Motores Térmicos

Internal Combustion Engines

•Influence of engine capacity

•Influence of stroke to bore ratio
•Influence of rotational speed
n 1 PCI
Pe ∝ cd 2 l η v rs ρ 0 ηid Ψ ηm
nr λ 1+ x
1
 Engine capacity

If the remaining factors did not vary, the effective power would be proportional to the
engine capacity, and the mean effective pressure would be independent of the
engine capacity.
The increase of engine capacity is usually the option taken to increase the effective
power, although an increase in speed or the use of supercharging could be
alternative options, specially when there are restrictions to the engine weight or
volume.

The desired engine capacity can be achieved using a small number of large cylinders
or a large number of small cylinders → the consequences depend mainly on two
factors:
— The value of the moving masses, which are greater for bigger cylinders, and
have associated larger inertia forces;
— The relation between the area/volume, S V, for each individual cylinder, which
increases for smaller cylinders (see figure on next slide).

2
 Engine capacity

(S V )1 = 2 (S V )2

The choice between a small number of large cylinders or a large number of

small cylinders will be studied in the following assuming geometrically
similar engines, as indicated in the above figure (namely, it will be
l
assumed the engines have the same Rld = ).
d
3
 Engine capacity

The consequences of having a small number of large cylinders resulting from

the factor that the moving masses are higher are:

— It is necessary to reduce the rotational speed of the engine, trying to

keep the same mean piston speed. It results that engines with a small
number of large cylinders tend to be less powerful;
— The speed reduction tends to reduce the friction losses. While the
effective power varies linearly with the rotational speed, the friction
losses vary with a power of the rotational speed to an exponent
between 2 and 3, implying that a reduction of the rotational speed
leads to an increase of the mechanical efficiency;
— Greater moving masses imply an engine that is heavier and so takes
longer to react to quick transients.

4
 Engine capacity

The consequences of having a small number of large cylinders resulting from

the factor that the area/volume is smaller are:

— Smaller heat losses from the gas to the cylinder walls. This effect tends
to improve Ψ , and, as a consequence, ηi and η e ;
— Greater thermal stresses, and the need of a more sophisticated cooling
system. This aspect may become a disadvantage, because it may limit
the amount of energy released during the combustion;
— The hydrocarbons emissions (unburned fuel) and carbon monoxide
emissions are smaller because the cylinder walls run hotter, and
because the area/volume ratio is smaller;
— Smaller friction losses because the area subjected to friction is
reduced in relative terms. The effect improves η m and η e .

5
 Engine capacity
In addition, it can be said that the solution “small number of large cylinders”
leads to a more robust and mechanically reliable engine, which is cheaper
and requires less maintenance.

The solution “large number of small cylinders” runs smoother and have less
vibrations because there is a larger number of power strokes per revolution,
and the torque is more uniform. Nevertheless, the crankshaft tends to be
longer to accommodate the larger number of cylinders, and so is subjected to
greater torsional and bending stresses. These engines tend to be more
expensive (larger number of parts), and are heavier and occupy more volume.
These engines react more quickly to transients.

6
 Stroke to bore ratio
The values of stroke to bore ratio tend to be between 0.7 to 1.5 for most of
the applications. There is an important exception, in that very large and
powerful engines tend to have a value between 1.7 and 3.8 (crosshead type
engine).

In order to limit the thermal stresses to acceptable values, it is necessary to

increase more the stroke than the bore when the swept volume has to be
increased.

The relative merits of the different solutions depend on:

— Value of the stroke (greater for Rld > 1.0 );

— Value of the area/volume ratio (greater for Rld < 1.0 );
— Value of the cylinder wall thickness (greater for Rld < 1.0 ).

7
 Stroke to bore ratio

The advantages of over-square engines (smaller values of the stroke) are:

— Since the stroke is smaller, a greater rotational speed can be used;
— Since the bore is greater, the valve diameters may be bigger, leading to
improved volumetric efficiencies, specially for larger rotational speeds;
— A larger bore implies that there is more room to install the spark plug
or the injector;
— The cooling of the cylinders is more easily achieved.

As a consequence of the above advantages, over-square engines tend to be

more powerful, with higher rotational speeds.

8
 Stroke to bore ratio
A typical application for this sort of engines is in racing cars, as indicated in
the next figure.

9
 Stroke to bore ratio
Under-square engines (with Rld > 1.0 ) have smaller values of the area/volume ratio,
leading to:
— Smaller heat loss implying an improved indicated efficiency, ηi ;
— Easier cold start, an important characteristic for Diesel engines;
— The friction losses tend to be smaller on account of the smaller area/volume
ratio, resulting in a better mechanical efficiency;
— Since the combustion chamber is more compact when the piston is near the
TDC, the combustion takes place in more advantageous conditions (this
improves Ψ , ηi , and η e ), namely:
• The combustion requires less time to be concluded because the flame
front needs to move smaller distances;
• Heat losses are smaller, and combustion is more complete;
• The mixing of fuel with air in Diesel engines is facilitated, leading to the
need of less excess air.
— The hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions are smaller because the
area/volume ratio is smaller, and the cylinder walls tend to run hotter.

