COMMUNICATION AND

NETWORKING CONCEPTS

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Name of the Topic Slide Number
Network Concepts 4-10
Client-Server Architecture 10
Evolution of Internet 11-12
How Internet Works? 13-15
Interspace 16
Networking Terms 17-21
Switching Techniques 22
Transmission Media (Wired) 23-27
Comparison between various Wired Media 28
Transmission Media (Wireless) 29-33
Data Communication Technologies 34-35
Types of Networks 36-39
Difference between types of Networks 40
Name of the Topic Slide Number
Network Topologies 41-50
Comparison between several Topologies 51
Network Devices 52-60
Communication Protocols 61-63
Web Scripting 64-65
Network Security 66-71
NETWORK: When two or more communicating devices
are connected with each other, it is termed as a network.
For example, telephone network, computer network, ATM
network etc.

COMPUTER NETWORK: It signifies sharing of

information and services among several
computers.
Computer networking provides communication tools
to allow computers to share information and its
abilities.

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Going online: Connecting to a collection of
interconnected computers on a
network.
• Do banking
• Pay bills
• Buy groceries
• Book vacation travel
• Send messages
• Participate in discussions
• Do research
• Play games

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Thus, a Network is a collection of computers,
display terminals, printers, and other devices linked
either by physical or wireless means.
Two computers are said to be interconnected if
they are able to exchange information.

Internet: A worldwide network connecting millions of

computer networks for the purpose of exchanging data
and communications using special rules of
communication.
intranet: Any network connecting two or more
computer networks.

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Networks
◆ Network is two or more computers that
are connected so that data and resources
can be shared.

◆Most computers are connected to some kind

of network.

◆Each computer has its own network

address, which uniquely identifies it from
other systems on the network.

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 Computer Network leads to
◆ Resource sharing
◆ To provide high reliability
◆ Saving money and time
◆ To provide better communication
Advantages & Disadvantages of Networking
Advantages Disadvantages
1. Systems are complex and
1. It allows sharing of
sophisticated to run so it adds to
resources.
costs and needs specialist staff to
2. It allows to share Storage. run the network.
3. It allows sharing of 2. If networks are badly managed
hardware and software. then productivity falls.
4. Improved communication, 3. File security is more important
i.e., e-mails.

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Applications of Networks
◆Sharing
◼ Sharing of peripherals like
Printers, scanners, internet connection.
◼ Information is shared in multi-user systems.
◆Access to remote database.
◆Communication facilities
◼ Cansend video, graphics and text to other
nodes.

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Computer networks and in turn Networking
works on client/server architecture.

Server: A dedicated computer that is part of a network.

The hard drive contains files that are “served” to
whoever requests them.
Could be data, programs, or home pages for the
WWW.
The server normally runs the networking software.

Client/server model: One computer, the client, requests

information from another computer, the server. Client
computers can run any type of operating system as long
as they have the ability to use internet protocols.
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 Evolution of Internet
1. In 1969, ARPANET was started to connect computers
at US defense and different universities
2. In 1980s, NSFnet was started to make a high capacity
network to be used strictly for academic and engineering
research
3. In the 1990s the inter-networking of ARPANET, NSFnet and
other private networks resulted in the formation of Internet.

• The internet is a worldwide network of computer

networks.
• It connects many smaller networks together and hence
called a super network.

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❖ The internet is a WAN which spans the entire
planet.
❖ The word internet comes from the term

Inter-networking
❖ It was started as a United States government
project, sponsored by the Advanced Research
Projects Agency (ARPA); thus, originally it was
called the ARPANET.
❖ The internet grew quickly throughout the 1980s
and 1990s.

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 How does internet works?
Most computers are not connected directly to internet, rather
they are connected to smaller networks, which in turn are
connected through GATEWAYS to the internet BACKBONE.

BACKBONE

GATEWAYS

A Gateway is a device that connects two or more dissimilar networks.

