Derive the difference formulation for the given PDE by replacing all
derivatives with corresponding difference formulas
§ Apply boundary conditions to the points on the domain boundaries
§ Apply the difference formulation to every inner points of the

computational domain
§ Solve the resulting algebraic system of equations
Exercise 1
§ Solve the following Poisson equation:
∂2 p 2
2
= −16π sin(4π x) 0 ≤ x ≤1
∂x
subject to the boundary conditions:
p=2 at x=0 and x=1
Exercise 2
∇ 2u = sin(π x)sin(π y)
0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1
u = 0 along the boundaries x = 0, x = 1, y = 0, y = 1
Boundary Condition Implementation
Newmann BCs:
∂p
=C
∂x b
∂p p1 − p0 ∂p pnx +1 − pnx
≈ =C ≈ =C
∂x 1−1/2 x1 − x0 ∂x nx +1/2 xnx +1 − xnx
p0 = p1 − C Δx1 pnx +1 = pnx + C Δxnx
Boundary Condition Implementation
Dirichlet BCs:
pb = C
(1 + Ω ) p1 − Ωp2 = C (1 + Ω ) pn x
− Ωpnx −1 = C
Δx1 Δxnx
Ω= Ω=
Δx1 + Δx2 Δxnx + Δxnx −1
Exercise 3
∇ 2u = (λ 2 + µ 2 ) exp(λ x + µ y)
0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1, λ = 2, µ = 3
u = exp(λ x + µ y); y = 0, y = 1
∂u
= λ exp(λ x + µ y); x = 0, x = 1
∂x
Solving time-‐‑dependent PDEs
§ Divide the computational domain into subdomains
§ Derive the difference formulation for the given PDE by replacing all
derivatives with corresponding difference formulas in both space
and time dimensions
§ Apply the initial condition
§ Apply boundary conditions to the points on the domain boundaries
§ Apply the difference formulation to every inner points of the

computational domain
§ Solve the resulting algebraic system of equations
Exercise 4
§ Solve the following diffusion equation:
∂u ∂ 2u
= 2 ,0 < x < 1.0, t > 0
∂t ∂x
subject to the following initial and boundary conditions:
u ( x = 0, t ) = u ( x = 1, t ) = 0, t > 0
u ( x, t = 0) = sin(π x),0 ≤ x ≤ 1
§ Hints: Use explicit scheme for time discretization
Explicit Scheme
§ The difference formulation of the original PDE in Exercise 4 is:
n +1 n n n n
u i −u u − 2u + u
i i +1 i i −1
=
Δt (Δx)2
where
n=0,NT: Time step
i =1,NX: Grid point index
Implicit Scheme
§ The difference formulation for the original PDE in Exercise 4
n +1 n n +1 n +1 n +1
u i −u u i i +1 − 2u + u i i −1
= 2
Δt (Δx)
where
n=0,NT: Time step
Semi-‐‑Implicit Scheme
Semi-‐‑Implicit Scheme for the Diffusion Equation in Exercise 4 is
uin+1 − uin uin++11 − 2uin+1 + uin−+11 uin+1 − 2uin + uin−1

=θ 2
+ (1 − θ )
Δt (Δx) (Δx)2
where
0 ≤ θ ≤ 1
n=0,NT: Time step
When θ=0.5, we have Crank-‐‑Nicolson scheme

Discretization in Conservative Form
i-1 i i+1
∂ ⎡ ∂ P ⎤
⎢ f ( x)
∂ x ⎣ ∂ x ⎥⎦ Δx
⎡ ∂P ⎤ ⎡ ∂P ⎤ Δxi / 2 ∂ ⎡ ∂P ⎤ (Δxi / 2) 2 ∂ 2 ⎡ ∂P ⎤
⎢⎣ f ( x ) ⎥ = ⎢ f ( x ) ⎥ + ⎢ f ( x ) ⎥ + 2 ⎢
f ( x ) ⎥ + ...
∂x ⎦ i +1/2 ⎣ ∂x ⎦ i 1! ∂x ⎣ ∂x ⎦ i 2! ∂x ⎣ ∂x ⎦ i
–
⎡ ∂P ⎤ ⎡ ∂P ⎤ −Δxi / 2 ∂ ⎡ ∂P ⎤ (−Δxi / 2) 2 ∂ 2 ⎡ ∂P ⎤
⎢⎣ f ( x ) ⎥ = ⎢ f ( x ) ⎥ + ⎢ f ( x ) ⎥ + 2 ⎢
f ( x ) ⎥ + ...
∂x ⎦ i −1/2 ⎣ ∂x ⎦ i 1! ∂x ⎣ ∂x ⎦ i 2! ∂x ⎣ ∂x ⎦ i
⎡ ∂P ⎤ ⎡ ∂P ⎤
f ( x ) − f ( x )
∂ ⎡ ∂P ⎤ ⎢⎣ ∂x ⎥⎦ i +1/2 ⎢⎣ ∂x ⎥⎦ i −1/2
∂x ⎢⎣
f ( x )
∂x ⎥⎦ i
=
Δxi
+ O ( Δx )
2
( )
Discretization in Conservative Form
∂ ⎡ ∂ P ⎤ i-1 i i+1
⎢ f ( x)
∂ x ⎣ ∂ x ⎥⎦
Δx
⎡ ∂P ⎤ ⎡ ∂P ⎤
f ( x ) − f ( x )
∂ ⎡ ∂P ⎤ ⎢⎣ ∂x ⎥⎦ i +1/2 ⎢⎣ ∂x ⎥⎦ i −1/2
∂x ⎢⎣
f ( x )
∂x ⎥⎦ i
=
Δxi
+ O ( Δx )
2
( )
⎛ ∂P ⎞ Pi +1 − Pi ⎛ ∂P ⎞ Pi − Pi −1
⎜ ⎟ = + O(Δx) ⎜ ⎟ = + O(Δx)
⎝ ∂x ⎠i +1/2 2 (Δxi + Δxi +1 )
1
⎝ ∂x ⎠i −1/2 2 (Δxi + Δxi −1 )
1
( Pi +1 − Pi ) ( Pi − Pi −1 )
2 f ( x)i +1/2 − 2 f ( x)i −1/2
∂ ⎡ ∂P ⎤ (Δxi +1 + Δxi ) (Δxi + Δxi −1 )
⎢ f ( x ) ⎥ = + O(Δx)
∂x ⎣ ∂x ⎦ i Δxi
FDM for Flow Equations
§ FD Spatial Discretization
§ FD Temporal Discretization
Single-‐‑Phase Flow Equations
§ For slightly compressible fluids (Oil)
∂ ⎛ Ax k x ∂p ⎞ Vbφ ct ∂p
⎜ β c ⎟ Δx + qsc =
∂x ⎝ µ B ∂x ⎠ α c B ∂t
§ For compressible fluids (Gas)
∂ ⎛ Ax k x ∂p ⎞ Vb ∂ ⎛ φ ⎞
⎜ βc ⎟ Δx + qsc = ⎜ ⎟
∂x ⎝ µ B ∂x ⎠ α c ∂t ⎝ B ⎠
FDM for Slightly Compressible Fluid Flow
Equations
FD Spatial Discretization of the LHS
Discretization of the left side term

