(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 15

Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

Improving Computing Efficiency of a Wavelet

Method Using ECG as a Biometric Modality
Jianchu Yao1 and Yongbo Wan2
1
Department of Engineering, East Carolina University
East 5th Street, Greenville, NC 27858
yaoj@ecu.edu
2
Department of Engineering, East Carolina University
East 5th Street, Greenville, NC 27858
wany@ ecu.edu

Abstract: Used extensively in cardiac diagnosis for decades,
electrocardiogram (ECG) has recently been investigated as a
new biometric modality. Existing research reveals that ECG
identification using wavelet coefficients as the “statistic
attributes” outperforms other classification algorithms such as
correlation analysis. When wavelet coefficients are used, the
classification process requires significant computation power,
which may pose an issue in circumstances where the device’s
computation capacity is limited. The paper examines the effect
on identification accuracy when only a subset of the wavelet
coefficients is used to calculate the signal difference/similarity
measures. A Birge-Massart strategy is employed to select the
coefficient subset. Results demonstrated that classification with
the wavelet coefficient subset can achieve comparable
performance as when the entire coefficient structure is utilized.
The substantial reduction of the number of involved wavelet
coefficients improves real-time performance and eases
computation requirements so that this new identification
modality can potentially be implemented on portable devices.
Keywords: Accuracy rate, computing efficiency,
electrocardiogram (ECG), human identification, wavelet
coefficients.
1. Introduction and Background
Since the “9/11” terrorism attack on the United States,
interest in biometric technologies has surged due to growing
security concerns from the public and the government.
Biometric technologies can be generally classified into two
categories: physiological characteristics (e.g., fingerprint,
facial pattern, hand vein structure) and behavioral
characteristics (e.g., gaits, keystrokes) [1]. As the
applications of existing bioidentification technology are
wide spreading, new biometric modalities are being
explored to address these issues [2-4]. These new traits
include electrocardiogram (ECG) [3],
photoplethysmography (PPG) [2], and
electroencephalograph (EEG) [4]. Among these, ECG has
gained substantial attention during the last decade [3, 5-8].
A typical ECG wave cycle, as shown in Figure 1, consists of
a P wave, a QRS complex, and a T wave. Largely, the P
wave represents the depolarization of the myocytes
spreading from the sinoartrial (SA) node to the
atrioventricular (AV) node; the QRS complex represents the
ventricular depolarization, and the T wave reflects the
ventricular repolarization [9]. ECG waveforms, governed
by the balance of sympathetic and parasympathetic heart
system signals, represent the myocytes’ conductive activities
caused by ionic electrical signals. It has been demonstrated
initially that ECG signals present a unique pattern of each
person’s heart properties and may be utilized for individual
identification [3, 5-8].
R
T
P
Q
S
Figure 1. An ECG trace cycle.
ECG as a new biometric trait will be useful for those
applications where ECG data are already collected and/or
stored in the system because, in these applications,
identification does not require extra equipment or data
collection, making prompt identification possible without
increasing cost. One particular area that can benefit from
ECG identification is body sensor networks [7, 10], which
will be widely employed in future telemedicine and
homecare systems. These sensor networks monitor the
patient’s status in an autonomous manner and require the
networks to be self-descriptive. In other words, the system
should be able to register the owner of the signal
automatically and store the collected data to correct
electronic medical records. Identifying users with ECG
signals (instead of conventional biometrics that require
additional data collection) simplifies the configuration and
lowers the cost of such systems. ECG can also serve as a
convenient identification tool in the battle field: when
information about injured soldiers is sent back to hospital
facilities, their ECG signals can be conveniently used as
identifiers. Other applications may include identifying
patients from natural disasters, fire sites, terrorism attacks,
etc. It should be noted that recent advancements of
noncontact, miniature, and low-cost ECG devices should
further make collection of ECG signals convenient and
affordable for non-hospital settings [11, 12].
Identification with ECG signals has been studied in both
time and frequency domains [3, 5, 6, 13, 14]. The time
domain method [3] extracts time intervals and magnitudes
between ECG peaks and troughs as statistical classification
attributes. While using temporal distances and magnitudes
for identification appears intuitive, the acquisition of these
16
attributes might not always be easy for ECG waveforms
corrupted by noises. Furthermore, extraction of time
intervals as statistical attributes ignores the details of the
singular points and lacks a comprehensive exploitation of
information contained in the ECG waveform. For example,
the QRS complex shape of different subjects may vary
substantially, yet the Q-R and R-S intervals remain the same
