Alfred Adler’s Personality Theory and Personality Types

The question of what drives us—what great force underlies our motivation as individuals, propelling us
forward through all manner of trying circumstance—was a matter of longtime fascination for psychologist
Alfred Adler. He eventually came to call this motivating force the “striving for perfection”, a term which
encapsulates the desire we all have to fulfill our potential, to realize our ideals—a process strikingly
similar to the more popular idea of self-actualization.
Self-actualization is perhaps the less problematic of the two terms, as one cannot process Adler’s ideas
without immediately bumping up against the troublesome nature of the words “perfection” and “ideal”.
While the idea of striving to be the best version of one’s self is an obviously positive goal, the concept of
perfection is, in psychology, often given a rather negative connotation. After all, perfection likely does not
exist, and therefore cannot be reached, meaning that efforts to do so are invariably frustrating and can
come full circle to create an extreme lack of motivation (i.e., giving up).
Indeed, Adler himself balked at using “perfection” to describe his single motivating force, beginning
instead with phrases like aggression drive (to describe the frustrated reaction we have when our basic
needs, such as the need to eat or be loved, are not being met)—yet even this term had obvious negative
connotations; aggression is, after all, seldom seen as a good thing, and using the term “assertiveness”
may have served Adler better.
(Interestingly, Freud himself took exception to the term “aggression drive”, though not on the basis that it
was overly negative in connotation; instead, Freud felt that it would detract from the pivotal position of the
sex drive in psychoanalytic theory. Freud may have had a change of heart in later years, however, as his
idea of a “death instinct” bore a great deal of similarity to Adler’s theory.)

Another, perhaps better, descriptor used by Adler to refer to basic motivation was compensation, which in
this case was meant to denote the process of striving to overcome one’s inherent limitations. Adler
postulated that since we all have various issues and shortcomings as people, our personalities develop
largely through the ways in which we do (or do not) compensate for or overcome these inherent
challenges. Adler later rejected this idea in part (though it still played an important role in his theory; more
on that later), as he decided it was inaccurate to suggest one’s problems are the cause for who one
eventually becomes.
Adler also toyed, early on, with the idea of “masculine protest”, upon observing the obvious differences in
the cultural expectations placed on boys and girls, and the fact that boys wished, often desperately, to be
thought of as strong, aggressive, and in control. Adler eschewed the bias that suggested men’s
assertiveness and success in the world arose from some inexplicable innate superiority. Instead, he saw
this phenomenon as a result of the fact that boys are encouraged to be assertive in life, and girls are
discouraged from the very same thing.

Lastly, before settling on the phrase “striving for perfection”, Adler called his theory the “striving for
superiority”—most likely a homage to Friederich Nietzsche, whose philosophies Adler was known to
admire. Nietzsche, of course, considered the will to power the basic motive of human life. Adler later
amended this phrase, using it more to refer to unhealthy or neurotic striving, likely due to the way it
suggests the act of comparing one’s self to others, of attempting to become “superior” to one’s fellows.
Teleology

The idea of “holism”, as written about by Jan Smuts, the South African philosopher and statesman, was
known to have influenced Adler greatly. Smuts posited that, in order to understand people, we have to
take them as summations rather than as parts, as unified wholes existing within the context of their
environments (both physical and social).
To reflect this notion, Adler decided to call his approach to psychology individual psychology, owing to
the exact meaning of the word individual: “un-divided.” He also generally avoided the traditional concept
of personality, steering clear of chopping it up into internal traits, structures, dynamics, conflicts, etc., and
choosing instead talk about people’s “style of life” (or “lifestyle”, as we would call it today; the unique ways
in which one handles problems and interpersonal relations).
Here again Adler differed a great deal from Freud, who felt that the things that happened in the past (e.g.
early childhood trauma), shaped the nature of people in the present. Adler was essentially forward
looking, seeing motivation as a matter of moving toward the future, rather than a product of our
pasts driving us with only our limited awareness as to how and why. This idea that we are drawn towards
our goals, our purposes, our ideals is known as “teleology”.
Teleology was remarkable in the way it removed necessity from the equation; we are not merely living life
in a “cause and effect” manner (if X happened, then Y must happen later) or on a set course toward an
immobile goal; we have choice, and things can change along the way as we pursue our ideals.

