ACI MATERIALS JOURNAL
Title No. 116-M93
Characterization of Palm Oil Fuel Ash as Cementitious
Supplement: A Review
by A. Shakir, M. Haziman Wan Ibrahim, N. Othman, A. Ahmed, and S. Shahidan
Palm oil fuel ash (POFA) is a by-product procured from the palm
oil mill through the incineration of empty fruit bunches, meso-
carp fibers, and shells so as to produce electricity. POFA was
considerably used as a cementitous supplement in various types
of concrete, bricks, blocks, mortar, and grout due to its pozzolanic
content. However, using raw POFA as cementitious replacement
caused a distinct deterioration on the properties of the hardened
mixture. Therefore, various treatment methodologies were adopted
to enhance the properties of POFA to improve the mechanical prop-
erties of the hardened mixture. This study reviews the treatment
approaches performed on POFA and their effects on the physical,
chemical, and microstructural properties of POFA. It was docu-
mented that grinding POFA increased its fineness and decreased
the voids and porosity of the mixture. However, the optimum use
of grounded POFA was ranged 5 to 25% by weight of cement. On
the other hand, thermal treatment of POFA exhibited a substantial
improvement on the physical, chemical, and morphological proper-
ties of POFA; consequently, the hardened properties were dramat-
ically developed. Thermal-treated POFA could be used as binder
supplement up to 70% by weight of cement, whereby environmental
pollution was dropped and sustainability was achieved. It was
concluded that the higher fineness of POFA contributed to a signif-
icant pozzolanic reaction and thus promoted better performance in
the hardened matrix. However, future detections should address the
leaching behavior of POFA and the leaching performance of the
hardened mixture incorporating POFA. Besides, the durability of
specimens containing POFA as binder supplement should be well
covered in the prospectus research.
Keywords: chemical properties and microstructure; ground palm oil
fuel ash (GPOFA); nano POFA (NPOFA); physical properties; ultrafine
POFA (UPOFA).
INTRODUCTION
Minimizing the industrial waste and reduction of natural
resource consumption are the foremost focus of achieving
cleaner production. Cleaner production comprises the
processes that enhance the quality of production through
promoting ecoefficiency and using fewer raw materials.1
Agro-industrial by-products such as palm oil fuel ash (POFA)
exist as an abundant material in Southeastern Asia countries
such as Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam, the Philippines, and
Malaysia. Wastes from the palm oil industry are not only
POFA but also empty fruit bunches (EFB), oil palm shell
(OPS), and oil palm clinker (POC).2 POFA is procured from
a palm oil mill through the incineration of EFB, OPS, and
fibers as fuel to generate steam used for running the turbines
of the mill.3 Approximately 3 million tons of POFA were
generated in Malaysia in 2007 and 100,000 tons of POFA are
produced per annum in Thailand, and this production rate
will have a significant increase due to the drastic growth of
plantation of palm oil trees.4 In 2013, 5.23 million hectares
ACI Materials Journal/November 2019
TECHNICAL PAPER
of oil palm were planted, which was 3% higher than in 2012.5
POFA is an abundant material and has no economic benefit;
hence, it is accumulated in landfills and causes ecological
pollution and land scarcity. Therefore, it is an ecological
nuisance due to the harmful method of disposal. Conse-
quently, according to the Malaysian Palm Oil Board,6 air,
river, sea, and groundwater contaminations have increased
dramatically in recent years due to the massive quantities
of waste produced. Therefore, prevention procedures should
be taken to manage the agriculture by-products for a sustain-
able future. To avoid environmental pollution, the by-products
have to be reused and recycled for other purposes.
Globally, 40% of energy consumption is attributed to
building operations, which contributes to 40% of greenhouse
gas emissions.7 Cement production processes contribute
approximately 7% of the global CO2 emissions, which cause
environmental and greenhouse gas problems with approx-
imately 0.7 to 1.1 tonnes of CO2 being emitted for every
ton of cement production.8 To reduce the amount of CO2
emission, cement manufacturers can help by improving the
production process. For concrete production, the reduction of
cement content in concrete can be achieved by use of supple-
mentary cementitious materials. Therefore, researchers were
urged to find a cement substitute to solve the problem of
environmental contamination. It was documented that POFA
includes large amounts of silica, 44 to 66%.9 The silica oxide
content in POFA can react with calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2
from the hydration process of cement producing more
calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H), which is a gel compound
produced through pozzolanic reaction. Thus, it contributes
to the strength of the concrete by producing stronger and
denser concrete as well as enhancing the durability of the
concrete.10 However, POFA, as obtained from an palm oil
mill, has coarser particles larger than 300 µm and residues
of unburned fibers and shells. Therefore, the original POFA
has low pozzolanic properties due to its large particles
and porous structure.10 It was argued that using raw POFA
contributed to compressive strength degradation and work-
ability reduction when used as 10% cement replacement in
concrete.11 Consequently, researchers focused their efforts
on treating POFA using various methodologies to reduce the
particle size and increase the surface area to promote better
mechanical properties for concrete and foster the ratio POFA
as cement replacement up to 70% by weight of cement.12
ACI Materials Journal, V. 116, No. 6, November 2019.
MS No. M-2018-011.R5, doi: 10.14359/51716975, received November 7, 2018, and
reviewed under Institute publication policies. Copyright © 2019, American Concrete
Institute. All rights reserved, including the making of copies unless permission is
obtained from the copyright proprietors. Pertinent discussion including author’s
closure, if any, will be published ten months from this journal’s date if the discussion
is received within four months of the paper’s print publication.
31
Table 1—Chemical composition of POFA
Oxides, % POFA13 POFA14 POFA15 POFA16 POFA17 OPC16 POFA18 GPOFA26 TPOFA26
SiO2 49.20 48.99 43.21 43.60 63.40 20.20 61.66 59.17 69.02
Al2O3 5.45 3.78 0.38 11.40 5.50 5.70 5.13 3.73 3.90
Fe2O3 5.73 4.89 2.70 4.70 4.20 3.0 4.17 6.33 4.33
CaO 7.50 11.69 23.39 8.40 4.30 62.5 9.86 5.80 5.01
P2O5 6.41 — 5.04 — — — 3.71 — —
MgO 3.93 1.22 3.30 4.80 3.70 2.6 4.17 4.87 5.18
SO3 1.73 — 3.10 2.80 0.90 1.80 — 0.72 0.18
Na2O 0.90 0.73 — 0.39 — 0.16 0.49 0.18 0.18
LOI 13.85 10.51 — — 6 2.40 10.71 16.10 1.80
K2O 5.30 — 15.76 3.50 — 0.87 8.47 8.25 6.90

This study reviews the treatments, methodologies
involving tools, and techniques performed by research on
POFA. The effects of POFA treatment methods on POFA
properties such as physical, chemical, and microstructure
will be considerably illustrated in this article. The effects of
POFA treatment methods on the properties of the hardened
mixture will be briefly discussed. This article suggests the
ideal methodology for POFA treatment, whereby valuable
knowledge is provided for the prospectus research on the
best POFA processing method.