A Backbone is the central interconnecting structure that connects one or
more networks just like the trunk of a tree or the spine of a human being. 13
1. At source computer, the message or the file/message to be sent
to another computer is divided into very small parts of fixed sizes
called PACKETS.
2. Each packet is given a number serial-wise, viz., 1, 2, 3… and
the destination address is given on each packet.
3. These packets are then sent to the address of destination
computer.
4. The destination computer receives the packets in random
manner. (It may even receive packet 10 before packet 1 arrives).
If a packet is garbled or lost, it is required to be sent again.
5. The packets are reassembled in the order of their number and
the original message/file/document is obtained.

Network Protocols
Every computer connected to the network follows the same
set of rules for communication. These set of rules are called
Protocols.
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Network protocols are layered such that each one relies
on the protocols that underlie it. Sometimes referred
to as a protocol stack

Protocol Stack
Communication Protocol - TCP/IP
◆ The TCP (i.e., Transmission Control Protocol) part is responsible
for breaking the file/message into packets at the source
computer.
◆ TCP is also responsible for reassembling the received packets
at the destination or recipient computer.
◆ The IP (i.e., Internet Protocol) part is responsible for handling the
address of destination computer so that each packet is routed
(sent) to its proper destination.

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It a client/server software program that allows multiple
users to communicate online with real-time audio, video
and text chat in dynamic 3D environments.

“The Interspace is a Vision of what the internet will

become.”

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 ❖ NODES (WORKSTATIONS)
❖ SERVER

❖ NETWORK INTERFACE UNIT (NIU)

❖ MAC ADDRESS

Computers that are attached to a network and share the resources

of the network are termed as Nodes.

No nodes (also called workstations) no network

SERVER
A computer that facilitates sharing of data, software and hardware
resources (e.g., printers, modems, etc.) on the network, is termed as
a SERVER.

A network can have more than one server also. Each server has a
unique name on the network and all users of network identify the
server by its unique name.
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 Server

Non-Dedicated
Dedicated Server
Server

One computer is reserved for server’s One computer works as a workstation

job and its only job is to help as well as a server. Such networks are
workstations access data, Software and known as Non-Dedicated Servers, such
Hardware resources. Such networks are as PEER-TO-PEER NETWORKS.
known as Dedicated Servers or
MASTER-SLAVE NETWORKS.
Examples of Dedicated Servers are: File server,
Printer server and Modem server.
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• An interpreter that helps
establish communication
between the server and
workstations.
• It has a unique number
identifying it which is known
as the node address.
• Different manufacturers give
different names.

Also called NIC — Network Interface Card.

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MAC ADDRESS
The MAC address refers to the physical address assigned by
NIC manufacturer.

A MAC address is given to a network adapter (computer system) when

it is manufactured. It is hardwired or hard-coded onto your computer's
network interface card (NIC) and is unique to it. The ARP (Address
Resolution Protocol) translates an IP address into a MAC address. The
ARP is like a passport that takes data from an IP address through an
actual piece of computer hardware.

The manufacturers place a special number sequence (called the

Organizationally Unique Identifier or OUI) in the MAC address that
identifies them. The OUI is typically right at the front of the address.
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All devices on the same network subnet have different MAC addresses.
MAC addresses are very useful in diagnosing network issues, such as
problems with IP addresses.

MAC addresses are useful for network diagnosis because they never
change, as opposed to a dynamic IP address which can change from
time to time. For a network administrator that makes a MAC address a
more reliable way to identify senders and receivers of data on the
network.

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They are employed to provide communication between
two computers.
Switching
Techniques

Circuit Message Packet

Switching Switching Switching

This method follows

In this method, complete
physical connection is set
up prior to communication
Store and Forward
This method follows Store principle for transfer
and Forward principle for of packets—a
complete messages message is divided
into fixed-sized
packets

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 Transmission Media is also termed as Communication Channels
or Connecting cables or Connecting media.
The cables that connect two or more workstations are termed as
communication channels. Transmission media or communication
channels of network is nothing but the cable/media which provides the
link.
• Twisted pair
Guided cable
• Coaxial cables
Media
• Optical fibres