Fictions and fictional finalism

Adler was also influenced by philosopher Hans Vaihinger, who believed that while mankind would never
discover the “ultimate” truth, for practical purposes, we need to create partial truths, frames of reference
we use as if they were indeed true. Vaihinger dubbed these partial truths “fictions”.

Both Vaihinger and Adler believed that people use these fictions actively in their daily lives, such as using
the absolute belief in good and evil to guide social decisions, and believing that everything is as we see it.
Adler referred to this as “fictional finalism” and believed that each individual has one such dominating
fiction which is central to his or her lifestyle.

Inferiority

Once Adler had fleshed out his theory on what motivates us as beings, there remained one question to be
answered: If we are all being pulled toward perfection, fulfillment, and self-actualization, why does a
sizeable portion of the population end up miserably unfulfilled and far from perfect, far from
realizing their selves and ideals?
Adler believed that some people become mired in their “inferiority”; he felt that we are all born with a
sense of inferiority (as children are, of course, smaller and both physically and intellectually weaker than
adults), which is often added to by various “psychological inferiorities” later (being told we are dumb,
unattractive, bad at sports, etc.) Most children manage these inferiorities by dreaming of becoming adults
(the earliest form of striving for perfection), and by either mastering what they are bad at or compensating
by becoming especially adept at something else, but for some children, the uphill climb toward developing
self-esteem proves insurmountable. These children develop an “inferiority complex”, which proves
overwhelming over time.
To envision how an inferiority complex can mount until it becomes overwhelming, imagine the way many
children flounder when it comes to math: At first they fall slightly behind, and get discouraged. Usually,
they struggle onward, muddling through high school with barely-passing grades until they get into
calculus, whereupon the appearance of integrals and differential equations overwhelms them to the point
they finally give up on math altogether.

Now, apply that process to a child’s life as a whole; a feeling of general inferiority seeds doubt which
fosters a neurosis, and the youngster becomes shy and timid, insecure, indecisive, cowardly, etc. Unable
to meet his or her needs through direct, empowering action (not having the confidence to initiate such),
the individual often grows up to be passive-aggressive and manipulative, relying unduly on the affirmation
of others to carry them along. This, of course, only gives away more of their power, makes their self-
esteem easier to cripple, and so on.

Of course, not all children dealing with a strong sense of inferiority become shy and timid and self-
effacing; some develop a superiority complex, in a dramatic act of overcompensation. These young
people often become the classic image of the playground bully, chasing away their own sense of
inferiority by making others feel smaller and weaker, but may also become greedy for attention, drawn to
the thrill of criminal activity or drug use, or heavily biased in their views (becoming bigoted towards others
of a certain gender or race, for example).
Psychological types

While Adler did not spend a lot of time on neurosis, he did identify a small handful of personality “types”
that he distinguished based on the different levels of energy he felt they manifested. These types to Adler
were by no means absolutes, it should be noted; Adler, the devout individualist, saw them only as
heuristic devices (useful fictions).

The first type is the ruling type. These people are characterized early on by a tendency to be generally
aggressive and dominant over others, possessing an intense energy that overwhelms anything or
anybody who gets in their way. These people are not always bullies or sadists, however; some turn the
energy inward and harm themselves, such as is the case with alcoholics, drug addicts, and those who
commit suicide.
The second type is the leaning type. Individuals of this type are sensitive, and while they may put a shell
up around themselves to protect themselves, they end up relying on others to carry them through life’s
challenges. They lack energy, in essence, and depend on the energy of others. They are also prone to
phobias, anxieties, obsessions and compulsions, general anxiety, dissociation, etc.
The third type is the avoiding type. People of this type have such low energy they recoil within
themselves to conserve it, avoiding life as a whole, and other people in particular. In extreme cases,
these people develop psychosis—the end result of entirely retreating into one’s self.
Adler also believed in a fourth type: the socially useful type. People of this type are basically healthy
individuals, possessed of adequate, but not overbearing, social interest and energy. They are able to give
to others effectively as they are not so consumed by a sense of inferiority that they cannot look properly
outside of themselves.
Conclusion

Adler’s theories may lack the excitement of Freud’s and Jung’s, being devoid of sexuality or mythology,
but they are nonetheless practical, influential, and highly applicable. Other more famous names, such
as Maslow and Carl Rogers, were fans of Adler’s work, and various students of personality theories have
espoused the idea that the theorists called Neo-Freudians (such as Horney, Fromm, and Sullivan)
probably ought to have been called Neo-Adlerians instead.