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
Considerable research has investigated the feasibility of
using POFA as cementitious replacement after following
various processing procedures. This article is the first initia-
tive in reviewing the effects of the treatment methodologies
on the properties of POFA. It also highlights their influences
on the mechanical properties of the hardened mixture. There-
fore, this article provides valuable knowledge for the prospectus
research regarding the ideal treatment approach and its conse-
quence on the properties of POFA and the hardened mixture.
Physical and chemical properties of POFA
Awal and Siew13 studied the effect of POFA as binder
supplement on compressive strength concrete. POFA
obtained from an oil palm mill was dried in an electric oven
for 24 hours at 230°F (110°C); POFA was then sieved on a
sieve 300 µm to remove any coarser material. It was then
pulverized in a modified Los Angeles abrasion machine
using steel bars instead of balls in it; the dimensions of the
steel bars were 0.47 in. (12 mm) in diameter and 31.49 in.
(800 mm) in length. The ash obtained was finally sieved on
a sieve 0.001 in. (45 µm). Chemical properties of grounded
POFA according to Awal and Siew are illustrated in Table 1.
Awal used the ground POFA passing sieve 0.001 in.
(45 µm), unground POFA passing sieve 0.011 in. (300 µm),
and the raw POFA, which is neither sieved nor crushed as
50% by weight of cement. They observed that the compres-
sive strength at 28 days of ground POFA was 5728.9 psi
(39.5 MPa). They found that the development of the strength
in POFA concrete was lower than that in OPC concrete.
However, ungrounded POFA passing a 300 µm sieve and
the raw POFA gave 4061.0 and 2755.7 psi (28 MPa  and
19 MPa), respectively. They concluded that the finer the ash,
the higher the compressive strength of concrete. The higher
enhancement of the strength in concrete with the fine ash
was related to the higher surface area of the particles, which
influenced the pozzolanic activity and increased the strength.
Use of POFA in brick fabrication
Mohammad et al.14 fabricated bricks from POFA as 5 to
25% by weight of cement mixed along with paper sludge
5 to 5% by weight of the mixture. POFA collected from
a Malaysian palm oil mill was dried in an oven at 221°F
(105°C) for 24 hours, then ground in a Los Angeles abrasion
machine. The compressive strength of the bricks decreased
with the increase of paper sludge. The highest compressive
strength was 3770.9 psi (26 MPa) at 28 days, recorded for
5% paper sludge, 5% POFA, and 90% cement. However, the
minimum strength was 1289.3 psi (8.9 MPa) for 20% POFA,
20% paper sludge, and 60% cement. Higher water absorp-
tion capacity of the paper sludge-POFA bricks was approx-
imately 39.6%. Mohammed et al. studied the leaching of
paper sludge-POFA bricks. The leachate value for both
Cu and Pb was significantly below than 0.1 mg/L, which
is below the limit imposed in the Malaysian guidelines of
environmental waste disposal, which recommends 100 mg/L
for Cu and 5 mg/L Pb. They attributed the reduction of the
leachate to the highly alkaline environment of the solidi-
fication and stabilization matrix where the metals exist as
metal hydrated phases, metal hydroxides, and calcium-metal
compounds. In addition, the alkaline environment of this
nature often develop Pb from hydroxide precipitate, which
later becomes the more insoluble PbO. Thus, the amount of
Pb leachate detected is reduced.
Pattamad and Vorajak15 produced cellular lightweight
concrete (CLC) brick using POFA as 10 to 40% by weight
of cement. POFA obtained from palm oil mill was sieved
using a 0.023 in. (0.595 mm) sieve. The chemical composition
of POFA is illustrated in Table 2; it is obvious that the total
amount of SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 were merely 46.29%, which
was less than 70% the minimum requirement of the pozzo-
lanic material as stated by ASTM C618.16 Therefore, POFA
investigated in this study could not be categorized as pozzo-
lanic material Class N. Compressive strength was signifi-
cantly increased at 10% POFA with 6426.6 psi (44.3 MPa)

32 ACI Materials Journal/November 2019

Table 2—Physical properties of POFA
Property POFA18 POFA26
Specific gravity 2.21 — —
Fineness, m /g 2
1.348 — —
Color Dark gray Dark gray
Passed on sieve 0.001 in. (45 µm) (No. 325), % — 96
Surface area BET, m2/g — 4.90
Relative density — 2.04
Median particle size, d50, in. (µm) — —
while the strength of the referenced mixture was 4641.2 psi
(32 MPa). However, compressive strength decreased with
the increase of POFA. They suggested that POFA has high
potential to be used in lightweight brick production. Saleh et
al.17 used POFA as 2 to 10% by weight of cement and rice
husk as 1 to 5% by weight of sand mixed with 70% soil.
POFA obtained from the mill was sieved in a 0.236 in. (6 mm)
sieve. Compressive strength and density of bricks decreased
with the increase of POFA and rice husk in bricks. The
highest compressive strength was 1195.1 psi (8.2 MPa) for
4% POFA and 2% rice husk higher than the control mixture.
Ashwin and Christy18 produced thermal ecofriendly bricks
from POFA, glass powder, lime, and quarry dust. POFA was
sieved on a 0.003 in. (90 µm) sieve; chemical composition
of POFA is indicated in Table 1. Physical properties of POFA
are exhibited in Table 2. Compressive strength varied from
2232.1 to 1044.2 psi (15.4 to 7.2 MPa) for all samples. POFA
represented the source of siliceous and aluminous material
generated silicate and aluminate hydrates in presence of the
cementitious material with Ca(OH)2 with the availability of
moisture, whereby enhanced strength in the matrix. Further-
more, the fine particle size obtained through sieving POFA
on sieve 90 µm played a vital role in aiding the pozzolanic
reactivity to attain higher strength as it was illustrated in the
following equations
Ca (OH)2 + SiO2 + H2O → C-S-H (1)
Ca (OH)2 + Al2O3 + H2O → C-A-H (2)
Use of POFA in geopolymer materials
Michael et al.19 used POFA as a binder in lightweight oil
palm shell geopolymer concrete. POFA was used as 0, 10,
20, 40, and 100% by weight of fly ash to prepare geopolymer
past. OPS was used as coarse aggregate and sand as a fine
aggregate. Alkaline activator/binder (AK/B) ratio was kept
as 0.3 and 0.55 in the form of NaOH and Na2SiO3. POFA
treatment followed by Michael et al. was similar to the
treatment method adopted by Awal and Siew.13 The chem-
ical composition of POFA used in this study satisfies the
requirement of pozzolanic material because (SiO2 + Al2O3
+ Fe2O3) equals 73.1% and loss on ignition was only 10%.