Transmission
Media It include waves
through air, water or
vacuum:
Unguided * Microwaves
Media * Radio waves
* Satellites
* Infrared
* Laser 23
 Twisted Pair Cable
It is the most common form of wiring in data communication applications.
It consists of two identical wires wrapped together in a double helix.
The bleeding of a signal from one wire to another which can corrupt
signal and cause network errors. This form of signal interference is
called crosstalk. To reduce crosstalk, wires are twisted in pair in twisted
pair cables.
Advantages Disadvantages
1. It is simple in design. 1. Data transmission
2. It is easy to install and characteristics are not good.
maintain. 2. It is incapable of carrying a
3. It has a low weight. signal over long distances
4. It can be easily because of high attenuation.
connected. 3. It has low bandwidth
5. It is inexpensive. capabilities so unsuitable for
broadband applications.

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 Coaxial Cable
Dielectric
It consists of a solid wire core surrounded material Braided
by one or more foil or wire shields, each outer Outer
separated by some kind of plastic insulator. conductor cover

The inner core carries the signal, and the shield provides the ground, has high
electrical properties and is suitable for high speed communication used for TV
signals.
Advantages
Disadvantages
1. Transmission capabilities
are better than twisted pair 1. Expensive compared to twisted pair.
cables.
2. Not compatible with Twisted Pair
2. It can be used for
cable.
broadband transmission
(Cable TV transmission).
3. Offers higher bandwidths
up to 400 MBPS

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 Optical Fibres
Fibre Optics cables work on the principle of light. Light is
electromagnetic in nature.
It can transmit more information down a single strand over a
wider set of frequencies. Each cable can send several
thousand telephonic conversations or computer
communications.

light
cladding jacket
core

Fibre Optic cables can be either

Single Node that supports
segment length of up to 2 km
and bandwidth of up to 100
Mbps.
Multinode, with segment length
of up to 100 km and bandwidth
of 2Gbps.
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Advantages

1. Immune to electrical and magnetic interference.

2. Highly suitable for harsh industrial environment.
3. Secure transmission & high transmission capacity.
4. Can be used for broadband transmission.

Disadvantages

1. Installation problem.
2. Are fragile and may need special care to provide the robustness
required for office environment.
3. Connecting two fibres together or a light source is difficult to
make and maintain.

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 Comparison between Transmission Cables

Type Sub-type Maximum Bandwidth Installation Cost Interference

Segment Supported
Length

Twisted Pair UTP 100 Mtrs 200 Mbps Easy Cheapest High
Cable STP 100 Mtrs 500 Mbps Moderate Moderate Moderate

Coaxial Cable Thinnet 185 Mtrs 10 Mbps Easy Cheap Moderate

Thicknet 500 Mtrs 10 Mbps Hard Moderate Low

Fibre Optic Multinode 2 Km 100 Mbps Very Expensive None

Cable Singlenode 100 Km 2 Gbps Hard None

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 Micro wave Transmission
(It is line of sight transmission)
Microwave signals are used to transmit a data without cables.
The microwave signals are similar to radio and television.
Signals are used for long distance
communications.

It consists of:
1. Transmitter
2. Receiver
3. Atmosphere

Often used to communicate with distant

locations.
Must be in line of sight.
Satellite communications use microwaves.

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Advantages:

i) It is cheaper than digging trenches for laying

cables and maintaining repeaters and cables.

ii) It offers freedom from land acquisition.

iii) Offers ease of communication over difficult terrains.

iv) Ability to communicate over oceans.

Disadvantages
1. Insecure communication.
2. Susceptible to weather effects like rains, thunderstorms,
etc.
3. Bandwidth allocation is extremely limited.
4. The cost of design, implementation and
maintenance is high.
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 Radio Wave Transmission
Radio wave transmission uses radio frequencies. It
functions even though line of sight is interrupted. Thus, it
is not commonly used because of possible interference
from other sources of electromagnetic radiation, such as
old electric drills and furnace motors.
Advantages
1. It offers mobility. Disadvantages

2. It does not require any 1. Insecure communication.

cables or wires.
2. Susceptible to weather
3. It does not require digging effects like rains,
of trenches etc. thunderstorms, etc.