Alfred Adler: Theory and Application

Alfred Adler (1870-1937), world renowned philosopher and psychiatrist, stressed the
need to understand individuals within their social context. During the early 1900's,
Adler began addressing such crucial and contemporary issues as equality, parent
education, the influence of birth order, life style, and the holism of individuals. Adler
believed that we all have one basic desire and goal: to belong and to feel significant.

Adler developed the first holistic theory of personality, psychopathology, and

psychotherapy that was intimately connected to a humanistic philosophy of living. His
lectures and books for the general public are characterized by a crystal clear common
sense. His clinical books and journal articles reveal an uncommon understanding of
mental disorders, a deep insight into the art of healing, and a great inspiration for
encouraging optimal human development.
According to Adler, when we feel encouraged, we feel capable and appreciated and will
generally act in a connected and cooperative way. When we are discouraged, we may act
in unhealthy ways by competing, withdrawing, or giving up. It is in finding ways of
expressing and accepting encouragement, respect, and social interest that help us feel
fulfilled and optimistic.

Adlerian theory and practice have proven especially productive as applied to the growth
and development of children. Adlerians believe that "a misbehaving child is a
discouraged child" and that helping children to feel valued, significant, and competent is
often the most effective strategy in coping with difficult child behaviors.

Adlerian Psychology focuses on people's efforts to compensate for their self-perceived

inferiority to others. These feelings of inferiority may derive from one's position in the
family constellation, particularly if early experiences of humiliation occurred; a specific
physical condition or defect existed; or a general lack of social feeling for others was
present.

Adlerians are concerned with understanding the unique and private beliefs and
strategies (one's life style) that each individual creates in childhood. This cognitive
schema and life style serve as the individual's reference for attitudes, behaviors, and
one's private view of self, others, and the world. It is when we have looked at our early
life experiences, examined the patterns of behavior that repeat themselves in our lives,
and the methods by which we go about trying to gain significance and belonging that
healing, growth, and change occur.

As articulated by noted Adlerian psychotherapist Henry Stein, the theory and

application of Adlerian Psychology have as their lynchpins seven critical ideas:

Unity of the Individual

Thinking, feeling, emotion, and behavior can only be understood as subordinated to the
individual's style of life, or consistent pattern of dealing with life. The individual is not
internally divided or the battleground of conflicting forces. Each aspect of the
personality points in the same direction.

Goal Orientation
There is one central personality dynamic derived from the growth and forward
movement of life itself. It is a future-oriented striving toward a goal of significance,
superiority, or success. In mental health, it is a realistic goal of socially useful
significance or superiority over general difficulties. In mental disorders, it is an
unrealistic goal of exaggerated significance or superiority over others. The early
childhood feeling of inferiority, for which one aims to compensate, leads to the creation
of a fictional final goal which subjectively seems to promise future security and success.
The depth of the inferiority feeling usually determines the height of the goal which then
becomes the "final cause" of behavior patterns.

Self-Determination and Uniqueness

A person's fictional goal may be influenced by hereditary and cultural factors, but it
ultimately springs from the creative power of the individual, and is consequently unique.
Usually, individuals are not fully aware of their goal. Through the analysis of birth order,
repeated coping patterns, and earliest memories, the psychotherapist infers the goal as a
working hypothesis.

Social Context
As an indivisible whole, a system, the human being is also a part of larger wholes or
systems -- the family, the community, all of humanity, our planet, and the cosmos. In
these contexts, we meet the three important life tasks: occupation, love and sex, and our
relationship with other people -- all social challenges. Our way of responding to our first
social system, the family constellation, may become the prototype of our world view and
attitude toward life.

