LOGIC GATE S AND INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

L ogic Gates
INTR ODUCTION
A logic gate is an elementary building bloc k of a digital c ircuit. t
makes "logic al dec isions" based on the different combinations of
digital signals present on its inputs. Digital logic gates may have
more than one input but generally only have one digital output. Most
logic gates have two inputs and one output.

Knowl edge Cloud

A gate is a digital circuit that is designed f or perf ormance a
particular logical operation . As it works accord ing to some logical
relationsh ip between input and output voltages, so it is generally
known as "LOGIC GATES"

A t any given moment ,every terminal is in one of the two binary

conditions low (0) or high (1), represented by different voltage
levels. The logic state of a terminal can,and generally does,c hange
often, as the c ircuit processes data. n most logic gates , the low
state is approx imately zero volts (0 V) , whi le the high state is
approx imately f ive volts positive (+5 V).

idual logic gates can be connected together to form

combinational or sequential c ircuits or larger logic gate functions.
Dif ferent types of logic gate implements different Boolean f unction,
that is, it performs a logical operation on one or more logic inputs
and produces a single logic output. Depending on the context, the
term may refer to an ideal logic gate, one that has for instance zero
rise time and uniimited fan-out,or it may refer to a non- ideal
physical device.
 LOGIC GATE S AND INTEG RATED CIRCUITS

Logic gates are pr imarily implemented electronic ally using diodes or

transistors , but can also be constructed using elec tromagnetic
relays (relay logic), f luidic logic , pneumatic logic ,optics, molecules,
or even mec hanical elements.With amplification, logic gates can be
cascaded in the same way that Boolean functions can be composed ,
allowing the construction of a physical model of all of Boolean logic ,
and theref ore,all of the algorithms and mathematics that can be
desc ribed w ith Boolean logic.

A large number of elec tronic c ircuits (in computers ,control units,

and so on) are made up of logic gates.These process signals
represent either true or false.The most common symbols used to
represent logic gates are shown below.

A
B I ) AB
A
B } ) A+B

AND OR
A
A
B
NANO
> B }
NOR
> A+B

A
B )) A9B

A - A EOR

NOT A
)) >
B AEBB
ENOR
 LOGIC GATES AND INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

TYPES OF LOGIC GATES:

1. AND gate:
The A ND gate is a basic digital logic gate that implements logical
conjunction - it behaves according to the truth table. A H GH
output (1) results only if both the inputs to the A ND gate are
H GH (1). f neither or only one input to the AND gate is H GH,a
LOW output results. n another sense, the f unction of A ND
effectively f inds the minimum between two binary digits, just as
the OR f unction f inds the maximum. Therefore, the output is
always 0 except when all the inputs are 1.
We will start with a 2 input A ND gate. The symbol for a 2 input
A ND gate is as follows .

:=1 )-a
The truth table for the 2 input AND gate is shown below.

Inputs Output
B A Q

0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

The Boolean expression for a 2 input AND gate is

Q = A.B
 LOGIC GATE S AND INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

2. OR gate:
The OR gate is a digital logic gate that implements logical
disjunction - it behaves according to the truth table. A H GH
output (1) results if one or both the inputs to the gate are
H GH (1). f neither input is high,a LOW output (0) results. n
another sense,the function of OR effectively f inds the
max imum between two binary digits,just as the complementary
AND function f inds the minimum.We will start with a 2 input
OR gate. The symbol for a 2 input OR gate is as follows.

The truth table for the 2 input OR gate is shown below.

Inputs Output

B A Q

0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

The Boolean expression for a 2 input OR gate is

Q == A +B

3. NOT gate (or inverter ):

This is the simplest form of logic gate and has only 1 input and
1output. Simply the purpose of this gate is to invert the input
signal so if a Logic 0 is at the input, the output w ill be at
 LOGIC GATES AND INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

Logic 1and vice versa.The symbol for a NOT gate is as

fo Ilows. (Next page)

A Q

The truth table for a NOT gate is the simplest of all

Truth Tables and is shown below.

Input Output

A Q

0 1
1 0

The Boolean expression for a NOT gate is

4. NAND gate:
In digital electronic s,a NA ND gate (negative- A ND) is a logic
gate which produces an output that is false only if all its inputs
are true; thus its output is complement to that of the AND
gate. A LOW (0) output results only if both the inputs to the
gate are H GH (1); if one or both inputs are LOW (0), a H GH
(1) output results. t is made using transistors. By De Morgan's
theorem , A B=A +B, a NAND gate is equivalent to inverters
followed by an OR gate. The NAND gate is signif icant because
any Boolean f unction can be implemented by using a
 LOGIC GATES AND INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

comb ination of NAND gates. This property is called functional

completeness.