Compressive strength ranged from 4351.1 to 1450.3 psi (30
to 10 MPa) for 0.55 AK/B and 3625.9 to 1160.3 psi (25 to
8 MPa) for 0.3 AK/B. Compressive strength developed with
the increase of fly ash dose. However, the optimum ratio for
ACI Materials Journal/November 2019
TPOFA26 OPC26 GPOFA32 UPOFA32
3.16 2.51 2.59
0.329 0.839 1.136
Gray Gray Dark gray Gray
100 92 — —
7.90 3.05 43.2 7.67
2.02 2.20 — —
— 0.000 (6.79) 7.874 × 10 (2.45)
–5
7.873 × 10–5 (2.06)
POFA was fixed at 20% with 4351.1 psi (30 MPa) for 0.55
AK/B. Michael et al. related this behavior to the high silica
concentration in POFA, and the fineness of POFA played
a role in developing the geopolymerization process. They
revealed that the higher fineness of POFA contributed to a
distinct pozzolanic interaction and filling the voids whereby
developing compressive strength.20 Results for flexural
strength ranged from 542.4 to 268.3 psi (3.74 to 1.85 MPa).
Results for splitting tensile ranged from 349.5 to 169.6 psi
(2.41 to 1.17 MPa). The compressive and tensile strength
increased with the increase of POFA up to 20%, and further
replacement of POFA showed a distinct reduction in the
strength. The minimum requirement of 2.0 MPa of the split-
ting tensile strength was achieved for the mixtures with
20% POFA. All the samples satisfied the requirement for
lightweight concrete because their dry density was less than
2000 kg/m3 as recommended by BS EN 206-1.21
Use of POFA in concrete
Subramani and Anbuchezian22 studied the effect of POFA
as 5, 7.5, 10, 12.5, 15, and 17.5% cement replacement on
the properties of concrete. POFA was sieved on a 3.543 in.
(90 µm) sieve. Compressive strength ranged from 3974.0 to
4989.2 psi (27.4 to 34.4 MPa). Flexural strength varied from
522.1 to 432.2 psi (3.60 to 2.98 MPa). The tensile strength
was slightly higher than the OPC concrete by using 12.5%
POFA. The optimum ratio for POFA was 12.5% by weight
of cement in terms of compressive and tensile strength.
Muhammad et al.23 investigated the effect of POFA as 0, 20,
40, and 60% by weight of cement on the properties of
concrete block. POFA obtained from the oil mill was dried
and sieved to 0.003 in. (75 µm) to eliminate the coarser
grains so as to assure that only the finest particles size of
POFA are incorporated in the mixture. The dry density of the
blocks decreases with the increase of POFA contents as
POFA has a lower density. The decrease in dry density with
20, 40, and 60% POFA were 5.4, 5.8, and 8%, indicating the
possibility of producing lighter-weight masonry block by
incorporating POFA. Compressive strength ranged from
2320.6 to 942.7 psi (16 to 6.5 MPa) and it is inversely
proportional with POFA dose. It was attributed to the fineness
of POFA particles. The POFA treatment method adopted in
this study was mainly focused on screening POFA at
0.003 in. (75 µm) without pulverizing it. Therefore, it was
coarser than the ground POFA and thus promoted lower
compressive strength. It was evidenced that the microfilling
capability of POFA is mainly relying on its fineness. The finer
33
particles of POFA aid in filling the micropores that exist in the
matrix between cement particles and consequently increase
the compressive strength of concrete.24 By comparing the
POFA masonry blocks and the control masonry blocks, the
water absorption of POFA masonry blocks was observed to be
slightly higher by 0.1%. It is due to the greater porosity of
POFA, which tends to favor water absorption. POFA blocks
investigated in this study did not show any white salt formation
on any of its surfaces and thus no efflorescence effect was
present. Muhammad et al. revealed that the coarse POFA used
in their study resulted in bigger pores, which contribute to
lower compressive strength. According to Awal and Hussin,25
the finer particles of POFA have the higher surface area, influ-
encing the pozzolanic activity and enhancing compressive
strength of concrete, while coarser POFA forms many voids
which decrease the compressive strength inside the matrix.
Improvements in POFA properties
Belal et al.26 did a comparative study between grounded
POFA (GPOFA) and treated POFA (TPOFA) used in a
high level of cement replacement of 0, 50, 60, and 70%
by weight of cement in self-consolidating concrete (SCC).
Virgin POFA procured from an oil palm mill was dried in an
oven at 221°F (105°C) for 24 hours and then screened in a
0.001 in. (300 µm) sieve to eliminate coarser particles. The
sieved POFA was ground in a Los Angeles abrasion machine
to increase the surface area and decrease the particle size.
Overall, 30 steel rods with 0.393 in. (10 mm) diameter and
19.685 in. (500 mm) length were put in a rotary cylinder. The
grinding time was fixed at 18 hours at a velocity of 33.3 rpm.
The obtained POFA was named grounded POFA (GPOFA).
To obtain treated POFA (TPOFA), GPOFA was incinerated
in a furnace at 1112°F (600°C) for 2 hours and then ground
again using a similar procedure followed to obtain GPOFA.
Physical and chemical composition properties are illustrated
in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. X-ray diffraction (XRD) was
used to track the crystalline traces in POFA; quartz (SiO2)
represents the main component in GPOFA and TPOFA,
with secondary components such as iron oxide (Fe2O3) and
portlandite Ca(OH)2. The slump flow for all SCC mixtures
was in the range of 27.5 to 29.1 in. (700 to 740 mm). The
mixtures containing TPOFA could improve the slump flow
as compared with the control mixture. The enhancement of
the slump flow was attributed to the reduction of the loss
on ignition (LOI) content of the TPOFA from 16.1 to 1.8%,
which in turn decreases the unburned carbon content. The
reduction in the LOI content reduces the amount of high-
range water-reducing admixture (HRWRA) absorbed by
TPOFA; hence, the fluidity of SCC was improved according
to Chandara et al.27 Alsubari et al.28 stated that the use of
GPOFA with higher LOI reduced the workability of concrete
as the replacement level increased. It is because of the nature
of GPOFA with higher LOI absorbing more HRWRA and
water, the flowability of the concrete will decrease accord-
ingly.27,28 The values of the segregation ratios of the concrete
mixtures containing 0, 50, 60, and 70% were 6.7, 8.2, 9.8,
and 10.7%, consecutively. Results for segregation resistance
were within the range stated in EFNARC.29
34
Compressive strength significantly improved after 90 days
as compared with the referenced mixture. Compressive
strength at 28 days for 0, 50, 60, and 70% TPOFA was
approximately 9717.5, 10,007.6, 9862.57, and 9572.4 psi
(67, 69, 68, and 66 MPa), respectively. Hence, results for
compressive strength at 28 days were almost identical to that
of the referenced mixture. This substantial outcoming was
related to the pozzolanic reaction of TPOFA. Ca(OH)2
formed during the earlier cement hydration interaction with
TPOFA producing additional (C-S-H), thereby intensifying
and enhancing the microstructure of SCC and consequently
developing the compressive strength of concrete. Further-
more, the dramatic drop in LOI from 16.5 in GPOFA
to merely 1.80% in TPOFA and the remarkable growth in
(SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3) from 59.17 to 69.02% significantly
contributed to compressive strength development. The
slump flow (SF) results for all SCC mixtures were in the
range of 27.55 to 29.13 in. (700 to 740 mm). The mixtures
containing TPOFA could improve the SF in comparison to
the control mixture. The enhancement of the SF can be
attributed to several reasons: the LOI content of the TPOFA
was reduced from 16.1 to 1.8%, which in turn decreased the
unburned carbon content. The reduction in the LOI content
reduced the amount of HRWRA absorbed by TPOFA. The
drying shrinkage strain values of all SCC samples were low
and did not exceed 400 microstrains at 360 days of drying.