(refer to Figure 1). The time interval method does not
account for these informative variations.
Alternatively, wavelet transform decomposes time series
signals into spectral and temporal dimensions, offering
inclusive insights about energy distribution of the signal
along the two axes. Wavelet decomposition has been
employed recently to develop classification algorithms [5,
7]. In a wavelet transform, a signal is decomposed into
a combination of a set of basis wavelet functions
where is the scale factor and is the translation
parameter. The result of the wavelet transform is a structure
of wavelet coefficient . That is,
(1)
Signal analysis with wavelet decomposition eliminates the
need for time interval extraction, as recognized by Chan, et
al. and Yao, et al. [5, 7]. The former proposed a wavelet
distance approach for ECG identification, where the sum of
normalized differences between wavelet coefficients was
used as the classification score to evaluate the similarity
between two ECG signals. The research showed that the
wavelet approach outperforms the time domain approach
that uses correlation coefficient to measure difference
between signals.
Interested in innovative use of vital signs as biometrics [2,
7, 15], the authors evaluated the effectiveness of the wavelet
classification approach [7] and soon realized a computation
issue involved in this approach: the existing wavelet
distance algorithm did not distinguish the coefficients
containing salient information from those less informative
or even noise-corrupted ones. That is, it treated the
coefficients at all scales equally when calculating the
wavelet distances. Given that hundreds of coefficients are
obtained from an ECG wavelet transformation, the
computation involved may exceed the capability of the
wearable/portable platforms for those potential user
scenarios mentioned earlier (i.e., body sensor network, etc).
This paper hence investigates two issues: (1) whether a
subset of wavelet coefficients works equivalently as the
entire structure of coefficients in determining the distance
measure; and (2) if a coefficient subset can obtain
comparable classification results as the entire structure,
determine the saved computation consumption.
2. Methods
This section describes the steps to investigate the two
critical issues for computation efficiency improvement.
These steps include data collection, signal pre-processing,
subject classification, coefficient selection, and computation
experiments. This study employed an “in-house” device to
collect ECG signals as show in Figure 2. Data acquired
through a LabVIEW program were processed for
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010
identification with MATLAB scripts using the wavelet
approach. The contribution of wavelet coefficient subsets is
analyzed based-on a signal difference/similarity measure
defined similar to that in [5].
2.1 Data Acquisition and Signal Preparation
In the experiment, a three-lead ECG sensor employing a low
power precise instrumentation amplifier [16] was built to
collect signals. The three Ag/AgCl electrodes were attached
to both wrists and the left ankle of a subject to collect the
sensed electrical cardiac signals to a conditioning circuit
through nickel plated brass snap type connectors. These
analog ECG signals, after being amplified and initially
conditioned by the circuits, were acquired by a LabVIEW
program running on a personal computer with a National
Instrument multifunction input/output card (DAQCardTM-
, 6062E). The DAQCardTM-6062E data acquisition card is
equipped with sixteen 12-bit analog-digital conversion
channels which can sample at a rate up to 500 KS/s. Since
no filtering function is provided by the conditioning circuit,
ECG data were first acquired at a rate of 10 KS/s and high
frequency noises were then filtered out by taking average of
every 50 samples, resulting in a sampling rate of 200 S/s. A
LabVIEW interface displayed ECG signals real-time so that
only data when the subjects were in stable condition would
be collected. Experimental parameters, such as sampling
rate, record duration, and storage paths could be adjusted
through the interface.
Figure 2. An "in-house" ECG sensor for data collection.
After appropriate internal research board approval,
volunteers were recruited for this study. The subjects were
comprised of 26 males and 4 females, with ages ranging
from 18 to 51 years. A total of 121 datasets from 30
subjects were collected. Each subject participated in
multiple data collection sessions. Session intervals varied
from several hours (morning and afternoon sessions) to a
few weeks. Each session lasted around five minutes: after
the subject rested in a chair for two minutes, the ECG leads
were placed; two minutes of consistent data were then
acquired and stored. Each subject participated in at least
two sessions. The maximum of sessions participated in
were by two subjections who participated in five sessions.
In other words, for the ith subject, the number of collected
datasets : and where i is the subject number.
The stored raw signals were pre-processed with a
MATLAB program. Two major noise sources—signal drifts
 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 17
at around 0.06 Hz and spikes at 60 Hz—were first filtered
with hard thresholding after a scale 12 Daubechies’s db6
[17] wavelet transform to all the heart beat cycles. Detail
wavelet parts at scales 2, 3, and 4 were reconstructed so that