We will start w ith a 2 input NAND gate. The symbol for a 2

input NA ND gate is as follows.(Next page)

B I ) Q

The truth table for the 2 input NAND gate is shown below.

Inputs Output

B A Q

0 0 1

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0

The Boo lean expression for a 2 input NA ND gate is

Q = A.B

5. NOR gate:
The NOR gate is a digital logic gate which behaves according to
the truth table. A H GH output (1) results if both the inputs
to the gate are LOW (O); if one or both input is H GH (1), a
LOW output (0) results. NOR is the result of the negation of
 LOGIC GATES AND INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

the OR operator. Ican also be seen as an AND gate with all

the inputs inverted.NOR is a f unctionally complete operation-
NOR gates can be combined to generate any other logical
f unction. By contrast , the OR operator is monotonic as it can
only change LOW to H GH but not vice versa.

We wi ll start with a 2 input NOR gate. The symbol for a 2

input NOR gate is as follows. (Next page)

A
B

The truth table for the 2 input NOR gate is shown below.

Inputs Output
B A Q

0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

The Boolean expression for a 2 input NOR gate is

Q =A +B
 LOGIC GATE S AND INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

6. XNOR gate:
The XNOR gate has 2 inputs and is the inverted form of the
EXOR gate. The XNOR gate (sometimes spelled 11exnor 11 or
11
enor 11 and rarely wr itten NXOR) is a digital logic gate whose
f unction is the logical complement of the exc lusive OR (XOR)
gate.A H GH output (1) results if both of the inputs to the
gate are the same. f one but not both inputs are H GH (1), a
LOW output (0) results.The symbol for a 2 input XNOR gate is
as follows.

The truth table for the 2 input XNOR gate is shown below.

Inputs Output

B A Q

0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

The Boo lean expression for a 2 input XNOR gate is

Q = A EB B

alternatively Q = A.B + A.B

 LOG IC GATES A ND INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

7. EXOR gate.
The EXOR gate has 2 inputs and is a spec ialised version of the
OR gate. The XOR gate (sometimes EOR gate, or EXOR gate
and pronounced as Exclusive OR gate) is a digital logic gate that
implements an exc lusive or; that is, a true output (1/H GH)
results if one, and only one, of the inputs to the gate is true. f
both inputs are false (O/LOW) or both are true,a false output
results.XOR represents the inequality f unction, i.e.,the output
is true if the inputs are not alike otherw ise the output is false.
A way to remember XOR is "one or the other but not both".
The symbol for a 2 input EXOR gate is as follows.

The truth table for the 2 input EXOR gate is shown below.

Inputs Output
B A Q

0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

The Boolean expression for a 2 input EXOR gate is

Q = A EB B

-. -. --. --- !3r.n iyel.Y .g.=, A B + A .·-------

 LOGIC GATE S AND INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

Using combinations of logic gates,complex operations can be

performed. n theory, there is no limit to the number of gates that
can be arrayed together in a single devic e. But in practice,there is a
limit to the number of gates that can be pac ked into a given physical
space. A rrays of logic gates are found in digital integrated c ircuits
( Cs).

A s C tec hnology advances,the required physic al volume for each

individual logic gate decreases and digital devices of the same or
smal ler size become capable of performing ever-more-compl icated
operations at ever -increasing speeds.

Summary of 2-input Logic Gates

The following Truth Table compares the logical f unctions of the 2 -
input logic gates above.

Inputs Truth Table Outp uts For Each Gate

A B AND NANO OR NOR EX-OR EX-NOR

0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1

0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0

1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0

1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
 LOGIC GATES AND INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

The follow ing table gives a list of the common logic f unctions and
their equivalent Boo lean notation.

Logic Function Boolean Notation

AND A.B

OR A+B

NOT A

NANO A .B

NOR A+B

EX-OR (A.B) + {A.B) or A B

EX-NOR {A.B) + or A B

Universal logic gates

NAND and NOR gates as digital building blocks .