⎛ ∂P ⎞ ⎛ ∂P ⎞
f ( x)i + 1 ⎜ ⎟ − f ( x)i − 1 ⎜ ⎟
∂ ⎡ ∂P ⎤
2
⎝ ∂x ⎠i + 1 2
⎝ ∂x ⎠i − 1
⎢ f ( x) ⎥ = 2 2
+ O(Δx)
∂x ⎣ ∂x ⎦ i Δxi
Ax k x ⎛ ∂P ⎞ = ( Pi +1 − Pi ) ⎛ ∂P ⎞ ( Pi − Pi −1 )
where f ( x) = β c ⎜ ⎟ 1
x ( x x ) / 2
⎜ ⎟ 1 =
∂
µ B ⎝ ⎠i + 2 Δ i +1 + Δ i ⎝ ∂x ⎠i − (Δxi −1 + Δxi ) / 2
2
The discretization of the left side term is then
∂ ⎛ Ax k x ∂p ⎞ ⎛ Ax k x ⎞ ⎛ Ax k x ⎞
β
⎜ c Δx ≈
⎟ i ⎜ c β ⎟ ( Pi +1 − Pi ) − β
⎜ c ⎟ ( Pi − Pi −1 )
∂x ⎝ µ B ∂x ⎠i ⎝ µ BΔx ⎠i + 12 ⎝ µ BΔx ⎠i − 12
Transmissibility
Define transmissibility as the coefficient in front of the

pressure difference:
⎛ Ax k x ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
Tx = ⎜ β c ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
i± 1
2 ⎝ Δx ⎠i ± 1 ⎝ µB ⎠i ± 1
2 2
FD Spatial Discretization
The left side term of the 1D single-‐‑phase flow equation is
now discritized as follow:
∂ ⎛ Ax k x ∂P ⎞
⎜ β c ⎟ Δxi ≈ Txi + 12 ( Pi +1 − Pi ) + Txi − 12 ( Pi −1 − Pi )
∂x ⎝ µ B ∂x ⎠i
Transmissibility
⎛ Ax k x ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
Tx = ⎜ β c ⎟ 1 ⎜ ⎟ 1
i± 1
2 ⎝ Δx ⎠i ± ⎝ µ B ⎠i ±
2 2
Transmissibility (cont’d)
−1 −1 −1
⎛ Ax k x ⎞ ⎡
1 ⎛ Ax k x ⎞ ⎛ Ax k x ⎞ ⎤
⎜ β c ⎟ 1 = ⎢⎜ β c ⎟ + ⎜ β c ⎟ ⎥
⎝ Δx ⎠i ± 2 ⎢⎣⎝ Δx ⎠i ±1 ⎝ Δx ⎠i ⎥⎦
2
or
⎛ Ax k x ⎞ ( Ax k x )i ±1 ( Ax k x )i
⎜ β c ⎟ 1 = 2β c
⎝ Δx ⎠i ± ( Ax k x )i Δxi ±1 + ( Ax k x )i ±1 Δxi
2
Weighted Average of Mobility
λi + 1 =
(Δxi +1λi +1 + Δxi λi )
2
(Δxi +1 + Δxi )
1
λ=
µB
λi − 1 =
(Δxi −1λi −1 + Δxi λi )
2
(Δxi −1 + Δxi )
Discretized Transmissibility
⎛ Ax k x ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
Tx = ⎜ β c ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
i± 1
2 ⎝ Δx ⎠i ± 1 ⎝ µB ⎠i ± 1
2 2
( Ax k x )i ±1 ( Ax k x )i
Tx = 2β c
i±
1
2
( Ax k x )i Δxi ±1 + ( Ax k x )i ±1 Δxi
1 ⎛ ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ Δxi ±1 ⎜⎜
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎞
× ⎜ ⎟
⎟ + Δxi ⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟ ⎟
⎟
Δxi ±1 + Δxi ⎝ ⎝ µB ⎠ i ±1 ⎝ µB ⎠ i ⎠
FD Temporal Discretization
Explicit Method
⎛ Vbφ ct ⎞ ( i i )
n +1 n
p − p
Txni+1/2 ( pin+1 − pin ) − Txni−1/2 ( pin − pin−1 ) + qsc i = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ α c B ⎠i Δt
Implicit Method
⎛ Vbφ ct ⎞ ( i i )
n +1 n
p − p
Txni++1/21 ( pin++11 − pin +1 ) − Txni−+1/21 ( pin +1 − pin−+11 ) + qsc i = ⎜ ⎟
α B
⎝ c ⎠i Δt
Semi-‐‑implicit Method ( 0 ≤ θ ≤ 1)
qsc i + θ ⎡⎣Txni++1/21 ( pin++11 − pin +1 ) − T ( p − p )⎤⎦
n +1
xi −1/2
n +1
i
n +1
i −1
⎛ Vbφ ct ⎞ ( i i )
n +1 n
p − p
+ (1 − θ ) ⎣Txi+1/2 ( pi +1 − pi ) − Txi−1/2 ( pi − pi −1 )⎦ = ⎜
⎡ n n n n n n
⎤ ⎟
⎝ α c B ⎠i Δt
Exercise 5
For the 1D, block-‐‑centered grid shown on the screen,
determine the pressure distribution during the first year of
production. The initial reservoir pressure is 6000 psia. The
rock and fluid properties for this problem are:
Δx = 1000ft; Δy = 1000ft; Δz = 75ft