4. Offers ease of
communication over
difficult terrains.

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Satellite Transmission (for intercontinental
communication)
Satellite communication involves
sending of data signals from
ground station to another using
satellite as the medium of
transmission.
Advantages
1. The area covered is
very large
2. Cable laying is very
Disadvantages
difficult and
expensive so
1.Technological limitations preventing
satellite proves to be the use of large, high gain antennas
on the satellite platform.
the best alternative.
2. High investment cost and insurance
cost.

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Infrared light

Commonly used in TV and VCR remote controls.

Use infrared frequencies of electromagnetic radiation that
behave much like visible light. Must be in the line of sight. Often
used to connect keyboards, mice and printers.
It is used to send data and can propagate throughout the
room, but will not penetrate walls e.g.. TV remotes,
automotive garage doors, wireless speakers.

Laser transmission
It requires direct line of sight. It is unidirectional like microwave,
but has much higher speed than microwaves. It is point-to point
transmission, typically between buildings.

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DATA COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES

❖ Data Channel: It is the medium used to carry information or

data from one point to another.
❖Baud: It is the unit of measurement of data transfer rates, i.e.,
bps.
❖ Bits per second (bps): It is defined as the number of bits
transferred per second.
kbps-→kilo bits per second
Kbps-→kilo bytes per second
mbps-→mega /million bits per second
Mbps-→mega /million bytes per second

❖ Data transfer rates: It represents the amount of data transferred

per second by a communication channel or a computing or
storage device. It is measured in units of bps, Bps or baud.

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❖ Bandwidth: It refers to the difference between the highest and
lowest frequencies of a transmission channel. Highest bandwidth
channels are called Broadband channels and low bandwidth
channels are called Narrowband channels. It is measured in hertz
(Hz).
◆ Kilohertz(kHz) : thousand cycles per second
◆ Megahertz(MHz): thousand kHz
◆ Gigahertz(GHz): thousand MHz
◆ Terahertz(THz): thousand GHz

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 TYPES OF NETWORK
On the basis of Geographical spread, computers and their networks
are classified as follows: ◆ Local Area Networks (LAN)
◆ Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)
◆ Wide Area Networks (WAN)
◆ Wireless Networks
◆ Home Networks
◆ Internetworks
Classification of interconnected processors by scale

Square metre

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 Local Area Networks
A Local Area Network (LAN) covers a small distance and a
small number of computers.
A LAN often connects the machines in a single room or
building.

Two broadcast networks used

for LANs are:
(a) Bus
(b) Ring

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 Metropolitan Area Networks
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network that
interconnects users with computer resources in a geographic
area or region larger than that covered by even a large local area
network (LAN) but smaller than the area covered by a wide area
network (WAN).

Cable TV network is an example of MAN.

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 Wide Area Networks
A Wide Area Network (WAN) connects two or more LANs,
often over long distances.
A LAN usually is owned by
one organization, but a WAN
often connects groups in
different countries.

Internetworks
◆ Collection of interconnected networks is called
internetwork or internet.
◆ Internet is one specific internet or internetwork.
◆ A common form of internet is a collection of
LANs interconnected by a WAN.
◆ An internetwork is formed when distinct networks
are interconnected.
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 Difference between three types of Networks
Metropolitan
( LAN, MAN and WAN) Area Networks

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 Network Topologies
The layout or pattern of interconnection of nodes in a network is
called Network Topology.

Three major factors to be taken into consideration while selecting

a topology are: 1. Cost

2. Flexibility
3. Reliability

Network Structure
Network structure can be classified into two broad
categories:

❖ Point-to-Point
❖ Broadcast Channels

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Point-to-Point
When a message is sent from one node to another via one or
more intermediate nodes, the packet is received at each
intermediate node in its entirety, stored there until the required
output line is free and then forwarded.
A subnet using this principle is called a point-to-point,
store and forward or packet-switched subnet.
Following are the topologies used for point to point:
◆ Star
◆ Ring
◆ Tree
◆ Complete
◆ Intersecting Ring
◆ Irregular

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 Broadcast Channels
This type of network has a single communication channel that
is shared by all the machines on the network.
Packets sent by any machine are received by all other machines.
An address field within the packet specifies for whom it is
intended. Upon receiving a packet, a machine checks the
address field. If the packet is intended for some other
machine, it is just ignored. If it is intended for that machine, it
accepts the packet.
Broadcast channels allow two types of transmission
◆ Multicasting
Transmission for more than one but not for everyone.
◆ Broadcasting
Transmission for everyone.
Following are the topologies used for broadcast channels:
◆ Bus
◆ Satellite or Radio
◆ Ring
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 Star Topology
A star network consists of central switch or hub computer,
which acts as a router to transmit messages.