10
 Stroke to bore ratio

Comparing engines with the same displacement or swept volume, it can be

stated that:

— Under-square engines have better efficiencies, better cold start, and

smaller thermal stresses. They have smaller hydrocarbons, carbon
monoxide and particulates (Diesel) emissions. They are lighter and
shorter, although they may be taller;
— Over-squared engines are more powerful, with greater rotational
speeds, suffer less from over-heating (because the area/volume ratio
is greater), and for the same rotational speed the inertia forces are
smaller. The crankshaft of over-squared engines are longer and, so, are
subjected to larger torsional stresses.

11
 Rotational speed

If the remaining factors did not vary, the effective power would be
proportional to the engine rotational speed, n , and the torque and mean
effective pressure would be independent of the engine rotational speed.

In most of applications, it is desired to have an engine with the largest power

possible, or for a given desired power, the engine which is smallest – in
general, the smallest engines are cheaper to buy and operate. Therefore,
it is important to try to increase the rotational speed as much as possible.

In reality, the remaining factors do vary, and, as a consequence, the power

does not vary linearly with the speed. In general, all the engines present a
maximum speed which should not be exceeded.

In the following slides some factors that limit the rotational speed, n , are
presented and discussed.
12
 Rotational speed
As the rotational speed, n , increases, the mechanical stresses also increase, and may
reach a limit. In fact, the rotating parts will be subjected to higher centrifugal
accelerations, and the parts with a linear alternating movement will be subjected also
to higher accelerations. These mechanical forces will increase with the square of the
engine rotational speed.
It is illuminating to present a simple qualitative analysis of this influence. As already
stated, these mechanical stresses will be proportional to the rotating masses, to the
square of the angular speed and to the curvature radius of the movement (i.e. crank
throw). These stresses will vary inversely with the bearing area of the crankshaft
journals:
m ω2 r
S
However:
— The masses are proportional to the volume, given by d 2 l ;
— The angular speed, ω , is proportional to n ;
— The curvature radius is proportional to the stroke, l ;
— The bearing area is proportional to the bore squared, for a geometrically similar
engine.

13
 Rotational speed
Substituting these relations in the above expression, it can be concluded that:
m ω 2 r d 2l n 2 l
∝ 2
∝ (nl )2
∝ ue2
S d
i. e., the mechanical stresses vary with the mean piston speed squared.

—Lighter materials (like aluminum and some steel alloys) may allow higher mean
piston speeds. On the contrary, heavier materials (like cast iron) may force the use of
lower mean piston speeds;
—A better surface treatment of the bearings that allow a better lubrication, may
permit higher mean piston speeds.
—The type of use of the engine has a great influence on the allowable value of the
mean piston speed. Indeed, engines which are supposed to work at full load for
extended periods of time must use smaller values of mean piston speed; on the other
hand, engines that usually work at part load and low speeds, and only occasionally go
to full speed for short periods, may use greater values of the mean piston speed. In
principle, an engine with higher mean piston speed will be mechanically less reliable
than an engine with a lower mean piston speed.

14
 Rotational speed

Factors influencing the choice of the mean piston speed, ue , are:

— CI engines tend to have lower ue than SI engines, because they are heavier
in order to withstand the associated larger efforts;
— Small engines produced in large numbers may use lighter parts (mass
production, cost reduction) that permit the use of larger values of the ue ;
— Forced induction engines usually have smaller values of the mean piston
speed than naturally aspirated engines;
— Engines for continuous duty (like engines used to drive electric generators,
large industrial engines or directly coupled to a maritime propeller) tend
to have smaller values of the mean piston speed, ue , than engines for
intermittent duty (most of the engines for motorcycles, cars, light
commercial vehicles and other road vehicles for light duty).

A table with typical values of the mean piston speed, ue, as a function of the
application was already presented previously.

15
 Rotational speed

Another factor that may limit the maximum value of the rotational speed is
the friction losses.

Friction losses vary with the rotational speed to an exponent that lies
between two and three. So, although for small values of the rotational speed
an increase of n may lead to an increase of the brake power, the same may
not be true for large values of the rotational speed. As a consequence, it may
be necessary to limit the rotational speed, n .

Other factors influencing the maximum value of the rotational speed may
have to do with an excessive noise, or an increase of vibrations.

16
 Rotational speed

Questions linked to the combustion may also limit the maximum rotational speed.

For SI engines this limit is related to the flame propagation speed, ST . Although ST may
initially increase slightly with the rotational speed, n , after a while, it may even
decrease. Since the time available for combustion decreases sharply with n , it results
that the combustion will be concluded later on the expansion stroke. This leads to a
decrease of the relative efficiency, Ψ , and an increase of the temperature level at the
start of the exhaust. These effects are undesirable, and may have a negative impact on
the engine mechanical reliability.

CI engines have a similar limitation, in that the available time for combustion may not
be enough to guarantee the vaporization of the fuel droplets, mixture with the air and
the combustion. As a consequence, the relative efficiency will decrease and there will
be an increase in the temperature and pressure level at the exhaust start.

17
 Rotational speed

Some applications may impose a limit to the engine rotational speed, n .

A typical example is an engine connected to an electrical generator, which
have its speed imposed by the type of generator used (namely, the number of
poles) and the grid frequency, see next table.

Another example that imposes the speed is the case of a direct connection
between the engine shaft and a maritime propeller, used in some large ships.

18
 Bibliography
Bibliography
• Chapter 3, section 3.2 and 3.3
“Motores de Combustão Interna – uma abordagem
termodinâmica”
J. M. C. Mendes Lopes, Folhas AEIST, 2003

19