B = 1RB/STB;µ =10cp;
k x =15md; φ =0.18; c t =3.5 ×10 −6 psi -1;
Use time step sizes of =10, 15, and 30 days.
Assume B is unchanged within the pressure range
of interest.
Exercise 5 (cont’d)
1000 ft
qsc = −150 STB/D ∂p
=0
∂x
∂p
=0
∂x
75 ft
1 2 3 4 5
1000 ft
Exercise 6
Δx = 1000ft; Δy = 1000ft; Δz = 75ft
B = 1RB/STB; µ =10cp;
k x =15md; φ =0.18; c t =3.5 ×10−6 psi -1;
Use time step sizes of =10, 15, and 30 days.
Assume B is unchanged within the pressure range
of interest.
1000
ft
=0
∂x
75
1 2 3 4 5 ft
1000
ft
p = 6000psia
FDM for Slightly Compressible Fluid Flow
Equations
FD Spatial Discretization of the LHS for
Compressible Fluids
Same as that for slightly compressible fluids
∂ ⎛ Ax k x ∂p ⎞
⎜ β c ⎟ Δxi ≈ Txi + 12 ( pi +1 − pi ) + Txi − 12 ( pi −1 − pi )
∂x ⎝ µ B ∂x ⎠i
Transmissibility
⎛ Ax k x ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
Tx = ⎜ β c ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
i± 1
2 ⎝ Δx ⎠i ± 1 ⎝ µB ⎠i ± 1
2 2
Upstream Average of Mobility
1
λ=
µB
⎧λi ±1 if pi ±1 ≥ pi
λi ± 1 = ⎨
2
⎩ λi if pi ±1 < pi
FD Spatial Discretization of the RHS for
Compressible Fluids
n +1 n
⎡ Vb ∂ ⎛ φ ⎞ ⎤ ⎧
⎪ Vb ⎛ φ ⎞
⎡ ⎛ φ ⎞ ⎤ ⎫⎪
⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ = ⎨ ⎢⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ⎬
⎣ c ⎝ B ⎠ ⎦ i
α ∂t ⎩α c Δt ⎢⎣⎝ B ⎠
⎪ ⎝ B ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪
⎭i
φ = φ ref ⎡⎣1 + c f ( p − p ref )⎤⎦
Exercise 7

Δx = 1000ft; Δy = 1000ft; Δz = 75ft
k x =15md; φ =0.18; c t =3.5 ×10−6 psi -1
Use time step sizes of =10 days.
PVT data table:

p (psia) µ (cp) B (bbl/STB)
5000 0.675 1.292

4500 0.656 1.299
4000 0.637 1.306
3500 0.619 1.313
3000 0.600 1.321
2500 0.581 1.330
2200 0.570 1.335
2100 0.567 1.337
2000 0.563 1.339
1900 0.560 1.341
1800 0.557 1.343
1000 ft
=0
∂x
∂p
=0
∂x
75 ft
1 2 3 4 5
1000 ft
MULTIPHASE FLOW SIMULATION
MULTIPHASE FLOW EQUATIONS
FINITE DIFFERENCE APPROXIMATION TO MULTIPHASE FLOW EQUATIONS
NUMERICAL SOLUTION OF THE MULTIPHASE FLOW EQUATIONS
Multiphase Flow Equations
§ Continuity equation for each fluid flowing phase:
∂ ∂
− ( Aρl ul ) = A (φρl Sl ) l = o, w, g
∂x ∂t
§ Momentum equation for each fluid flowing phase:
kk rl ∂Pl Pcow = Po − Pw
ul = − Pcog = Pg − Po
µ l ∂x
l = o, w, g
∑S
l = o, w, g
l =1
Oil-‐‑Water Flow Equations
• Considering the fluid phases of oil and water only, the
flow equations for the two phases are as follows:
∂ ⎡ kro ⎛ ∂Po ∂Z ⎞⎤ Vb ∂ ⎛ φSo ⎞

⎢β c k x Ax ⎜ −γo ⎟⎥ Δx = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − qosc
∂x ⎣ µo Bo ⎝ ∂x ∂x ⎠⎦ α c ∂t ⎝ Bo ⎠
∂ ⎡ krw ⎛ ∂Pw ∂Z ⎞⎤ Vb ∂ ⎛ φS w ⎞

⎢β c k x Ax ⎜ −γ w ⎟⎥ Δx = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − qwsc
∂x ⎣ µ w Bw ⎝ ∂x ∂x ⎠⎦ α c ∂t ⎝ Bw ⎠
So + S w = 1 Pw = Po − Pcow
Oil-‐‑Water Flow Equations
∂ ⎡ kro ⎛ ∂Po ∂Z ⎞⎤ Vb ∂ ⎛ φ (1 − S w ) ⎞

⎢β c k x Ax ⎜ −γo ⎟⎥ Δx = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − qosc
∂x ⎣ µo Bo ⎝ ∂x ∂x ⎠⎦ α c ∂t ⎝ Bo ⎠
∂ ⎡ krw ⎛ ∂Po ∂Pcow ∂Z ⎞⎤ Vb ∂ ⎛ φS w ⎞

⎢β c k x Ax ⎜ − −γ w ⎟⎥ Δx = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − qwsc
∂x ⎣ µ w Bw ⎝ ∂x ∂x ∂x ⎠⎦ α c ∂t ⎝ Bw ⎠
Discretization of the Flow Equation
Left side flow terms
∂ ⎡ k ro ⎛ ∂Po ∂Z ⎞⎤
⎢ β c k x Ax ⎜ −γo ⎟⎥ Δxi
∂x ⎣ µ o Bo ⎝ ∂x ∂x ⎠⎦ i
≈ Txo i + 1 ( Po i +1 − Po i ) + Txo i − 1 ( Po i −1 − Po i )
2 2
∂ ⎡ k rw ⎛ ∂Po ∂Pcow ∂Z ⎞⎤

⎢ β c k x Ax ⎜ − −γw ⎟⎥ Δxi
∂x ⎣ µ w Bw ⎝ ∂x ∂x ∂x ⎠⎦ i
≈ Txw i + 1 ( Po i +1 − Po i ) + Txw i − 1 ( Po i −1 − Po i )
2 2
Phase Mobility
k ro
λo =
µo Bo
k rw
λw =
µ w Bw
Averaging of Phase Mobility
1 Upstream: 2 weighted average:
λ i+ = λ i λo i + =
(Δxi λo i + Δxi +1λo i +1 )
o 1 o 1
2 2
(Δxi + Δxi+1 )
Qw OIL
Sw
1-‐Swir
exact
average
upstream
Swir
x
Upstream Average of Mobility
⎧λwi +1 if Pwi +1 ≥ Pwi

λwi + 1 = ⎨
⎩ λwi if Pwi +1 < Pwi
2
⎧λoi +1 if Poi +1 ≥ Poi

λoi + 1 = ⎨
⎩ λoi if Poi +1 < Poi
2
Discretization of Multiphase Flow
Equation
Left side flow terms
∂ ⎡ kro ⎛ ∂Po ∂Z ⎞ ⎤
⎢ β c k x Ax ⎜ −γo ⎟ ⎥ Δxi
∂x ⎣ µo Bo ⎝ ∂x ∂x ⎠ ⎦ i
≈ Txo 1 ( Po i+1 − Po i ) + Txo 1 ( Po i−1 − Po i )
i+ i−
2 2
∂ ⎡ krw ⎛ ∂Po ∂Pcow ∂Z ⎞ ⎤