The Feeling of Community

Each human being has the capacity for learning to live in harmony with society. This is
an innate potential for social connectedness which has to be consciously developed.
Social interest and feeling imply "social improvement," quite different from conformity,
leaving room for social innovation even through cultural resistance or rebellion. The
feeling of genuine security is rooted in a deep sense of belonging and embeddedness
within the stream of social evolution.

Mental Health
A feeling of human connectedness and a willingness to develop oneself fully and
contribute to the welfare of others are the main criteria of mental health. When these
qualities are underdeveloped, feelings of inferiority may haunt an individual, or an
attitude of superiority may antagonize others. Consequently, the unconscious fictional
goal will be self-centered and emotionally or materially exploitive of other people. When
the feeling of connectedness and the willingness to contribute are stronger, a feeling of
equality emerges, and the individual's goal will be self-transcending and beneficial to
others.

Treatment
Adlerian individual psychotherapy, brief therapy, couple therapy, and family therapy
follow parallel paths. Clients are encouraged to overcome their feelings of insecurity,
develop deeper feelings of connectedness, and to redirect their striving for significance
into more socially beneficial directions. Through a respectful Socratic dialogue, they are
challenged to correct mistaken assumptions, attitudes, behaviors, and feelings about
themselves and the world. Constant encouragement stimulates clients to attempt what
was believed impossible. The growth of confidence, pride, and gratification leads to a
greater desire and ability to cooperate. The objective of therapy is to replace exaggerated
self-protection, self-enhancement, and self-indulgence with courageous social
contribution.

Adlerian psychology/psychotherapy was developed by Alfred Adler (1870-1937). A historically

influential psychiatrist, Alfred Adler began focusing the philosophical world’s atte ntion on
relatively new ideas in the early 20th century. He believed that it was imperative to become
intimately familiar with a person’s social context by exploring factors such as birth order,
lifestyle, and parental education. Adler believed that each person strives to belong and feel
significant.
HISTORY OF ADLERIAN PSYCHOLOGY
Adler began his professional life as an ophthalmologist in 1895, before entering the world
of psychiatry in the early 1900s. He was intrigued by Sigmund Freud's theories of human
behavior and bravely defended Freud’s much criticized concepts of psychoanalysis. In 1907, an
appreciative Freud invited Adler to join his inner circle—an exclusive Wednesday evening
discussion group thought to be the foundation of the psychoanalytic movement.
Ultimately, Adler and Freud parted ways due to theoretical differences, and Adler established
himself at the forefront of his own emerging approach to therapy and soon founded the School
of Individual Psychology. In this new system, the importance of studying the ent ire individual
was stressed. Adler's theory was institutionalized into The Society for Free Psychological
Thought, which began publishing the Journal for Individual Psychology soon after.
ADLERIAN PSYCHOTHERAPY
Adler was a pioneer in the area of holistic theory on personality, psychotherapy, and
psychopathology, and Adlerian psychology places its emphasis on a person’s ability to adapt to
feelings of inadequacy and inferiority relative to others. He believed that a person will be more
responsive and cooperative when he or she is encouraged and harbors feeling of adequacy
and respect. Conversely, when a person is thwarted and discouraged, he or she will display
counterproductive behaviors that present competition, defeat, and withdrawal. When methods
of expression are found for the positive influences of encouragement, one’s feelings of
fulfillment and optimism increase. Adler believed strongly that “a misbehaving child is a
discouraged child,” and that children’s behavior patterns improve most significantly when they
are filled with feelings of acceptance, significance, and respect.

Adler believed

that feelings of inferiority and inadequacy may be a result of birth order, especially if the person
experienced personal devaluation at an early age, or they may be due to the presence of a
physical limitation or lack of social empathy for other people. This method of therapy pays
particular attention to behavior patterns and belief systems that were developed in childhood.
Clinicians who use this form of therapy strongly believe that these strategies are the precursors
for later self-awareness and behaviors and are directly responsible for how a person perceives
themselves and others in their life. By examining these early habitual patterns, we can better
develop the tools needed to create our own sense of self-worth and meaning, and ultimately
create change that results in healing.