The repeated use of the OR, the AND or the NOT gates alone
cannot give a different gate. But the repeated use of the NAND or
the NOR gates alone can give all basic gates like OR, A ND and NOT
gate. Hence the NA ND and the NOR gates are also called Universal
Logic Gates. n digital c ircuits, these gates serve as digital building
 LOGIC GATE S AND INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

h l nr kc:
 LOGIC
LOGICGATES
GATE SAND
ANDINTEGRATED
INTEGRATEDCIRCUITS
CIRCUITS

Knowledge Cloud
Charles Sanders Peirce (winter of 1880-81) showed that NOR
gates alone (or alternat ively NA ND gates alone) can be used to
reproduce the f unctions of all the other l ogic gates, but h is
wor k on it was unpublished until
1933.The f irst published proof was by
Henry M.Shef f er in 1913, so the NA N D logical
operat ion is sometimes called Shef f er stroke; the logical NOR is
sometimes called Peirce's arrow.

I ntegrated Circuits
INTR ODUCTION
A n integrated c ircuit ( C), sometimes called a chip or microc hip, is
a semiconductor wafer on which thousands or millions of tiny
resistors , capac itors, and transistors are fabricated. A n C can
f unction as an ampl if ier ,osc illator, timer, counter ,
computer memory,or mic roprocessor.

grated Circuits or C's as they are more commonly called, can be

grouped together into families according to the number of
transistors or "gates" that they contain. For example , a simple
A ND gate my contain only a few individual transistors , were as a
more complex microproc essor may contain many thousands of
individual transistor gates. A particular C is categorized as either
linear (analog) or digital, depending on its intended application.

Classification of Integrated Circuits

Small Scale Integration or (SSI) - Contain up to 10 transistors or
a few gates within a single pac kage suc h as A ND, OR, NOT gates.

M edium Scale Integration or (M SI) - between 10 and 100

transistors or tens of gates w ithin a single pac kage and perform
digital operations suc h as adders,decoders ,counters, f lip-f lops and
multiplexers.

Large Scale Integration or (LSI) - between 100 and 1,000

transistors or hundreds of gates and perform spec ific digital
operations suc h as /O chips, memory , arithmetic and logic units.

Very-La rge Scale Integration or (VLSI) - between 1,000 and

10,000 transistors or thousands of gates and perform computational
operations suc h as processors , large memory arrays and
programmable logic devices.

Super-Large Scale Integration or (SLSI) - between 10,000 and

100,000 transistors within a single pac kage and perform
computational operations such as microprocessor chips, micro-
controllers, basic P Cs and calculators.

Ultra-Large Scale Integration or (ULSI) - more than 1million

transistors -used in computers CPUs, GPUs, video processors , micro-
controllers, FPGAs and complex P Cs.
 LOGICGATE S AND INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
LOGIC

While the "ultra large scale " ULSI c lassif ication is less well used ,
another level of integration whic h represents the complex ity of the
grated Circuit is known as the System-on-Chip or (SOC) for
short. Here the individual components such as the microprocessor ,
memory, peripherals, /O logic etc., are all produced on a single
piece of silicon and which represents a who le electronic system
within one single c hip, literally putting the word "integrated" into
integrated c ircuit.
These complete integrated c hips whic h can contain up to 100 million
individual silicon-CMOS transistor gates w ithin one single pac kage
are general ly used in mobile phones, digital cameras, m1cro-
controllers , P C's and robotic type applications.

Merits and Demerits

M erits of In tegrated Circuits

1. Miniature in size. A s fabrication process is used for the

integration of active and passive components on to a silicon
c hip,the C becomes a lot smaller. When compared to
a discrete c ircuit , it may be at least a thousand times smaller.
2. Due to small size,the weight of the C also reduces,when
compared to the discrete c ircuit.
3. To produce hundreds of discrete c ircuits on a PCB (Printed
c ircuit board) for the same logic takes more time and increase
 LOGIC GATES AND INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

the cost fac tor. But for the production of hundreds of res the
cost of production will be very low and less time consuming.
4. The PCB (Pr inted c ircuit board) consisting soldered joints will
be less reliable. This problem is omitted in C's because of no
soldered joints ,with fewer interconnections , and thus highly
reliable.
5. The small size of res causes lesser power consumption and
lesser power loss.
6. n a discrete c ircuitry, if a single transistor becomes faulty,
the who le c ircuit may fail to work.This transistor has to be
desoldered and replaced.Iis diff icult to f ind out which
component has failed.This problem can be omitted in an C by
replac ing an entire C as it is low in cost.
7. ncreased operating speed because of absenc e of parasitic
capac itance (is an unavoidable and usually
unwanted capac itance that ex ists between the parts of an
electronic component or c ircuit simply because of their
proximity to eac h other) effect.
8. A s the C's are produced in bulk the temperature coeff ic ients
and other parameters will be c losely matching.
9. mproved f unctional performance as more complex c ircuits can
be fabricated for ac hieving better c haracteristics.
10. A ll C's are tested for operating ranges in very low and
very high temperatures.
11. A s all the components are fabricated very c lose to each other
in an C,they are highly suitable for small signal operation,as
there won't be any stray electrical pic kup.
12. A s all the components are fabricated inside the c hip, there
will not be any external projections.