the R peaks (refer to Figure 1) could be located as the
fiducial point to identify ECG cycles. Identified ECG cycles
were interpolated to a pre-defined length for the
convenience of future steps. Sixty consistent heartbeat
cycles from each dataset were selected and normalized to the
range of [-1, 1]. In this step, the consistency of data was
examined with Euclidean distances of each cycle to the
mean of all cycles.
A wavelet transform was applied to these time series
signals and a set of coefficients were calculated for each of
the sixty heart beats. Depending on the wavelet transform
(continuous or discrete) applied, the number of coefficients
vary (more information is provided when the specific
measures are introduced). Nevertheless, for each of the 121
ECG datasets acquired earlier, wavelet coefficients for their
sixty heart beats were saved. From this point on, all the
operations were performed on these wavelet coefficients.
They served as the “statistical features” from which
classification scores were calculated and subsequent
classification decisions were made.
Out of the Ni coefficient sets (each corresponds to sixty
heartbeats), one coefficient set is enrolled in the database,
creating a database of 30 coefficient sets. The other Ni-1
coefficient sets of the ith subject were used to test the
classification accuracy; altogether there are 91 (that is, 121-
30=91) coefficient sets available for classification test.
2.2 Distance of Discrete Wavelet Coefficients
(DDWC)
The classification method in the experiment finds the
distances (D) from the to-be-tested coefficient set
to those enrolled coefficient
sets in the database and uses these
distances as the quantitative measure of signal
difference/similarity. After all the distances were compared,
is classified to the closest enrolled subject . i.e.,
unknown coefficient set
, where (2)
To classify a subject, a “distance” measure needs to be
defined to represent the level of similarity/difference
between unknown wavelet coefficient set and the enrolled
coefficient sets. Here a distance of discrete wavelet
coefficients (DDWC) is defined similar to [5], where it was
referred as WDIST in [5]. For an unknown subject, its
DDWC to the n-th enrolled subject is given by:
(3)
where is the th wavelet coefficient at the th scale of
the unknown coefficient set; is the th wavelet
coefficient at the th scale of the enrolled coefficient set; is
the number scales of the wavelet transform; is the
number of coefficients at a specific scale. T.H. is a pre-
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010
select constant for normalization purpose. To obtain the
DDWC measure, a scale 6, bior1.1 wavelet transform [18]
was applied to the pre-processed ECG waveforms, resulting
in coefficient structures of 256 elements. The ‘Bior1.1’
basis function belongs to the Biorthogonal Wavelet Pairs
wavelet family; the orthogonal discrete wavelet transform
functions have excellent localization properties both in time
and frequency domains [19] and coefficients obtained
contain distinctive information. Note that the basis function
chosen here is different from that in [5], where a db3
function was used.
2.3 Wavelet Coefficients with Salient
Information
The magnitudes of the wavelet coefficients decomposed
from an ECG signal differ substantially from scale to scale.
Table I illustrates the ranges of coefficients from a scale 6
discrete wavelet transform. The magnitudes of the detailed
coefficients at scale 3 (from -6.89 to 0.52) were significantly
greater than those at scale 1 (in range of -0.27 to -0.297).
Considering all the coefficients in such a broad range, one
would conclude that the major components with larger
magnitudes contribute more in discriminating one subject
from another. On the other hand, since ECG waveforms are
similar, their major components must be largely alike.
Therefore, one might argue that it should be those minor (or
subtle) components that really make the difference in
distinguishing subjects. A more general hypothesis
warrants investigation: a subset of the coefficients from the
wavelet coefficient structure can obtain equivalent
identification results as when the entire structure is used.
In this study, subsets of coefficients from the
decomposition structure were selected using a MATLAB
function ‘wdcbm(C, L, ALPHA, M) [20]. This function
employs an adaptive coefficient selection rule based on the
Birge-Massart (BM) strategy [21]. The input arguments of
the function C and L describe the wavelet coefficient
structure; and ALPHA and M are constants and control the
number of selected coefficients. The function returns the
number of selected coefficients and the scale-dependent
thresholds. Once the coefficient subset was selected, the
distance measure ( , distance of main discrete
wavelet coefficients) was calculated using the equation
below:
(4)
Where is the coefficient subset selected with BM
strategy; all other notations follow those in (3), except that
the denominator takes a slightly different form.
Identification performance of different coefficient subset
sizes, ranging from 10 to 100 with an increment of 10, was
examined with the measure. For each specific
number of selected coefficients, a cross-validation of ten
trials was utilized to estimate the relationship of accuracy
rate ( ) versus the coefficient numbers.
18 (IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security,
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010