⎢ βc k x Ax ⎜ − −γw ⎟ ⎥ Δxi
∂x ⎣ µw Bw ⎝ ∂x ∂x ∂x ⎠ ⎦ i
≈ Txw 1 ( Po i+1 − Po i ) + Txw 1 ( Po i−1 − Po i )
i+ i−
2 2
Discretization of the Oil-‐‑Phase Equation
Right side flow terms
∂ ⎛ φSo ⎞ φ ∂So ∂ ⎛ φ ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = + So ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
∂t ⎝ Bo ⎠ Bo ∂t ∂t ⎝ Bo ⎠
The second term:
∂ ⎛ φ ⎞ φi S o ⎡ cr d (1 / Bo) ⎤ n +1 n
S o ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ≈ ⎢⎣ Bo + ⎥ ( Poi − Po i )
∂t ⎝ Bo ⎠i Δt dPo ⎦ i
The first term:
n +1
⎛ φ ∂So ⎞ φi
So = 1 − S w ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ≈− ( S wni+1 − Swin )
⎝ Bo ∂t ⎠i Boi Δti
Discretization of Oil-‐‑phase RHS
∂ ⎛ φS o ⎞ n +1 n n
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ≈ Cpooi ( Poi − Poi ) + Cswo i ( Sw i − Swi )
n+1
∂t ⎝ Bo ⎠i
φi (1 − Swi ) ⎡ cr d (1 / Bo) ⎤
Cpooi = ⎢ Bo + dPo ⎥
Where:
Δt ⎣ ⎦ i
and
φi
Cswo i = −
Boi Δti
Discretization of Water-‐‑Phase Equation
Right side flow terms
∂ ⎛ φS w ⎞ φ ∂S w ∂ ⎛ φ ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = + S w ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
∂t ⎝ Bw ⎠ Bw ∂t ∂t ⎝ Bw ⎠
∂ ⎛ φ ⎞ ∂ ⎛ φ ⎞ ∂Pw ∂ ⎛ φ ⎞⎛ ∂Po ∂Pcow ⎞

⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜ − ⎟
∂t ⎝ Bw ⎠ ∂Pw ⎝ Bw ⎠ ∂t ∂Pw ⎝ Bw ⎠⎝ ∂t ∂t ⎠
∂Pcow dPcow ∂S w
=
∂t dS w ∂t
Discretization of Water-‐‑phase RHS
∂ ⎛ φS w ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ≈ Cpowi ( Poni +1 − Poin ) + Cswwi ( Sw in+1 − Swin )
∂t ⎝ Bw ⎠i
φi Swi ⎡ cr
d (1 / Bw ) ⎤
Where: Cpowi = ⎢ + ⎥
Δt ⎣ Bw dPw ⎦ i
and
⎛ dPcow ⎞
φi
Cswwi = − ⎜ ⎟ Cpowi
Bwi Δti ⎝ dSw ⎠i
Fully Discrete Oil-‐‑Water Flow Equations
( ) (
Txoi + 1 Poni++1 1 − Poni + Txoi − 1 Poni−+1 1 − Poni = Cpooi Poni +1 − Poin
2 2
) ( )
+Cswoi (S n +1
wi − Swin )−q osci
2 ⎣
( ) (
Txwi + 1 ⎡ Poni++1 1 − Poni − Pcow
n
i +1
− P n
cowi
⎤
⎦
+ T xw
i − 1
⎡
2 ⎣
Po
n +1
i −1
)
− Po
n
i
− P n
cowi −1
− P n
cowi
⎤
⎦ ( ) ( )
(
= C powi Poni +1 − Poin + Cswwi ) (S n +1
wi )
− Swin − qwsci
i = 1,..., N
IMPES Solution of Oil-‐‑Water Flow Equations
First, the pressure is found by solving the following equation:
(T xo
n
i + 12
+ α iTxwin+ 1
2
) (P n +1
oi +1 ) (
− Poni +1 + Txo in− 1 + α iTxwin− 1
2 2
) (Pn +1
oi −1 − Poni +1 )
− α iTxwin+ 1 Pcow
n
i +1
− P n
cowi
2
(− α i T xw
n
i− 1
P n
cowi −1 − P n
cowi ) 2
( )
= C ( n
pooi + α iC n
swo i )(P n +1
oi −P n
oi )− q osci − α i qwsci
Cswwin
αi = − n
Cswoi
IMPES Pressure Solution
n +1 n +1 n +1 n +1 n +1 n +1 n +1
Wi P oi −1 + Ci P oi + Ei P oi +1 = gi
n +1 n n n +1 n n
Wi =T xo 1
i− 2
+α T i xwi − 12 Ei =T xo 1
i+ 2
+α T i xwi + 12
(
C in +1 = − Txoin+ 1 + Txoin− 1 + Cpooin
2 2
) C swwi
n
αi = − n
(
−α i Txwin+ 1 + Txwin− 1 + Cpowin
2 2
) C swo i
g in +1 = −(Cpooin + α i Cpowin ) Poin − qosci − α i qwsci

+ α iTxwin+ 1 ( Pcowin+1 − Pcowin ) + α iTxwin− 1 ( Pcowin−1 − Pcowin )
2 2
IMPES Water Saturation
Once the oil pressures have been found, water saturations
can be obtained by either the oil-‐‑phase equation or the
water-‐‑phase equation.
n +1 n
n n +1 n +1 n n +1
(
n +1
1 Txoi + 12 Poi+1 − Poi + Txoi − 12 Poi−1 − Poi
⎡ ) ( )⎤
S wi = Swi + n
⎢ ⎥
Cswo i ⎢+ qosc − Cpooin Pon +1 − Poin
⎣ i i
( ) ⎥⎦
i = 1,..., N
Exercise 8
A homogeneous, 1D horizontal oil reservoir is 1,000 ft long

with a cross-‐‑sectional area of 10,000 ft2. It is discretized into
four equal gridblocks. The initial water saturation is 0.160
and the initial reservoir pressure is 5,000 psi everywhere.
Water is injected at the center of cell 1 at a rate of 75 STB/d
and oil is produced at the center of cell 4 at the same rate.
Rock compressibility cr=3.5E-‐‑6 psi-‐‑1 . The viscosity and
formation volume factor of water are given as µw=0.8cp and
Bw=1.02 bbl/STB.
The gridblock dimensions and properties are: Dx=250ft,
Dy=250ft, Dz=40ft, kx=300md, φ=0.20. PVT data
including formation volume factor and viscosity of oil is
given as in Table 1 as the functions of pressure. The
saturation functions including relative permeabilities and
capillary pressure.
Using the IMPES solution method with Dt=1 day, find the
pressure and saturation distribution after 100 days of
production.
Ax=10,000 ft2
Qw=75 STB/d Qo=-‐75 STB/d ∂p