Belal et al. related the reduction in the drying shrinkage of
SCC incorporating TPOFA to the good pozzolanic activity
and high packing effect. The high fineness of the TPOFA
particles promoted pozzolanic reactions and microfiller
effects resulted in pore refinement and structure densifica-
tion, whereby the loss of the water was reduced and decreased
the drying shrinkage. SCC incorporating a high concentration
of TPOFA up to 70% showed lower drying shrinkage and
good resistance to aggressive chemical attack. Awal and
Hussin24 demonstrated that POFA had significant potential
to inhibit expansion related to alkali-silica interaction in
concrete. However, past investigations recommended the
possibility of producing grinded POFA (GPOFA) for not
more than 30% by weight of cement.30,31
Various researches have ventured in using POFA ground
to a median particle size of approximately 0.000 in. (10 µm)
as partial cement substitutive up to 30% by weight of cement
in the production of high-strength concrete (HSC).32-34 It
was demonstrated that further treatment of POFA boosted its
use as binder supplement for a higher substitution level —up
to 70% by weight of cement in SCC, accounting for better
properties and durability performance as was evidenced by
Belal et al.26 In this sense, Zeyad et al.35 studied the feasi-
bility of producing ultrafine POFA (UPOFA) as binder
supplementary in HSC approached 16,824.4 psi (116 MPa).
Ground POFA (GPOFA) was treated by similar method-
ology adopted by Belal et al.26 GPOFA is shown in Fig. 1(a).
Consequently, GPOFA was incinerated at 932°F (500°C) for
90 minutes in a gas furnace so as to get rid of the unburned
carbon which might negatively influence the pozzolanic
properties. Eventually, incinerated POFA was exposed
to further grinding similarly to the first step of grinding
GPOFA. The final treated POFA was named ultrafine POFA
ACI Materials Journal/November 2019
Fig. 1—(a) Ground POFA before thermal treatment; and (b) UPOFA after thermal treatment.26

Fig. 2—XRD results for GPOFA and UPOFA.26

(UPOFA), as illustrated in Fig.  1(b). According to X-ray Table 3—Mineral ratios in glassy and crystalline
fluorescence (XRF) results, the amount of SiO2 + Al2O3 + phases32
Fe2O3 was significantly increased from 59.21% in GPOFA to
Compounds GPOFA UPOFA
75.14%. On the contrary, LOI, as expected, decreased from
15.34 to 2.53% and unburned carbon dropped from 19 to Quartz (SiO2), % 18.9 19.7
merely 0.1%; hence, UPOFA falls within the specification Cristobalite, % (SiO2 in high temperature) 1.3 1.2
of pozzolans according to ASTM C618-05.16 The composi- [K3Al3, Fe2(PO4)3], % 4.6 4.6
tion of minerals did not undergo an obvious change, as can
LOI, % 21.6 2.53
been seen from XRD results clarified in Fig. 2 as the exis-
tence of a hump between 20 and 30 degrees before and after Glassy phases (amorphous) 53.6 71.97
incineration showed the existence of amorphous phases in
GPOFA and UPOFA with the remarkable existence of quartz the chemical compounds in GPOFA and UPOFA fall within
(SiO2) and cristobalite within their crystalline phases. An the rates of glassy phase’s percent.37 Results for the concen-
XRD analysis using Rietveld-based SIROQUANT soft- trations of mineral compositions of GPOFA and UPOFA are
ware was performed so as to distinguish the main phases in illustrated in Table 3.
POFA, and to estimate the amorphous phase content (glassy
phase). Equations (3) and (4) were used to evaluate the Mglassy = 100 – M crystallines – LOI (3)
whole amounts of glassy phases in GPOFA and UPOFA by
subtracting the number of crystalline phases and LOI from Mcrystallines = Mquartz + Mcristobalite + MK-Al-P (4)
100% (wt). In addition, Eq. (5) was used to compute the
glassy phase of SiO2 in both GPOFA and UPOFA.36,37 All % SiO2(glassy) = % SiO2(total) – (Mquartz + Mcristobalite) (5)

ACI Materials Journal/November 2019 35

Fig. 3—Particle size analysis of UPOFA, GPOFA, and
cement.26 (Note: 1 µm = 3.93 × 10–5 in.)
Fig. 4—Initial surface absorption for HSC-OPC, HSCg, and
HSCu at time intervals of 10 minutes.35
Thermal treatment had considerably influenced the phys-
ical properties of UPOFA as indicated in Table 2. Surface
area substantially dropped from 34.2 to 7.67 m2/gm. It is
attributed to the removal of unburned carbon after thermal
treatment and grounding. The higher surface area of GPOFA
is attributed to the presence of a higher amount of carbon
compared with UPOFA.38 On the other hand, specific
gravity was slightly increased from 2.51 to 2.59 prior to
thermal treatment due to the low specific gravity of carbon
in the raw POFA. The median particle size of GPOFA was
decreased from 7.874 × 10–5 to 7.873 × 10–5  in. (2.45 to
2.06 µm) for UPOFA. This assured that the size of carbon
particles was rather smaller in POFA particles; therefore, a
small effect was seen on the median particle size of UPOFA.
Particle size analysis for cement, UPOFA, and GPOFA is
shown in Fig. 3. It is obvious that UPOFA gained finer parti-
cles when compared with OPC and GPOFA due to further
grinding. Similar findings were mentioned by Chandara et
al.27 The inclusion of UPOFA as partial cement substitute
increased the slump value of the HSCu. Furthermore, work-
ability increased with the increase of UPOFA replacement
level of 20, 40, and 60% and thus increased the slump in
HSCu20, HSCu40, and HSCu60 by 10.5, 18.4, and 21.1%,
respectively, as well as compared with referenced concrete.
This result was related to the higher binder paste volume
of the HSCu, especially at higher UPOFA replacement due
to the lower specific gravity of the UPOFA in comparison
with HSC-OPC. The excess paste volume provided better
roles of coating the aggregates, filling the gaps between
the aggregates as well as providing lubrication for aggre-
gate mobility better than the referenced mixture. Results for
water absorption ranged from 2.3 to 3.5%. Using UPOFA
contributed to a lower rate of water absorption and porosity
36
Fig. 5—Rapid chloride permeability of HSC-OPC, HSCg,
and HSCu.35
of HSCu. However, the use of GPOFA indicated a negative
effect on water absorption and porosity of the HSCG due to
the presence of unburned carbon, which increases its water
absorption tendency.