Table 1: Magnitudes of Wavelet Coefficients Vary from Scale to Scale

Approximation Detailed Detailed Detailed Detailed Detailed Detailed
Components
at scale 6 at scale 6 at scale 5 at scale 4 at scale 3 at scale 2 at scale 1
Number of
4 4 8 16 32 64 128
Coefficients
Range of -7.17 -0.05 -2.09 -0.40 -6.89 -0.79 -0.27
Magnitudes ~-5.78 ~1.68 ~0.98 ~2.28 ~0.52 ~0.59 ~0.297

And the standard deviations from these trials were
compared to find the performance trend as the coefficient
number increases. Additionally, possible variations of this
relationship with the number of subjects changes was also
investigated by analyzing results from five cases, each of
which include data from 5, 10, 15, 20, or 25 subjects.
2.4 Computing Time versus Number of
Coefficients Used for Classification
The significance of computation saving because of the
reduction of the number of wavelet coefficients utilized for
classification was studied by examining the execution time
of the classification algorithms. In the experiments, the
code was programmed in MATLAB R2007b and run on a
personal computer with Microsoft XP Professional operating
system. The computer CPU operates at a 3.4 GHz clock and
works with 1.0 GB physical memory and 2.0 GB virtual
memory. Computing time for different tasks required to
identify unknown datasets was recorded. These tasks
include signal preprocessing (wavelet transform, filtering,
larger number of subjects, more detailed, high-frequency
information is required.
Figure 3 also shows that, when the number of selected
coefficients is 40, there appears to be an unusual drop in
performance (i.e., lower performance than when the number
of selected coefficients is 30 or 50). A closer examination
on coefficients at different wavelet scales was taken to find
out the causes. The coefficients after the first thirty were
selected primarily from scale 3 (frequency range of 12~25
Hz). At first, only a small portion of coefficients (~5 out of
32) at this frequency range were selected. Both magnitudes
and locations (along the time axis) of the selected
coefficients change considerably and consequently introduce
variations to the distance measure, causing performance
deterioration. As the number of used coefficients increases
to 50, more scale 3 coefficients would be included, the
detailed components of the ECG signal vary less and
classification performance resume.
100

signal selection, and necessary BM coefficient selection) and

classification of the unknown dataset with reduced number 95

(out of 256) of coefficients. Note that the computing time to

90
obtain wavelet coefficients enrolled in the database is a one-
Accuracy Rate (%)

time cost and does not affect real-time identification.