=0
∂x
1 2 3 4
250 ft
∂p
=0
∂x
The relative permeability data:
Sw Krw Kro
0.16 0 1
0.2 0.01 0.7
0.3 0.035 0.325
0.4 0.06 0.15
0.5 0.11 0.045
0.6 0.16 0.031
0.7 0.24 0.015
0.8 0.42 0
DATA PREPARATION
INTRODUCTION
GROUPS OF DATA REQUIRED FOR A SIMULATION STUDY
SOURCES OF DATA FOR A SIMULATION STUDY
INTRODUCTION
The initial and often the most time consuming phase of a simulation study,
is the acquisition and interpretation of descriptive data for the reservoir
and reducing this data to a format acceptable to the simulation program.
MODELS +
DATA GATHERED DATA USEAGE
DOCUMENTS
Seismic, Structure
Cores, Logs Reservoir quality
Faulting
Continuity
Total injection
Total production Continuity
Fluid properties (PVT) Depletion
Reservoir pressure (BHP) Displacement
Production by layer (PLT) Fluid behavior
Fluid contacts (TDT, logs) Residual oil
Sweep
Reservoir
Development
Development Drilling and Strategy
Production
Groups of Data Required for
a Simulation Study
Rock Data
permeability, relative permeability, capillary pressure,
porosity, saturations, thickness, depth, compressibility
Fluid Data
PVT, viscosity, density, formation volume factor,
compressibility, solution gas-‐oil ratio
Groups of Data Required for a Simulation Study
Production Data
flow rate, pressure, PI, II
Mechanical and Operational Data

lifting capacity, operational constraints
Economic Data
product price, capex, opex, economic limit
Miscellaneous Data
Well stimulation, workover
Data Required for a Simulation Study –
Sources of Data
Property Sources
Permeability Pressure transient testing,
Core analyses
Porosity, Rock Core analyses, Well logs

compressibility
Relative permeability Laboratory core flow tests
and capillary
pressure
Sources of Data
Property Sources
Saturations Well logs, Core analyses,
Single-‐‑well tracer tests
Fluid property (PVT) data Laboratory analyses of reservoir
fluid samples
Faults, boundaries, fluid Seismic, Pressure transient testing
contacts
Sources of Data
Property Sources
Aquifers Seismic, Regional exploration
studies
Fracture spacing, Core analyses, Well logs, Seismic,

orientation, connectivity Pressure transient tests,
Interference testing
Rate and pressure data, Field performance history

completion and workover
data
EXAMPLE OF RESERVOIR SIMULATION
WITH ECLIPSE100
PROBLEM DEFINITION
BRIEF INTRODUCTION ABOUT ECLIPSE
DATA SECTIONS IN ECLIPSE100
TYPICAL KEYWORDS IN SECTIONS
Problem Definition
Consider a 2-‐‑phase (oil,water) reservoir model having 5x5x3 cells (in X,Y,Z
directions, respectively). The cell sizes are 500ft x 500ft x 75ft, respectively and the
depth of reservoir top structure is 8,000ft. A production well (named as PROD) was
drilled at location (x,y)=(1,1) through the whole reservoir thickness. An injection
well (named as INJ) was drilled at location (x,y)=(5,5) through the whole reservoir
thickness. Both wells were completed by perforations in the entire reservoir
thickness, starting from the depth of 8,000ft.
The reservoir has 3 layers whose permeabilities in X,Y,Z directions are:
Layer Kx Ky Kz
1 200 150 20
2 1000 800 100
3 200 150 20
Create a data file to perform reservoir simulation by using ECLIPSE 100
Brief Introduction about Eclipse
• ECLIPSE 100 is a fully-‐‑implicit, three phase, three dimensional,
general purpose black oil simulator with gas condensate option.
• ECLIPSE 100 can be used to simulate 1, 2 or 3 phase systems. Two
phase options (oil/water, oil/gas, gas/water) are solved as two
component systems saving both computer storage and computer
time. In addition to gas dissolving in oil (variable bubble point
pressure or gas/oil ratio), ECLIPSE 100 may also be used to model
oil vaporizing in gas (variable dew point pressure or oil/gas ratio).
• Both corner-‐‑point and conventional block-‐‑center geometry

options are available in ECLIPSE. Radial and Cartesian block-‐‑
center options are available in 1, 2 or 3 dimensions. A 3D radial
option completes the circle allowing flow to take place across the
0/360 degree interface.
Data Sections in Eclipse100
RUNSPEC General model characteristics
GRID Grid geometry and basic rock properties
EDIT Modification of the processed GRID data (optional section)
PROPS PVT & SCAL properties
REGIONS Subdivision of the reservoir (optional section)
SOLUTION Initialization
SUMMARY Request output for line plots (optional section)
Wells, completions, rate data, flow correlations, surface facilities

SCHEDULE
Simulator advance, control and termination
Typical Keywords in Sections
Runspec Section
Title, problem dimensions, switches, phases present, components etc.
TITLE title
DIMENS number of blocks in X,Y,Z directions
OIL, WATER, GAS, VAPOIL, DISGAS the active phases present
FIELD/METRIC/LAB unit convention
WELLDIMS well and group dimensions

1 The maximum number of wells in the model
2 The maximum number of connections per well

3 The maximum number of groups in the model
4 The maximum number of wells in any one group
Runspec Section
UNIFIN indicates that input files are unified
UNIFOUT indicates that output files are unified
START start date of the simulation
NOSIM data checking only, with no simulation

Runspec Section
RUNSPEC Example
TITLE
3D 2-‐PHASE SIMULATION
-‐-‐ Number of cells
-‐-‐ NX NY NZ
DIMENS
5 5 3 /
-‐-‐ Phases
OIL
WATER
-‐-‐ Units
FIELD
-‐-‐ Well dimensions
-‐-‐ Maximum # connections # groups # wells
-‐-‐ # wells per well per group
WELLDIMS
2 3 2 1 /
-‐-‐ Unified output files
UNIFOUT
-‐-‐ Simulation start date
START 16 MAR 2010 /
Grid Section
Cell properties such as PORO, PERMX,
PERMY, PERMZ, NTG are averages defined at
the centre
depths of top faces of grid blocks for the