The result for the initial surface absorption test (ISAT)
of the HSC incorporating grounded POFA (HSCg) and
high strength of the concrete incorporating ultrafine POFA
(HSCu) are indicated in Fig. 4. It was indicated that HSCu60
has the lower ISAT when compared with the control mixture
(HSC-OPC). In contrast, HSCg40 has the highest values
among the tested samples at every age. The highest ISA was
observed at 3 days old. Because the microstructural density
increases with age, the values of ISA can be seen clearly
to be decreasing with strength. It can be seen also that the
optimum UPOFA in terms of ISA is 40% (HSCu40). The
extra UPOFA in the excess of 40% required for pore filling
could enhance further fluid absorption. Strength develop-
ment and microstructural density reflects the decrease in
ISA in all the samples. Hydration reaction appears to play
a dominant role on the early day microstructural tortuosity
for 10-minute exposure of HSC samples. Compressive
strength for 0, 20, 40, and 60% of UPOFA were 13,256.4,
14,431.2, 14,721.3, and 14,228.2 psi (91.4, 99.5, 101.5, and
98.1 MPa), respectively. The optimum ratio for compressive
strength was 40% UPOFA due to the higher percentage of
glassy phase approaching 72%. The higher fineness of POFA
played a significant role in developing concrete properties
because of its filler effect or microstructural strengthening to
attain higher strength. POFA became more reactive because
of the increment in the surface area of reactant. Zeyad et
al. recommended the use of UPOFA as 40% by weight
of cement for better properties in terms of compressive
strength, water absorption permeability, chloride migration,
and chloride penetration rate for HSC. Figure 5 shows the
performances of HSC-OPC, HSCg, and HSCu under their
exposure to chloride penetration with a view to measuring
their matrix density through the passage of chloride ions
and concomitant charge passed measured in coulomb (C).
It was indicated that the effect of UPOFA-OPC replace-
ment levels at 20, 40, and 60% were equally observed in
HSCu20, HSCu40 and HSCu60, consecutively. Total chlo-
ride charge passed was less than 1000 C in all the samples
at and beyond 28 days except HSCg40 and HSC-OPC. The
high charges passed in the early age of HSCg and HSC-OPC
samples suggested that the duo was more susceptible to
corrosion attack compared to HSCu. This is due to the fact
ACI Materials Journal/November 2019
that less propagation time is more probable in the sample
with less dense microstructural density characterized by
the high composition of carbon content as known of HSCg.
This further justifies setting a limit to the carbon content of
pozzolanic materials by ASTM C618.
Mohammad et al.40 investigated the effect of using POFA
as binder supplement up to 25% by weight of cement in
lightweight oil palm shell concrete (OPSC). GPOFA was
produced similarly to Belal et al.26 The optimum ratio of
POFA was approximately 10 to 15% by weight of cement. It
was observed that the incorporation of 10% POFA replace-
ment level produced the highest slump value for the OPSC.
It could be due to the greater binder volume, as the specific
gravity of POFA was lower than cement, and the excess
binder volume could have provided better coating, lubrica-
tion, and filling of gaps of the aggregates.38 However, when
POFA content was increased further up to 25%, the slump
values decreased. The higher amount of POFA is accompa-
nied by higher water demand; thus, the workability of the
concrete would be reduced. Mohammed et al. attributed this
occurrence to the higher LOI of the POFA, indicating the
higher porous nature of the POFA which increased the water
demand of the fresh concrete to a greater extent. Compres-
sive strength decreased beyond 15% due to the existence of
unburned carbon and the coarser particles of POFA. It was
concluded that the increase in POFA content up to 25% led
to the reduction in the splitting and flexural tensile strengths
of OPSC while no significant influence of POFA was noticed
in terms of the modulus of elasticity of concrete (MOE). The
MOE values were 1,841,979 to 2,233,581 psi (12.7 to 15.4
GPa). The increased POFA replacement level led to a reduc-
tion in the MOE values of the OPSC. As the MOE of OPSC
was also mainly governed by the quality of the interfacial
zone, due to possibly the limited effect of POFA on the inter-
facial zone, the POFA did not improve the MOE of OPSC.
NorHasanah et al.41 studied the feasibility of producing
nano-POFA (NPOFA) as cementitious supplement up
to 80% by weight of cement in the mortar. POFA treatment
is illustrated in Table 4. The chemical composition assess-
ments using XRF showed that SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 were
79.7% and 56.5% for NPOFA and GPOFA, respectively.
Consequently, the existence of higher silica content in
NPOFA affects the pozzolanic reaction, forming extra
calcium silicate hydrate gels, resulting in denser and more
durable mortar. Therefore, GPOFA was classified as a Class C
pozzolan, whereas NPOFA was classified as a Class F
pozzolan.42 LOI was significantly dropped from 20.9% to
1.3%; fineness of NPOFA was 146% higher than OPC used
in this research. The percent of retained particles on screen
0.001 in. (45 µm) were 0.13, 4.9, and 4.5 for NPOFA,
GPOFA, and OPC, consecutively; thus, NPOFA had bigger
surface area and distinctly smaller particle size as well as
compared with GPOFA and OPC. Results for thermogravi-
metric analysis (TGA) showed that weight loss is mainly
due to moisture evaporation at 212 ± 41°F (100 ± 5°C).
However, CO2 removal was done between 752 and 1112°F
(400 and 600°C). It may be attributed to calcium carbonate
decay. According to TGA result, 0.357 mg of CO2 was evap-
orated through thermal treatment of POFA as shown in
ACI Materials Journal/November 2019
Eq. (6).27 Therefore, the more appropriate burning
temperature to treat POFA is between 752 and 1112°F
(400 and 600°C).
CaCO3(s) → CaO (s) +CO2 (g) (6)
A peak heat of hydration temperature of 122°F (50°C) was
recorded for OPC mortar at 9 hours, while 93.38 and 94.46°F
(34.1 and 34.7°C) were recorded at 11 hours for GPOFA and
UPOFA, respectively. The development of temperature was
also obtained in the middepth of the mortar during the hydra-
tion process for all mortar samples. The use of POFA could
successfully reduce the total temperature rise compared to
the normal OPC mortar regardless of the size of POFA. It
has been researched that the fineness of binder has an effect
on the rate of heat development of samples to some extent.
The hydration temperature of POFA mortar depended on the
amount of calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 in the hydration
process of cement and reactivity of materials used. Hydra-
tion of cement was affected physically and chemically by
adding other pozzolanic materials. Compressive strength
was significantly developed with the increase of NPOFA
content up to 80% by weight of cement. This is due to the
higher silica content after the treatment process that helps
the pozzolanic activities. AbdulMunir et al.43 studied the
possibility of using POFA in producing lightweight foamed
concrete for a nonstructural application. POFA treatment is
indicated in Table 4. Mixture design for foam concrete
(cement + POFA) was fixed at 0.5 and POFA was used as 10
to 50% by weight of cement. The specific gravity of POFA
was 1.48%. Compressive strength significantly decreased
with the increase of POFA due to the bigger particle size of
POFA, which contrasted sharply from the POFA investi-
gated by the aforementioned researchers. The silica oxide
concentration in the bottom ash was smaller than fly POFA;
hence, compressive strength was decreased. Siong et al.44
studied the effect of POFA as filler in lightweight foam
concrete (LFC). Control LFC was made with 100% sand as
filler and POFA was used as 10 and 20% by weight of sand.