Advantages
◆ Ease of service.
◆ One device per connection.
◆ Centralized control/Problem
diagnosis.
◆ Simple access protocols.
◆ Security can be implemented
in the hub/switch.

Disadvantages:
1. Long cable length.
2. Difficult to expand.
3. Central node dependency.
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 Ring Topology

A ring network is a topology of computer networks where each

node is connected to two other nodes, so as to create a ring.
Advantages
1. Short cable length
2. No wiring closet
space required. Ring
3. Suitable for optical Topology
fibres.

Disadvantages
1. Node failure causes
network failure.
2. Difficult to diagnose
faults.
3. Network reconfiguration is
difficult.
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 Bus Topology
A continuous coaxial cable to which
all the devices are attached.
All nodes can detect all messages
sent along the bus.

Advantages
1. Short cable length and
simple wiring layout.
2. Resilient architecture.
3. Easy to extend.
4. Cheapest topology to
implement.
Disadvantages
1. Fault diagnosis is difficult.
2. Fault isolation is difficult.
3. Repeater configuration.
4. Nodes must be intelligent.
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 Bus Topology
A bus network is passive – the computers on the bus simply listen
for a signal; they are responsible for moving the signal along.
However, many active architectures can also be described as a
"bus" as they provide the same logical functions as a passive bus.
For example, switched Ethernet can still be regarded as a logical
bus network, if not a physical one. Indeed, the hardware may be
abstracted away completely in the case of a software bus.

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 Tree Topology

Tree topology or network is also

termed as Hierarchical network.

Looks like an upside-down

tree where end nodes are
linked to interior nodes that
allow linking through another
end node.

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 Graph Topology
Nodes are connected together in an arbitrary fashion.
A link may or may not connect two or more nodes.
There may be multiple links.
It is not necessary that all the nodes are connected.

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 Mesh Topology
In mesh topology, each node is connected to more than
one node to provide an alternative route.

Fully Connected

In a fully connected network, each host is connected to the

other by a direct link.

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Comparison among various Topologies

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A Modem is a Network device which connects a workstation/node to
other workstations via telephone lines and facilitates
communication. A Modem converts digital signals to analog signals
and vice versa.

Modem

External Internal
Modem Modem

They are connected They are fixed

externally to a computer within the computer.
as other devices..

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RJ-45 is an 8-wire
connector which is
commonly used to connect
computers on the LAN.
RJ stands for Registered
Jack.

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Ethernet – a LAN RJ-45
architecture, it uses bus CONNECTOR
or star topologies and can
support data transfer AUI
(Auxiliary Unit
rates up to 10Mbps . The Interface)
CONNECTOR
computers that are part of
Ethernet, have to install a
special card called
BNC
Ethernet card (LAN card). CONNECTOR
(Bayone-Neill
–Concelman)
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 A hub is the simplest of these devices. It is used to connect several
computers on the network. Any data packet coming from one port is sent to
all other ports. It is then up to the receiving computer to decide if the
packet is meant for it.
◆ The biggest problem with hubs is their simplicity. Since every packet is sent
out to every computer on the network, there is a lot of wasted transmission.
This means that the network can easily be bogged down.
◆ Hubs are typically used on small networks where the amount of data going
across the network is never very high.

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 Hubs can support 8,12 or 24 RJ-45 ports.
They are often used in a star or ring
topology.
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Repeater is a network device which amplifies and restores
signals for long-distance transmission.