TOPS
current box; data is taken from Structure
map, and geological model from IRAP
X,Y,Z-‐‑direction grid block sizes for the current box; data

DX, DY, DZ is taken from Isopac map, and geological model from
IRAP
X,Y,Z-‐‑direction permeabilities for
PERMX, PERMY, PERMZ the current box; data is taken from Isopac map, and
geological model from IRAP
PORO grid block porosities for the current box; data is taken from
Isopac map, and geological model from IRAP
TYPICAL KEYWORDS IN SECTIONS
GRID SECTION
Example
GRID
Size of each cell in X,Y and Z directions
DX 75*500 /
DY 75*500 /
DZ 75*50 /
-‐-‐ TVDSS of top layer only
-‐-‐ X1 X2 Y1 Y2 Z1 Z2
BOX
1 5 1 5 1 1 /
TOPS
25*8000 /
ENDBOX
-‐-‐ Permeability in X,Y and Z directions for each cell
PERMX 25*200 25*1000 25*200 /
PERMY 25*150 25*800 25*150 /
PERMZ 25*20 25*100 25*20 /
-‐-‐ Porosity
PORO75*0.2 /
-‐-‐ Output file with geometry and rock properties
props section
PVT: Tables of properties of reservoir rock and fluids as functions of fluid
pressures, saturations and compositions
SCAL: Phase Relative Permeabilities

water relative permeability and capillary
SWFN pressure as functions of Sw
Column 1 The water saturation
Column 2 The corresponding water relative permeability
Column 3 The corresponding water-‐oil capillary pressure
oil relative permeability as a function of So

SOF3 in three phase system
Column 1 The oil saturation
Column 2 The corresponding oil relative permeability for regions
where only oil and water are present
Column 3 The corresponding oil relative permeability for
regions where only oil, gas and connate water are present.
props section
gas relative permeability and capillary
SGFN
pressure as functions of Sg
Column 1 The gas saturation.

Column 2 The corresponding gas relative permeability
Column 3 The corresponding oil-‐gas capillary pressure
SWOF Water / oil saturation functions versus water saturation

Column 1 The water saturation
Column 2 The corresponding water relative permeability

Column 3 The corresponding oil relative permeability when
only oil and water are present.
Column 4 The corresponding water-‐oil capillary pressure

props section
FVF and viscosity of live oil as functions of

PVTO
pressure and Rs
Item 1 The dissolved gas-‐oil ratio (Rs)
Item 2 The bubble point pressure (Pbub) for oil with dissolved
gas-‐oil ratio given by item 1.
Item 3 The oil formation volume factor for saturated oil at Pbub.
Item 4 The oil viscosity for saturated oil at Pbub.
FVF and viscosity of wet gas as functions of

PVTG
pressure and Rv
PVTW FVF, compressibility and viscosity of water
DENSITY stock tank fluid densities
ROCK rock compressibility

Props Section
Example
PROPS
-‐-‐ Densities in lb/ft3
-‐-‐ Oil Water Gas
-‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐
DENSITY
49 63 0.01 /
-‐-‐ PVT data for dead oil

-‐-‐ P Bo Vis
-‐-‐ -‐-‐ -‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐
PVDO
300 1.25 1.0
800 1.20 1.1
6000 1.15 2.0 /
-‐-‐ PVT data for water

-‐-‐ P BW CW VIS VISCOSIBILITY
-‐-‐ -‐-‐ -‐-‐ -‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐
PVTW
4500 1.20 3E-‐06 0.8 0.0 /
Props Section
Example
-‐-‐ Rock compressibility

-‐-‐ P Cr
-‐-‐ -‐-‐ -‐-‐
ROCK
4500 4e-‐06 /
-‐-‐ Water and oil relative perms and

capillary pressure
-‐-‐ Sw Krw Kro Pc
-‐-‐ -‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐ -‐-‐
SWOF
0.25 0.0 0.9 4.0
0.5 0.2 0.3 0.8
0.7 0.4 0.1 0.2
0.8 0.55 0.0 0.1 /
Regions Section
Splits computational grid into regions for calculation of:
-‐‑ PVT properties (fluid densities and viscosities),

-‐‑ saturation properties (relative permeabilities and capillary pressures)
-‐‑ initial conditions, (equilibrium pressures and saturations)
-‐‑ fluids in place (fluid in place and inter-‐‑region flows)
FIPNUM fluid-‐‑in-‐‑place region numbers

The region numbers should not be less than 1 or greater than
NTFIP (the maximum number of fluid-‐in-‐place regions)
SATNUM saturation table regions

The saturation function region number specifies which set of
saturation functions (input using SGFN, SOF3, etc. in the
PROPSsection)
Regions Section
EQLNUM Equilibration regions

All blocks with the same equilibration region number must also
have the same PVT region number
PVTNUM PVT data regions
The PVT region number specifies which set of PVT tables (input
using DENSITY, PVDG, PVDO, PVTG, PVTO, PVCO, PVTW and ROCK
in the PROPSsection) should be used to calculate PVT properties
of fluids in each grid block for a black oil model
Solution Section
The SOLUTION is used to define the initial state of every cell in the model
§ Initial pressure and phase saturation
§ Initial solution ratios
§ Depth dependence of reservoir fluid properties
§ Oil and gas re-‐‑solution rates
§ Initial analytical aquifer conditions
fluid contact depths and other equilibration parameters;

EQUIL
data taken from well testing
1 Datum depth
2 Pressure at the datum depth.
3 Depth of the water-‐oil contact
RESTART name of the restart file
RPTSOL report switches for SOLUTION data

Solution Section
Example
SOLUTION
-‐-‐ Initial equilibration conditions

-‐-‐ Datum Pi WOC Pc@WOD
-‐-‐ @datum
-‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐
EQUIL
8000 4500 8200 0.0 /
-‐-‐ Output to restart file for t=0

(.UNRST)
-‐-‐ Rst file Graphics
-‐-‐ for ic only
-‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐
RPTRST
BASIC=2 NORST=1 /
Summary Section
The SUMMARY section is used to specify variables that are to be
written to the Summary file(s) after each time step of the simulation
FOPT Field Oil Production Total
FOPR Field Oil Production Rate
FGOR Field Gas-Oil Ratio
FWIR Field Water Injection Rate
FOE Field Oil Efficiency
FPR Field Pressure
WBHP Well Bottom Hole Pressure
FWCT Field Water CuT
WOPR Well Oil Production Rate