POFA treatment is shown in Table 4. Figure 6(a) shows the
grading curve of the unprocessed POFA and sand and
Fig. 6(b) shows the grading curve of the refined POFA and
sand. Compressive strength for LFC 0, 10, and 20% POFA at
28 days was 841.2, 986.2, and 884.7 psi (5.8, 6.8, and
6.1 MPa), respectively. It was evidenced that the compressive
strength for 100% sand as filler recorded the lower compres-
sive strength whereas compressive strength, was higher for
10 and 20% POFA. The splitting tensile strengths of LFC 10
and 20% POFA were 19% and 9% higher than that of the
control mixture. The enhancement of splitting tensile
strength of LFC with POFA as filler might be due to a formation
of additional C-S-H enhancing its bonding property, thus
requiring an extra imposed load to split the cylindrical
specimens. In the same manner, the flexural strength of LFC
10 and 20% POFA were 25% and 23% higher than that of the
control mixture, respectively. The thermal conductivity of
the LFCs incorporated with 10 to 20% POFA filler was
higher than that of LFC with 100% sand filler. Siong et al.
attributed this behavior to the densification of the micro-
37
Table 4—Summary for POFA treatment methodologies adopted by research
Range of
Pozzolans concentration compressive
Type of in POFA, % strength, psi Optimum ratio
Author application Type of treatment (SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3) (MPa) of POFA
POFA was dried in oven for 24 hours at 230°F (110°C),
and then screened in 0.011 in. (300 µm). POFA was
Awal and 2755.7 to 5656.4 50% by weight
Concrete ground using Los Angeles steel bars (0.472 in. [12 mm] 60.38
Siew13 (19 to 39) of cement
diameter and 31.496 in. [800 mm] long) and finally,
sieved powder in 0.001 in. (45 µm)
Mohammad POFA was first dried in oven at 221°F (105°C) for 1290.8 to 362.5 5% by weight
Brick 57.66
et al.14 24 hours and then ground in Los Angeles (8.9 to 2.5) of cement
Pattamad and POFA was merely screened using sieve No. 30 size 10% by weight
CLC brick 46.29 —
Vorajak15 0.023 in. (0.595 mm) of cement
POFA was dried in oven and then sieved in 1232.8 to 652.6 4% by weight
Saleh et al.17 Bricks 59.7
0.236 in. (6 mm) sieve (8.5 to 4.5) of cement
Ashwin and POFA was dried in oven and sieved in 2233.5 to 1044.2 25% by weight
Brick 70.6
Christy18 0.035 in. (90 µm) sieve (15.4 to 7.2) of binder
Michael et Geopolymer light- 4351.1 to 1450.4 20% by weight
Similar treatments proposed by Awal and Siew13 73.1
al.19 weight concrete (30 to 10) of fly ash
Subramani 12.5% by
Conventional POFA was oven dried, pulverized, and screened on 3974.0 to 4989.3
and Anbuche- 71.6 weight of
concrete 3.543 in. (90 mm) sieve (27.4 to 34.4)
zian22 cement
Muhammad POFA was oven dried and sieved on 2320.6 to 942.8 20% by weight
Block —
et al.23 0.002 in. (75 µm) (16 to 6.5) of cement
POFA was dried and ground for 18 hours at velocity
9572.5 to
of 33.3 rpm and then incinerated in furnace at 1112°F 70% by weight
Belal et al.26 SCC 69.02 10,007.6 (66
(600°C) for 2 hours. Finally, it was ground again of cement
to 69)
similar to previous researches.
POFA was dried, sieved on 0.011 in. (300 µm), ground,
13,256.5 to
and incinerated in furnace at 932°F (500ºC) for 90 40% by weight
Zeyad et al. 35
HSC 73.1 16,534.3
minutes. Finally, it was then ground again similar to of cement
(91.4 to 114)
previous researches.
Lightweight POFA was dried for 24 hours, sieved on 0.011 in. (300
Mohammad 5221.4 to 6062.6 15% by weight
oil palm shell µm), pulverized in rotating drum for 30,000 cycles for 73.26
et al.40 (36.0 to 41.8) of cement
concrete 16 hours and then sieved on 0.001 in. (45 µm)
POFA was dried, sieved on 0.006 in. (150 µm), and
NorHasanah then ground until 90% passing screen 0.001 in. 3625.9 to 6526.7 80% by weight
Mortar 79.7
et al.41 (45 µm). Obtained POFA was burned in furnace at (25 to 45) of cement
932°F (500°C) for 1 hour.
Lightweight
POFA was immersed in water to eliminate incomplete
AbdulMunir foam concrete 145.0 to 362.6 20% by weight
burned material. Cleaned POFA was dried in oven for —
et al.43 for nonstructural (1 to 2.5) of cement
24 hours and then sieved on 0.187 in. (4.75 mm).
application
POFA was dried in oven at 221°F (105°C) for
Lightweight foam 841.2 to 986.3 20% by weight
Siong et al.44 24 hours and then it was sieved until 100% passing —
concrete (5.8 to 6.8) of sand
screen 0.023 in. (0.6 mm).
POFA-FB was heated at 140°F (60°C) for 1 hour and
67.58% for POFA-FB
POFA-k was heated at 302°F (150°C) for 24 hours. 2320.6 to 145.0 40% by weight
Donovan 47
Grout and 68.93% for
They were then ground in grinding machine and even- (16 to 1) of cement
POFA-K
tually sieved on 0.001 in. (45 µm).

structures of POFA-based LFC specimens, which were
related to the pozzolanic activity by reactive silica in POFA
and calcium hydroxide not only enhancing the strengths of
them but also slightly increasing their thermal
conductivity values.45,46
Donovan47 studied the effect of GPOFA as binder supple-
ment on the compressive strength of grout. POFA was sieved
on a 0.001 in. (45 µm) sieve to ensure that very fine parti-
cles of POFA were used. Two types of POFA were assessed
in this study: POFA-FB, which was obtained from fruit
bunch incineration, and POFA-K, extracted from kernel
shell ash. The POFA-FB and POFA-K treatment is illus-
trated in Table 4. POFA-FB and POFA-K values were fixed
to be approximately 5 ± 2% by weight (small particles) and
37.5 ± 2% by weight (big particles) of materials retained on
screen 0.001 in. (45 µm) so as to assess the filler effect of
POFA. Chemical composition detection using XRF showed
that SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 were 67.58% and 68.93% for

38 ACI Materials Journal/November 2019

Fig. 6—Grading curve of: (a) unprocessed POFA and sand; and (b) refined POFA and sand.44
Fig. 7—SEM for GPOFA and TPOFA.26
POFA-FB and POFA-K, respectively. The specific gravity
of ground small and big POFA-K and POFA-FB were 2.27,
2.01, 2.35, and 2.01%, respectively. The median particle
size d50 of ground small and big POFA-K and POFA-FB
were 0.0004, 0.001, 0.0004, and 0.001 in. (12.2, 30.3, 12.1,
and 30.5 µm). It was demonstrated that the specific gravity
developed with the growth of the particle fineness because
the grounding procedure decreased the porosity and voids
in POFA particles.48 POFA-K and POFA-FB were used as
cement replacement by 10, 20, 30, and 40%. The compressive
strength of POFA-K grout samples was significantly devel-
oped and peaked at 40% POFA-K as well as compared with
control grout specimen. A similar growth of the compres-
sive strength was observed with the increase POFA-FB and
peaked at 40% replacement level. The higher compressive
strength achieved was attributed to the pozzolanic reactions
as mentioned previously.