85
Therefore, database enrollment preparation was not
included in the study.
80
5 Subjects
3. Results 75
10 Subjects
15 Subjects
20 Subjects
25 Subjects
Figure 3 depicts the identification performance when only a 70
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
subset of discrete wavelet coefficients selected with the Number of Coefficients in the Selected Subset
Birge-Massart strategy was employed for discrimination. It
can be seen from the figure that, for all the cases, the Figure. 3 The DDWC identification accuracy rate vs. the
identification rate starts to decrease noticeably if fewer than number of selected coefficients.
50 out of the 256 coefficients are used in the DDWC
calculation. It is also interpreted from this figure that, when
the number of subjects to be identified is small (5 or 10), the Figure 4 shows the normalized computing time saving as
performance starts to deteriorate noticeably with a small the number of wavelet coefficients used for classification is
subset (< 30) of the 256 coefficients. These coefficients reduced. As illustrated by the figure, computing time
selected with the Birge-Massart strategy are mostly the required for classification is proportional to the coefficient
wavelet approximation and low-frequency components (<12 number: when only the classification computation is
Hz) of the original signal. Other coefficients that provide concerned (“Classification Only”), using 50 coefficients
more detailed information (frequency >12Hz) do not seem to takes about 45% of time as that required by using 256
improve the accuracy rate in these cases. coefficients, demonstrating a computation saving of 55%.
In large subject number (20 or 25) cases, however, a slight The preprocessing of the unknown dataset takes 0.4~0.5
performance improvement can be noticed when the number seconds. When this coefficient preparation was included,
of coefficients increased from 50 to 100. This small the overall computing time saves 22% when 50 out of 256
accuracy increase could be a result of a higher degree of coefficients are used as suggested by the “Prep Included”
freedom as a larger number of coefficients were involved in curve.
classification or it may indicate that, in order to identify a

100
90
Normalized Required Time (%)
80
70
60
50
40
30
0 50 100
Number of Coefficients Used for Classification
Figure 4. Computing time saving with the reduced number
of coefficients used for classification.
4. Discussion
Our experiment results with the wavelet approach obtained
an identification accuracy rate of higher than 80%. These
results are generally in agreement with those from
previously published work and demonstrate the promise of
ECG waveforms as a biometric modality, confirming the
potential of using ECG signal as a biometric modality for
security purposes. Compared to many existing biometric
traits, ECG is promising to address several concerns: (1) the
collection of ECG signals is not expected to change with
environmental conditions as those conventional traits
collected from body surfaces. In other words, the operation
of systems with ECG identification may be less susceptive to
external noises and demonstrate more stable performance;
(2) ECG signals, originating from the deep interior of the
human body, reflect physiological activities of the heart and
other parts of the cardiac system. It is thus extremely hard
for one to spoof any legitimately enrolled measurements
with this trait; and (3) the presence of ‘live’ subjects
guarantees successful collection of the biometric
characteristics and, therefore, eliminates possible failure to
enroll.
Figure 3 illustrates that a small number of coefficients
(20~30) selected by the Birge-Massart strategy offers very
good identification results when the number of to-be-tested
subjects is small. These coefficients depict the
approximation and low-frequency components of the ECG
waveform. This approximation, without much detailed
information, suffices when the subject size is not large.
When the subject population is larger, on the other hand,
more wavelet coefficients must be included to obtain
reasonable results because additional information provided
by these coefficients helps to distinguish subjects compared.
The performance improves initially as the number of
selected coefficients increases; however, this improvement
does not extend to the entire coefficient structure. The
performance achieves its maximum when the coefficient
number reaches approximately 80. Regardless of smaller or
larger subject sizes, it is shown that identification with a
subset of wavelet coefficients can obtain equivalent
performance as that when all the coefficients are considered.
(IJCNS) International Journal of Computer and Network Security, 19
Vol. 2, No. 1, January 2010
The reduction in the number of involved coefficients can
bring considerable computation saving (>20%) to the
distance classification method used in this paper. This
reduction in the number of used coefficients is expected to
bring more computation benefits for biometric systems that
use intelligent classification/discrimination methods (e.g.,
artificial neural network), whose computation efficiency and
performance are sensitive to the size of input vectors. The
computation improvement will make ECG better suited to
those applications where computation power is limited, such
as those body area sensor networks that are supposed to be
Classfication Only ubiquitous in the healthcare sector in the near future.
Prep Included
150 200 250 300 5. Conclusions
This paper investigated a possible ways of improving
computing efficiency of a wavelet approach for human
identification with ECG signals. The project collected data
with an “in-house” ECG sensor. Wavelet coefficient sets
after pre-process served as the statistical features for
classification; the linear classification method used a
discrete wavelet distance measure to describe the similarity
between these statistical features. The paper examined the
identification performance as a function of the number of
wavelet coefficients included for calculating the distance
measure. Results from the research shows that it is possible
to use only a portion of the wavelet coefficients in the
classification process to gain the best identification
performance. The reduction of the number of coefficients
will improve identification efficiency and performance,
particularly in those methods whose computation
requirements are sensitive to the number of elements
contained in the input vectors.
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