Summary Section
Example
SUMMARY
-‐-‐ Field average pressure
FPR
Bottomhole pressure of all wells
WBHP
/
-‐-‐ Field oil production rate
FOPR
-‐-‐ Field water production rate
FWPR
-‐-‐ Field oil production total
FOPT
-‐-‐ Field water production total
FWPT
-‐-‐ Water cut in PROD
WWCT
PROD /
-‐-‐ CPU usage
TCPU
Schedule Section
Specifies the operations to be simulated (production and injection controls and
constraints) and the times at which output reports are required.
Vertical flow performance curves and simulator tuning parameters may also be
specified in the SCHEDULE section.
RPTSCHED report switches to select which simulation results are to be printed at
report times
TUNING time step and convergence controls
introduces a new well, defining its name, the position of the wellhead,
WELSPECS its bottom hole reference depth and other specification data
1 Well name
2 Name of the group to which the well belongs
3 I -‐ location of well head or heel
4 J -‐ location of well head or heel
5 Reference depth for bottom hole pressure
6 Preferred phase for the well
7 Drainage radius for productivity/injectivity index calculation
Schedule Section
specifies the position and properties of one or more well completions;;
COMPDAT
this must be entered after the WELSPECS
1 Well name, well name template, well list or well list template
2 I -‐ location of connecting grid block(s)
3 J -‐ location of connecting grid block(s)
4 K -‐ location of upper connecting block in this set of data
5 K -‐ location of lower connecting block in this set of data
6 Open/shut flag of connection
WCONPROD control data for production wells

2 Open/shut flag for the well
3 Control mode
4 Oil rate target or upper limit.
5 Water rate target or upper limit
Schedule Section
WCONINJE control data for injection wells
2 Injector type
3 Open/shut flag for the well
4 Control mode
5 Surface flow rate target or upper limit
WCONHIST observed rates for history matching wells
TSTEP or DATE advances simulator to new report time(s) or specified report date(s)
Schedule Section
Example
SCHEDULE
-‐-‐ Output to restart file for t>0 (.UNRST)
-‐-‐ Restart File Graphics
-‐-‐ every step only
-‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐
RPTRST
BASIC=2 NORST=1 /
-‐-‐ Location of well head and pressure gauge
-‐-‐ Well Well Location BHP Pref.
-‐-‐ name group I J datum phase
-‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐ -‐-‐ -‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐
WELSPECS
PROD G1 1 1 8000 OIL /
INJ G2 5 5 8000 WATER /
/
-‐-‐ Completion interval
-‐-‐ Well Location Interval Status OTHER Well
-‐-‐ name I J K1 K2 O or S PARAMS ID
-‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐-‐ -‐-‐ -‐-‐ -‐-‐ -‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐-‐
Schedule Section
Example
COMPDAT
PROD 1 1 1 3 OPEN 2*
0.6667 /
INJ 5 5 1 3 OPEN 2*
0.6667 /
/
-‐-‐ Production control
-‐-‐ Well Status Control Oil Water Gas Liquid Resvr BHP
-‐-‐ name mode rate rate rate rate
rate lim
-‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐
WCONPROD
PROD OPEN LRAT 3* 10000
1* 2000 /
/
-‐-‐ Injection control
-‐-‐ Well Fluid Status Control Surf Resvr Voidage BHP
-‐-‐ name type mode rate rate frac flag lim
-‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐-‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐-‐ -‐-‐-‐-‐
HISTORY MATCHING
OVERVIEW OF HISTORY MATCHING
WHAT IS MATCHED?
WHAT IS ADJUSTED?
ACTION STEPS IN HISTORY MATCHING
EXAMPLE OF ADJUSTMENT
PROBLEM DEFINITION
Overview of History Matching
History Matching: Comprising the adjustment of reservoir parameters in the
model until the simulated performance matches the measured information
Mathematically: Inverse Problem That is, we know the Model and we know
the answer, but we do not know the input to the model. There are special techniques
for solving inverse problem, but these do not apply to reservoir simulation history
matching. Thus, we use trial and ERROR
What are matched?
§ Individual Well History
Ø Shut-‐‑in Pressures (Build-‐‑ups)

Ø Gas-‐‑Oil Ratio (GOR)
Ø Water-‐‑Oil Ratio (WOR)
Ø Temperature
Ø Rates
Ø Break Through (BT)
§ Fluid Contact History
§ Overall Reservoir Performance

What are adjusted?
Any parameters which describe the reservoir
§ Permeability
§ Porosity
§ Thickness
§ Net-‐‑to-‐‑Gross
§ Uncertain Areas of the Structure
What are adjusted?
Any parameters which describe the reservoir
§ Faults
Ø Transmissibility
§ Shape and Endpoints of Saturation Functions

§ Well Saturation
Action Steps in History Matching
1. Assemble data on performance history.

2. Screen the data and evaluate their quality.
3. Define the specific objectives of the history matches.
4. Develop a preliminary model based on the best

available data.
5. Simulate history with the preliminary model and
compared simulated performance with actual field history.
6. Decide whether the model is satisfactory.

Action Steps in History Matching
7. Identify changes in model properties that are most likely to
improve agreement between observed and calculated
performance.
8. Decide whether an automatic matching program should be

used.
9. Make adjustments to the model. Consult with geologic,
drilling, production operations personnel to confirm
the realism of proposed changes.
10. Again, simulate part or all of the past performance data
to improve the match. Analyze results as in Step 6.
11. Repeat Step 6, 9, and 10 until a satisfactory match of
observed data is obtained.
Example of adjustment
Simulation field pressure too high
Possible Changes
Pore Volume?
Aquifer?
Oil Initially in Place
(Contacts, So)
Energy?
Gas cap size?
Possible Changes
Krw / Kro ratio decrease

Aquifer size
Possible Changes
Effective end point Krw ?

Horiz. Permeability of well to aquifer layer?
Shale or barrier between wells and water?
Vertical permeability between wells and
water?
Numerical dispersion / grid effect?
Gas BT OK, After BT simulation slope in

error
Possible Changes
Krg / Kro ratio increase?

Supply of gas?
Well GOR simulation BT too early
Possible Changes
Shale or barrier between well and gas?

Vertical permeability between well and gas?
Well water simulation BT too early
Possible Changes
Shale or barrier?