The resistance of grout to chloride ion ingress was deter-
mined by means of the charges passed through grout spec-
imens measured in coulombs (C). It was observed that the
charges passed through the control sample were higher
than that of ground POFA-FB and POFA-K. Moreover,
the charges passed through grout containing POFA-K and
POFA-FB mixtures decreased with the increase of ground
POFA content, up to 29.4% reduction and 52.2% reduc-
ACI Materials Journal/November 2019
tion respectively. Furthermore, the charges passed through
grout containing POFA-K were higher than that of grout
containing ground POFA-FB. The reduction of charges
passed through grout containing POFA was attributed to
the chloride chemical binding effect. Chloride ions react
with tricalcium aluminates (C3A) and C4AF to form 3CaO.
Al2O3.CaCl2.10H2O (calcium chloroaluminates: Friedel’s
salt) and 3CaO.Fe2O3.Al2O3. CaCl2.10H2O (calcium chlo-
roferrites), which is present in their stable form and caused
a decrease of free chlorides available in the mixture. The
presence of POFA leads to an increase in the amount of C3A
due to the higher amount of alumina present in the mixture.49
In addition, POFA leads to an increase of CSH gel content
that is formed in the pozzolanic reactions to chloride phys-
ical binding. Thus, the chloride binding capacity of concrete
tends to increase with increasing POFA content.50
Microstructure of POFA
Belal et al.26 investigated morphology of GPOFA and
TPOFA using a scanning electron microscope (SEM), as
shown in Fig. 7. The irregularity and porosity of GPOFA
microstructure can be observed in Fig. 7. Besides, no traces
of agglomeration of the particles could be seen after heat
treatment.
39
Fig. 8—SEM analysis for UPOFA on right and GPOFA on left.35
Fig. 9—EDX results for UPOFA on left and GPOFA on right.35
Zeyad et al.35 investigated the morphology of GPOFA and
UPOFA, as shown in Fig. 8. GPOFA exhibited heterogeneous
and nonhomogeneous microstructure with a significant iden-
tification of unburned carbon comparatively with UPOFA,
which showed finer particles and uniform micrograph. It
was more evidenced by energy-dispersive X-ray analyzer
(EDX) analysis, which is shown in Fig. 9(a) through (c) with
UPOFA on the left side and GPOFA on the right side. It can
be concluded from EDX that the carbon reduction in UPOFA
could be easily observed with high intensity in GPOFA. In
contrast, UPOFA had shown a small amount or absence of
carbon content.
NorHasanah et al.41 investigated the microstructure of
mortar containing GPOFA and NPOFA using field emission
40
scanning electron microscope (FESEM), shown in Fig. 10.
It is clear that mortar-incorporated NPOFA fine particles
worked as filler and binder; hence, very few pores could be
seen in NPOFA mortar and more calcium silicate hydrate
(C-S-H). Eventually, stronger and more durable mortar can
be produced by incorporating NPOFA as binder supplement.
Mohd et al.51 studied the microstructural characteristics of
hardened cement paste containing NPOFA as binder supple-
ment. Cement paste was prepared with NPOFA as 10 to 50%
by weight of cement and micro POFA (mPOFA) as 20 and
30% by weight of cement. POFA was dried for 24 hours,
screened on 0.006 in. (150 µm), and then subjected to a Los
Angeles abrasion machine to get mPOFA with 16.63 m2/gm
specific surface area. NPOFA was produced by grinding
ACI Materials Journal/November 2019
Fig. 10—Result for (FESEM) of: (a) GPOFA; and (b) NPOFA.41
Fig. 11—Results for TEM analysis.51
mPOFA with a high-energy ball milling machine up to
30 hours. Particle size analysis was done using transmission
electron microscopy (TEM), as shown in Fig. 11. The
average particle size of NPOFA ranged from 20 to 90 nm
and the specific surface area of NPOFA was 16.63 m2/gm.
Figure 12 shows the micrograph of hardened cement
paste (hcp) at 28 days: (a) OPC-hcp; (b) 20% mPOFA-hcp;
(c) 30% mPOFA-hcp; (d) 20% NPOFA-hcp; (e) 30%
NPOFA-hcp; and (f) 50% NPOFA-hcp. It is obvious to
observe the anhydrous cement granules, the hydration products,
and secondary calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) that
remained in a compacted layer in the hardened paste. The
needle-like ettringite is less observed in the sample because
it was resolved to make other cement hydration compo-
nents whereby to increase the paste densification. The
development of crystalline hydrates and calcium silicate
hydrates (C-S-H) conquered the void system and decreased
the voids and porosity. NPOFA particles began producing
secondary C-S-H during this stage from the pozzolanic
reaction between Ca(OH)2 and SiO2.47 Consequently, the
fibrous secondary C-S-H gels were notified in Fig. 12(e).
The extreme fine particles and big specific surface area of
NPOFA had considerably sustained the pozzolanic reactions
to produce secondary C-S-H gels, which aided the formation
ACI Materials Journal/November 2019
of the extremely dense structure of hardened cement paste.
The microstructure of mPOFA-hcp samples in Fig. 12(b)
and (c) described the inner particles of mPOFA working as
filler and retained in the pore system. Cracks are seen in
mPOFA particles with extreme silica content and thus they
were dissolved and reacted with with crystalline hydrates,
producing additional C-S-H gel.
DISCUSSION
Table 4 shows a summary of POFA treatment method-
ologies with respect to the type of application, pozzolan
concentration (SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3), the indication of
pozzolanic interaction according to ASTM C618, the range
of compressive strength, and the optimum ratio of POFA.
Compressive strength is involved in Table 4 because it is the
most important property investigated through the replace-
ment of natural resources with waste. It is evidenced from
Table 4 that the previous researches used POFA as cemen-
titious substitutive in various constructional applications
such as concrete, mortar, bricks, and grout because of its fine
particles and the potential pozzolanic activity. The pozzolan
concentration defined as SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 should be
equal to or higher than the 70% the minimum requirement
of the pozzolanic material as recommended by ASTM C618.