Demerits of In tegrated Circuits

1. The power rating for most of the C's does not exceed more
than 10 watts. Thus it is not possible to manufacture high
1
...., -· ·
-- T /"'
 LOGIC GATE S AND INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

2. Some components like transformers and inductors cannot be

integrated into an C. They have to be connected externally to
the semic onductor pins.
3. There is a large value of saturation resistance of transistors.
4. The C will not wor k properly if wrongly handled or exposed to
excessive heat.
5. t is diff icult to achieve low temperature coef f ic ient and
fabricate an C w ith low noise.
6. Iis not possible to fabricate capac itors that exceed a value
of 30pF. Thus, high value capac itors are to be connected
externally to the C.
7. There is a large value of saturation resistance of transistors
8. Some complex C's maybe costly.Isuch integrated c ircuits
are used roughly and become faulty , they have to be replaced
by a new one. They cannot be repaired as the individual
components inside the C are too small.

Application of Integrated Circuits

Because of the above mentioned advantages C's found numerous
applications from cars (automotive controls),televisions,computers ,
mic rowaves , portable devices like laptops, MP3 , play stations,
cameras, cellular phones to ship equipment's, aero planes,space
craft's.These are also used in switc hing telephone c ircuits and data
processing. They also found applications in military equipment's.The
most common application of C is digital watc h whic h tells hour,
 LOGIC GATES AND INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

second, minute, day and month.Another common but important

appl ication is sc ientif ic calculator wh ich can perform basic f unctions
like addition,subtraction, multiplication and division as wel l as
complex f unctions like square root, c ube, permutations , combinations
,tr igonometr ic f unctions , etc.

are of Linear , digital and mixed types. Linear C 's also known as
analog ntegrated c ircuits are used in:

1. Power amplifiers
2. Small-signal amplifiers
3. Operational amplif iers
4. Microwave amplif iers
5. RF and F amplifiers
6. Vo ltage comparators
7. Multipliers
8. Radio receivers
9. Voltage regulators

Moore 's Law

1965, Gordon Moore co-founder of the ntel corporat ion
predicted that "The number of transistors and resistors on a single
chip w ill double every 18 months" regarding the development of
semiconductor gate tec hnology.This is popularly known as Moore's
law. When Gordon Moore made his famous comment way bac k in 1965
there were approx imately only 60 individual transistor gates on a
sinqle silicon c hip or die.
 LOGIC GATE S AND INTEG RATED CIRCUITS

The world's f irst mic roprocessor in 1971was the ntel 4004 that
had a 4-b it data bus and contained about 2 ,300 transistors on a
single c hip,operating at about 600 kHz. Today,the ntel
Corporation have placed a staggering 1.2 Billion individual transistor
gates onto its new Quad-core i7-2700K Sandy Bridge 64-bit
microprocessor c hip operating at near ly 4GHz,and the on-chip
transistor count is still rising,as newer faster mic roprocessors and
micro-controllers are developed.The number of transistors per chip
has risen ex ponentially and eac h year computers are becoming more
powerf ul,yet c heaper than the year before.

ntimated from current trends that the computers available in

2020 will operate at 40 GHz (40,000 MHz) and would be muc h
smaller , more eff ic ient and less expensive than present day
computers.

Knowledge Cloud
The explosive growth in the semiconductor industry and computer
technol ogy is best expressed by a famous quote f romGordon
Moore: "If the auto industry advanced as rapidly as the
semiconductor industry , a Rolls Royce would get half a mil lion
mi les per gallon, and it would be cheaper to throw it away than
to ark it".
R esult
We had mainly disc ussed about the design, property and operation
of various logic gates

Using combinations of logic gates,complex operat ions can be

perf ormed. n theory, there is no limit to the number of gates that
can be arranged together in a single device. But in practice,there is
a limit to the number of gates that can be pac ked into a given
physical spac e.
 LOGIC GATES AND INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

A rrays of logic gates are found in digital integrated c ircuits ( Cs).

A s C tec hnology advances, the required physical volume for each
individual logic gate decreases and digital devices of the same or
smaller size become capable of performing ever -more-compl icated
operations at ever-increasing speeds.