Vertical permeability between well and
water?
HISTORY MATCHING – CASE STUDY
Given the history data in terms of oil, gas, water production rates, bottom
hole pressure, and reservoir pressure of a waterflooding project having
one injector and one producer as depicted in figure below, perform
history matching by adjusting the following unknown properties:
• Permeability in the horizontal direction

• Permeability in the vertical direction
Horizontal and vertical permeability
The well bottom hole pressure (WBHP) is the function of average permeability
when there is single phase flow ( See equation 1); when multi-‐‑phase flow occurs,
the WBHP is a function of relative permeability and average permeability (see
equation 2).
When the water breakthrough has not occurred, the WBHP depends on the
average permeability. Assume that the oil flows in the horizontal plane, so before
water breakthrough, WBHP depends on horizontal permeability (Kxx and Kyy).
After water breakthrough, the water flow up ward because of up dip water
injection. The WBHP mainly depend on vertical permeability (Kzz)
kh( PR − Pwf )
Q0 = ⇒ Pwf = f (k ) (1)
⎛ r ⎞
141.2µo Bo ⎜ ln( e ) − 0.75 + S ⎟
⎝ rw ⎠
kkro h( PR − Pwf ) (2)

Q0 = ⇒ Pwf = f (kkro )
⎛ r ⎞
141.2 µo Bo ⎜ ln( e ) − 0.75 + S ⎟
⎝ rw ⎠
The permeability in the horizontal direction (Kxx = Kyy) was adjusted by
comparison of well bottom hole pressure of producer. Choose the first valve of
Kxx = Kyy = 250 md and Kzz = 0.1Kxx = 25md.
History
Simulation
Figure 1 – The result of first trail of K = K = 250 md and K = 25md.

Figure 1 shows that, the WBHP of producer in case of Kxx = 200 md is smaller
the base case. Based on equation 2, the horizontal permeability should be
increased. For the second trail, Kxx = Kyy = 315 md and Kzz = 0.1Kxx = 35md.
History
Simulation
Figure 2 The result of first trail of Kxx = Kyy = 315 md and Kzz = 35md.
From figure 2, the well bottom hole pressure is matched for the stage of before
water breakthrough.
Since this is updip water injection. In this matching work, well bottom hole
pressure of producer is a function of vertical permeability after water
breakthrough.
The bottom hole pressure is smaller than the base case when water
breakthrough. In this case, the vertical permeability should be increased and
Kzz was 73md in next trail
Thus, the horizontal Kxx = Kyy = 315md and Kzz = 73 md are matched with
the given data.
History
Simulation
Figure 3 The result of first trail of Kxx = Kyy = 315 md and Kzz = 73md

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FUNDAMENTALS OF RESERVOIR

Dr. Mai Cao Lan,

• To provide guidelines for hands-­‐‑on practices with

FLOW EQUATIONS FOR PETROLEUM RESERVOIRS

FINITE DIFFERENCE METHOD & NUMERICAL SOLUTION FOR

SINGLE-­‐‑PHASE FLOW SIMULATION

MULTIPHASE FLOW SIMULATION

§ T. Eterkin et al., 2001. Basic Applied Reservoir Simulation,

§ J.H. Abou-­‐‑Kassem et al., 2005. Petroleum Reservoir

§ C.Mattax & R. Dalton, 1990. Reservoir Simulation, SPE,

NUMERICAL SIMULATION – AN OVERVIEW

COMPONENTS OF A RESERVOIR SIMULATOR

RESERVOIR SIMULATION BASICS

Physical Model Computer Code

Mathematical Model Numerical Model

• A powerful tool for evaluating reservoir performance

• A helpful tool for investigating problems associated with

• Basic data is provided for each cell

• Wells are positioned within the cells

• The required well production rates are specified as a

• The equations are solved to give the pressure and

• Flow from one grid block to the next

Flow = Transmissibility * Mobility * Potential Difference

Geometry & Fluid Well

GENERAL 3D SINGLE-­‐‑PHASE FLOW EQUATION

BOUNDARY & INITIAL CONDITIONS

The basic differential equations are derived from the

§ Mass conservation law

§ Momentum conservation law

§ Material behavior principles

⎧Mass into the ⎫ ⎧Mass out of the ⎫ ⎧Rate of change of mass⎫

For constant cross section area, one has:

Conservation of momentum for fluid flow in porous materials

§ The behaviors of rock and fluid during the production

§ In general, these equations express the relationships

For isothermal processes, the constitutive equation of rock

For natural gas, the well-­‐‑known equation of state is used:

Normally, in single-­‐‑phase reservoir simulation, we would

One Phase Gas One Phase Water One Phase Oil

The gas must be single phase in the reservoir, which means

One phase water, which strictly speaking means that the

In order for the oil to be single phase in the reservoir, it

For all three fluid systems, the one phase density or

Mathematically, there are two types of boundary conditions:

• Dirichlet BCs: Values of the unknown at the boundaries

• Neumann BCs: The values of the first derivative of the

From the reservoir engineering point of view:

§ Dirichlet BCs: Pressure values at the boundaries are

§ Neumann BCs: The flow rates are specified as the known

A pressure condition will normally be specified as a bottom-­‐‑hole

For reservoir flow, a rate condition may be specified as a production or

FUNDAMENTALS OF FINITE DIFFERENCE METHOD

FDM SOLUTION OF THE SINGLE-­‐‑PHASE FLOW EQUATIONS

§ The equations describing flui flows in reservoirs are of

§ Finite difference method (FDM) is traditionally used for

(Δx)1 ∂f (Δx)2 ∂ 2 f (Δx)3 ∂ 3 f (Δx) 4 ∂ 4 f

Denoting all except the first terms by O (Δx) yields

(Δx)1 ∂f (Δx)2 ∂ 2 f (Δx)3 ∂ 3 f (Δx) 4 ∂ 4 f

(−Δx)1 ∂f (−Δx)2 ∂ 2 f (−Δx)3 ∂ 3 f (−Δx)4 ∂ 4 f

Subtracting the second from the first equation yields

∂f f ( x + Δx) − f ( x − Δx) (Δx) 2 ∂ 3 f

Forward difference for first derivatives (1D)

or in space index form

• To provide guidelines for hands-‐‑on practices with

SINGLE-‐‑PHASE FLOW SIMULATION

§ J.H. Abou-‐‑Kassem et al., 2005. Petroleum Reservoir

GENERAL 3D SINGLE-‐‑PHASE FLOW EQUATION

For natural gas, the well-‐‑known equation of state is used:

Normally, in single-‐‑phase reservoir simulation, we would

A pressure condition will normally be specified as a bottom-‐‑hole

FDM SOLUTION OF THE SINGLE-‐‑PHASE FLOW EQUATIONS

Semi-‐‑Implicit Scheme for the Diffusion Equation in Exercise 4 is

When θ=0.5, we have Crank-‐‑Nicolson scheme

For the 1D, block-‐‑centered grid shown on the screen,

Qw=75 STB/d Qo=-‐75 STB/d ∂p

• Both corner-‐‑point and conventional block-‐‑center geometry