41
Fig. 12—Microstructure of: (a) OPC-hcp; (b) 20%mPOFA-hcp; (c) 30% mPOFA-hcp; (d) 20% NPOFA-hcp; (e) 30%
NPOFA-hcp; and (f) 50%NPOFA-hcp of cement pastes at 28 days of curing age.51
The pozzolans concentrations of the raw POFA ranged from
46 to 66% as illuminated in Table 4; hence it was categorized
as low pozzolanic material. Besides, the raw POFA has a
significantly big surface area of approximately 43.2 m2/gm
that is massively bigger than the surface area of cement as
shown in Table 2. The huge amount of unburned carbon as
investigated by literature review might disturb the pozzo-
lanic activity, increase the water absorption, and eventually
decrease the hardened properties of the matrix. Therefore,
it was argued that the original POFA obtained directly from
the oil palm mill cannot be used as cementitious substitu-
tive without following certain treatments so as to produce
finer particles.
The majority of previous researches accorded that GPOFA
could be used as cementitious supplement up to 20% by
weight of cement. GPOFA was produced by drying the raw
POFA in the oven for 24 hours at 230°F (110°C), then
screening at 0.0111 in. (300 µm), grinding using a machine,
and finally sieving the powder at 0.0178 in. (45 µm) as clari-
fied in Table 4. As a matter of fact, the densification of the
microstructure of GPOFA specimens was related to pozzo-
lanic activity resulting from the interaction between Ca(OH)2
and SiO2 producing secondary calcium silicate hydrate gel
(C-S-H) as mentioned by previous researches.43,44 It was
demonstrated that the specific gravity of POFA developed
with the growth of particle fineness because the grounding
procedure decreased the porosity and voids in POFA parti-
cles.46 However, some researches produced treated POFA
without pulverizing. Treatment was done by sieving the raw
POFA to finer particles using a 0.035 in. (90 µm) sieve and a
0.029  in. (75 µm) sieve instead of sieving on 0.011 in.
(300  µm) as detected by Ashwin and Christy18 and Belal
42
et al.26 It was evidenced that the micro-filling capability of
POFA depended on its fineness. The finer particles of POFA-
filled micropores existed in the matrix between cement parti-
cles whereby the compressive strength of the hardened
matrix developed. The optimum ratio of GPOFA for
compressive strength was ranged in 5 to 20% by weight of
cement as seen in Table 4.
It was strongly demonstrated that the thermal activations
of GPOFA proposed by recent researches26,32,36 boosted the
use of POFA as cementitious replacement up to 80% by
weight of cement as shown in Table 4. Thermal activation
was done by incinerating GPOFA in a gas furnace at 932
to 1112°F (500 to 600°C) for 1 to 2 hours. It was evidenced
that the thermal activation significantly enhanced the phys-
ical properties of POFA as indicated in Table 2. Besides, it
resulted in a remarkable drop in moisture content and huge
removal of unburned carbon. It was reported by NorHasanah
et al.41 that the more appropriate sintering temperature to
treat POFA is between 752 and 1112°F (400 to 600°C). The
grounded process performed on the thermal-activated POFA
produced a finer particle with median particles approaching
1 µm, which is finer than cement. Therefore, thermal treated
POFA showed a superior mechanical property sometimes
higher than the compressive strength of conventional
concrete. To sum up, thermal activation was recommended
as the ideal treatment methodology for POFA. Thermal acti-
vated POFA could be used up to 80% by weight of cement
in the HSC and SCC.26,35,41 The higher fineness of POFA
sustained the pozzolanic interaction and improved the prop-
erties of the hardened mixture. Furthermore, the increment
in the surface area of the reactant made POFA more reactive,
hence promoting better hardened properties.
ACI Materials Journal/November 2019
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE RECOMMENDATIONS
According to the aforementioned literature, treatment
approaches performed on palm oil fuel ash (POFA) and their
effects on the properties of POFA were physical, chemical,
and morphological. The following conclusions and future
recommendations are as follows:
1. POFA is obtained from palm oil mill through the incin-
eration of empty fruit bunches, oil palm shell, and fibers
from the production of steam to generate electricity. POFA is
an abundant material and has no economic value. However,
POFA was used as cementitious substitutive in various
constructional applications because of its fine particles and
the high content of silica.
2. Raw POFA has coarser particles than cement, a bigger
surface area, and lower pozzolan concentrations. Therefore,
specific treatments were carried out on POFA to produce a
finer particle. It was concluded that sieving POFA to finer
particles promoted the filler effect and the pozzolanic reac-
tions whereby the hardened properties of the mixture were
developed. Thus, it could be used as binder supplement in a
range of 5 to 20% by weight of cement.
3. Thermal treatment of GPOFA showed a magnificent
enhancement on the physical, chemical, and microstruc-
ture properties of POFA. Therefore, it is recommended as
the ideal treatment of POFA. Thermal treatment exhibited
exceptional performance on the hardened properties of the
mixture. Thus, it could be used as binder supplement up to
80% by weight of cement.
4. Future studies should focus on the leaching behavior of
POFA and the leaching performance of hardened mixtures
containing POFA as binder supplement. The influence
of POFA incorporation on the durability of the hardened
mixture needs serious investigation as it has not been clearly
investigated by previous researches.
AUTHOR BIOS
Alaa Shakir is a Research Fellow at Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia,
Johor, Malaysia, and an Assitant Lecturer at Al-Nahrain University,
Bahdad, Iraq. She received her BS in civil engineering from Al-­M us-
tansiriya University, Baghdad, Iraq, in 2009. She received her MS from
Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Selangor, Malaysia, in 2013. Her research
interests include recycled waste material in concrete technology and bricks.
Mohd Haziman Wan Ibrahim is an Associate Professor and Deputy Dean
(Academic and International) at Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia. He
received his BS, MS, and PhD in civil engineering from Universiti Teknologi
Mara, Kolej Universiti Teknologi Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, and Univer-
siti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia, in 1999, 2004, and 2011, respec-
tively. His research interests include recycled waste material in construc-
tion materials, brick work, and concrete technology.
NurHazurina Othman is a Senior Lecturer at Universiti Tun Hussien
Onn Malaysia. She received her BS, MS, and PhD in civil engineering from
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Universiti Sains Malaysia, in 2000, 2003,
and 2009, respectively. Her research interests include diversifying concrete
use in the manufacturing and construction industry.
Ali Ahmed is a Researcher at Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia and a
Lecturer at the University of Technology, Iraq, Baghdad, Iraq. He received
his BS in civil engineering from University of Technology, Iraq, in 2007,
and his MS from University Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Selangor,
Malaysia, in 2010. His research interests include admixtures and durability
of concrete.
Shahiron Shahidan is a Senior Lecturer at Universiti Tun Hussein Onn
Malaysia. He received his BS, MS, and PhD in civil engineering from the
Universiti Industri Selangor, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Universiti Sains
ACI Materials Journal/November 2019
Malaysia, in 2007, 2008, and 2014, respectively. He is a past member of the
Malaysia Chapter – ACI. His research interests include structural health
monitoring—acoustic emission, structural repair, and material engineering.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors of this work would like to express their thanks and recogni-
tion for the Center of Postgraduate Studies (CGS) in Universiti Tun Hussein
Onn Malaysia (UTHM) for their financial support.
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ACI Materials Journal/November 2019
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