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A bridge goes one step up on a hub in that it looks at the
destination of the packet before sending it. If the destination
address is not on the other side of the bridge, it will not transmit
the data.
A bridge only has one incoming and one outgoing port. Bridges can
filter traffic based on MAC addresses.
Abridge is a device that links two networks together.

It is also termed as a multi-port bridge. A switch is more sophisticated than a

hub. A switch filters the data packets. It does this by keeping a table of each
destination address and its port.
Problem with switches
1. It cannot stop traffic destined for a different LAN segment
from travelling to all other LAN segments.
2. It cannot resolve protocol related problems.
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59
A router is similar to a switch. But instead of the MAC address that a
switch uses, a router can use the IP address. This allows the network
to go across different protocols.

The most common home use for routers is to share a

broadband internet connection.
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Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

Allows Web documents to be moved across the

internet and retrieved by your computer.
A hypertext server is a computer that stores files
written in hypertext markup language (HTML)
and allows other computers to read it.

Set of rules governing exchange of hypertext

between two computers is commonly known as
HTTP. It consists of two distinct items:
• A set of requests from browsers to
servers.
• A set of responses from server to
browsers.

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 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
Ensures proper transfer of files from one network in an
organization to another, i.e., REMOTE LOGIN.
FTP can also be defined as a set of rules, which
enables files to be uploaded or downloaded on a
network. It serves as client server process.

Transmission Control Protocol/Internet

Protocol (TCP/IP)
Allows data to be moved from the server, i.e., source computer to the
user. It is a layered set of protocols being widely followed on internet.
TCP is responsible for keeping track of what is being sent, how it is being
sent and whether what has been sent is received properly at the other
end or not. If not properly received, retransmission is controlled by TCP…

IP is the protocol controlling address on the network.

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SLIP/PPP

SLIP: Serial Line Internet Protocol

PPP: Point-to-point Protocols
SLIP It was the first protocol used on dial-up lines for sending
and receiving packets on the network. It does not have
support for dynamic address assignment, so is not used
nowadays.
PPP is the INTERNET Standard for transmission of IP packets
over serial lines. It is currently used Internet protocol for data
transfer on dial-up lines or leased lines.

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Web Scripting

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 Types of Scripts
CLIENT SIDE SCRIPTS
1. It enables interaction within a
web page.
2. They are browser-dependent as
they are downloaded at the client
side and then interpreted and
executed by the browser.
SERVER SIDE SCRIPTS
1. It enables the completion or
carrying out of a task at the
server end and then sending the
result to the client end.
2. It does not depend on browsers.
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Network Security refers to certain control mechanisms
set up to ensure that properly authenticated users get
access only to those resources that they are entitled to
use.

Under this, the mechanisms or

protection methods used are:
1. Authorization
2. Authentication
3. Encrypted smart cards
4. Biometric systems
5. Firewall

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The system designed to prevent unauthorized
access to or from a private network is called
Firewall.

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They are the programmers who are interested in
gaining knowledge about computer systems and
possibly using this knowledge for playful pranks.

Cyber crimes are crimes which are committed with the use of computers
through the internet. For example,
1. Tampering with computer source documents
2. Hacking
3. Publishing of information (obscene) in electronic form
4. Child pornography
5. Accessing protected system
6. Breach of confidentiality and privacy

It is a generic term , which refers to all the legal and

regulatory aspects of internet and the World Wide Web.
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It is a malicious program that requires a host and is
designed to make a system behave abnormally. They
are of 3 types:
◆ File Infectors
◆ Boot Sector Virus
◆ Macro viruses

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It is the code hidden in a
program such as a game
or spreadsheet that looks
safe to run but has hidden
side effects.

It is a program designed to
replicate and run
independently and travel
from computer to
computer across network
connections.
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It is an electronic junk mail or junk newsgroup
postings.

1. Do not use foreign disk without scanning.

2. Scan the files downloaded from internet.
3. Never boot your PC from floppy disk.
4. Disk being used should be write-protected.
5. Use licensed software.
6. Password protect your PC.
7. Make regular backups.
8. Install and use anti-virus software.
9. Keep anti-virus software up to date.
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