THE 4 STAGES OF ADLERIAN THERAPY

An Adlerian therapist assists individuals in comprehending the thoughts, drives, and emotions
that influence their lifestyles. People in therapy are also encouraged to acquire a more positive
and productive way of life by developing new insights, skills, and behaviors. These goals are
achieved through the four stages of Adlerian therapy:

1. Engagement: A trusting therapeutic relationship is built between the therapist and the
person in therapy and they agree to work together to effectively address the problem.
2. Assessment: The therapist invites the individual to speak about his or her personal history,
family history, early recollections, beliefs, feelings, and motives. This helps to reveal the
person's overall lifestyle pattern, including factors that might initially be thought of as
insignificant or irrelevant by the person in therapy.
3. Insight: The person in therapy is helped to develop new ways of thinking about his or her
situation.
4. Reorientation: The therapist encourages the individual to engage in satisfying and
effective actions that reinforce this new insight, or which facilitate further insight.
VALUES CLARIFICATION AND ADLERIAN PSYCHOLOGY
Individuals often enter therapy to gain better insight into their own behaviors and responses to
circumstances that occur in their lives. Adlerian psychotherapy uses a process of
Adlerian values clarification, through which a person in therapy is introduced to personal life
organization, including birth order, social context, and other external dynamics, including
parental influences. By understanding this organization, and how it has influenced self-worth,
acceptance, and expectations, an individual can begin to accept the emotions they have
relative to the events they experienced as a child. This process of perception allows the person
in therapy to identify—maybe for the first time—their true inner value, independent of others.
Adlerian values clarification allows one to look at prior beliefs in a new way that encourages
positive change.
Values clarification is all about doing what matters, knowing what matters to you personally,
and taking effective action guided by those values. Various exercises are employed to help
identify chosen values that act like a compass from which to direct intentional and effective
behavior. People who are fused with their thoughts and tend to struggle with or avoid painful
emotions often struggle with choosing purposeful and values-guided action. Through mindful
liberation from such struggles, they find acting congruently with their values natural and
fulfilling.

TYPES OF ADLERIAN THERAPY

Adlerian individual psychotherapy, brief therapy, couples therapy, and family therapy all guide
people to release their unproductive feelings and to refocus their attention toward forming
corrections in perceived values, feelings, and behaviors that prohibit further posit ive growth.
The Adlerian technique uses Socratic dialogue to inspire the development of productive and
beneficial attitudes in the areas of confidence, self-worth, and significance that result in a
person’s increased ability to naturally cooperate and form cohesive relationships. The
paramount goal of this type of therapy is to remove destructive self-directed beliefs and
behaviors and to replace them with tools that will allow a client to become confident and
socially empowered.
LIMITATIONS OF ADLERIAN PSYCHOLOGY
Adlerian therapy takes time, and the approach may not be best suited to individuals who are
seeking a briefer form of therapy or quick solutions to their concerns. In addition, a large part of
this approach is the exploration of early childhood events, and individuals who do not wish to
explore family history or material may not find this approach ideal. Another critique of the
approach is its potential decrease in efficacy with people who may be less insightful and/or
challenged by concerns that impact their ability to function.

While Adlerian therapy has been supported by some research, more testing will likely provide
more extensive evidence backing the benefits of the approach.

References:
1. Adler Graduate School. (n.d.). Alfred Adler: theory and application. Retrieved from
http://www.alfredadler.edu/about/theory
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and psychotherapy: A multicultural perspective (6th ed., pp. 146-161). USA: SAGE
Publications, Inc. Retrieved from
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3. Edwards, M. E. & Stein, H. T. (1998). Classical Adlerian theory and practice. Retrieved from
http://www.adlerian.us/theoprac.htm
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approach (pp. 79-97). USA: SAGE Publications, Inc. Retrieved from
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en&sa=X&ei=P5h_VO_LJISWNvGHg6AB&ved=0CD4Q6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=adlerian%
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5. Parsons, R. D. & Zhang, N. (2014). Counseling theory: Guiding reflective practice (pp. 109-
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