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DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF WATER PURIFICATION AND DESALINATION

MACHINE FOR USE IN RURAL RIVERINE AREAS OF THE NIGER DELTA

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DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF WATER PURIFICATION
AND DESALINATION MACHINE FOR USE IN RURAL
RIVERINE AREAS OF THE NIGER DELTA

BY

ISUKU OHIKHUARE EMMANUEL ENG1102512

EHIREMEN ISAIAH ENG1102499
USIFOH KINGSLEY EHIMHEN ENG1102546
ONAIWU JOHN ENG1104416

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF BENIN
BENIN CITY

SUPERVISED BY: ENGR. DR. E.G.SADJERE

AUGUST 2016

1
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this work was carried out by ISUKU OHIKHUARE EMMANUEL,

EHIREMEN ISAIAH, USIFOH KINGSLEY EHIMHEN and ONAIWU JOHN, in the

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Benin, Benin

City, Nigeria, in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the Award of Bachelor of

Engineering (B.Eng.) in Mechanical Engineering.

________________________ ____________________
Engr. Dr E.G. Sadjere Engr. P. Akhator
(Project Supervisor) (Project Coordinator)
Date: ___________________ Date: ___________________

________________________
Dr A. I. Obanor
(Ag. Head of Department)
______________________
DATE

2
 DEDICATION

With our hearts open and wrapped with joy, with grateful lips and happy feet, with our

hands lifted up in utter submission and thankfulness, we dedicate this project, first to God

Almighty who in his infinite mercies has given us the will and strength to overcome

throughout our program and stay in the University of Benin. Words alone cannot depict the

appreciation which like dew rests wholly upon our lips. We say with sincerity – Thank You

Father.

We also dedicate this project to our individual parents/guardians – Mrs G.B. Isuku, Mr

M. E. Isuku, Engr. John Ohi Isuku, Mr Christopher Ehiremen (Late), Mr Anthony Ehiremen,

Mrs Sabella Ehiremen, Mr Usifoh, Miss Patience Ibadin, and Mr and Mrs Onaiwu; to our

siblings – Franca Isuku, Ovbaikhena Isuku, Omolegho Isuku, Esther Isuku, Late Mr Bright

Oseghae Usifoh, Samuel Ehiremen, Nur. Joyce Ehiremen, Kelvin Ehiremen, Elizabeth

Ehiremen,. Also to our friends – Austin Evbuowan, Nurudeen Abdulkadir, Eboh Samuel,

Paul Udogwu, Daniel Airuehia, Samson Adeoye, Flora Ohikhena, Vivian Uwa Imade,

Emmanuel Eleso, Vivian Babaferi, Kehinde Oisaimi, Adebowale Adeyinka; and everyone

who showered us with love and support throughout our stay in this great citadel of learning –

the University of Benin. Time shall not wane these bonds that connect us all. Once again, we

thank you and our hearts merry that you made it into our success stories.

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost we wish to express our immense gratitude to our supervisor, Engr. Dr

Sadjere, for the help, guidance and support he rendered to us in spite of his tight schedule. Also,

we wish to acknowledge the following persons which at some point during the course of our

work rendered us support in one capacity or the other: Dr A. I Obanor, Mr Ochuko for his

assistance during fabrication and our colleagues who contributed ideas to the progress of our

project, also for their financial, moral and spiritual support before and during our program. We

pray that God alone should bless you all with His unending blessings and happiness.

4
 Table of Contents
CERTIFICATION ............................................................................................................................... 2
DEDICATION..................................................................................................................................... 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ....................................................................................................................4
LIST OF TABLES ...............................................................................................................................7
LIST OF FIGURES ..............................................................................................................................8
NOTATIONS......................................................................................................................................9
ABSTRACT .........................................................................................................................................10

CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................................11

INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................11
1.1 BACKGROUND STUDY ..........................................................................................................11
1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM ................................................................................................13
1.3 AIM & OBJECTIVES .............................................................................................................13
1.3.1AIM ........................................................................................................................................13
1.3.2 OBJECTIVES ......................................................................................................................14
1.4 RELEVANCE OF THE PROJECT .......................................................................................14
1.5 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE PROJECT .............................................................15
1.6 METHODLOGY ………………………………………………………………………………...15

CHAPTER 2 .................................................................................................................................16
LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................16
2.1 WATER .........................................................................................................................................16
2.1.1 TYPES OF WATER ............................................................................................................17
2.1.2 PORTABLE WATER ..........................................................................................................18
2.1.3 WATER POLLUTION ........................................................................................................19
2.1.4 CLASIFICATION OF WATER POLLUTANTS................ ..................................................19
2.1.5 SOURCES OF WATER .......................................................................................................21
2.2 DISTILLED WATER ............................................................................................................21
2.2.1 BENEFIT OF DISTILLED WATER ..................................................................................22
2.3 THE FILTERATION SYSTEM ............................................................................................24
2.3.1 NATURAL FILTERING ....................................................................................................24
2.3.2 FILTERATION ELEMENTS ..................................................................................................25
2.3.3 ERRORS...............................................................................................................................25
2.3.4 THE FILTER FLOW THEORY ........................................................................................25
2.3.4.1 FILTER PERMEABILITY ..............................................................................................26
2.4 DISTILLATIO…………………………………………………………………………………...27
2.4.1 DESALINATION PROCESS THROUGH DISTILLATION …….……………………....27
2.5 FUEL ……………………………………………………………………………………………..27
2.5.1 CHEMICAL FUELS ………………………………………………………………………….27
2.5.2 CHARCOAL …………….…………………………………………………………………….28

CHAPTER THREE .......................................................................................................................29

METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................................29
3.1 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN .......................................................................................................29
3.1.1 CONCEPT ONE ...................................................................................................................29
3.1.2 CONCEPT TWO ...................................................................................................................31
3.2 DETAILED DESIGN ..............................................................................................................33
3.2.1 DESIGN CONSIDERATONS .............................................................................................33
3.2.2 DESIGN SPECIFICATION...................................................................................................33
3.2.3 CLACULATIONS AND ANALYSIS ......................................................................................34
3.3 MATERIAL SELECTION ....................................................................................................40

5
 3.4 SIZE OF THE MACHINE COMPONENTS .........................................................................41
3.5 MANUFACTURING SPECIFICATION ..............................................................................42
3.6 WORKING DIAGRAMS ......................................................................................................44
3.7 MANUFACTURING PROCESS............................................................................................47

CHAPTER FOUR .........................................................................................................................48

TEST, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .......................................................................................48
4.1 TEST AND RESULTS ..........................................................................................................48
4.1.1 MACHINE EFFICIENCY....................................................................................................49
4.2 DISCUSSION ………………………………………………………………………….………...50

CHAPTER 5 ..................................................................................................................................51
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ..............................................................................51
5.1 CONCLUSION .........................................................................................................................51
5.2 RECOMMENDATION ...........................................................................................................53
REFERENCES ..............................................................................................................................53
APPENDIX ...................................................................................................................................55

6
 LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Types of Chemical Fuels…………………………………………………………….28
Table 3.1 Category weighting…………………………………………………………………. 32
Table 3.2 Materials and selection criteria………………………………………………….….40
Table 3.4 Bill of Engineering Measurement and Evaluation……………….……………..42-43
Table 4.1 Results of Mass Burnt to Produce Volume of Water…………………..……….…48

7
 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3.1 Concept One……………………………………………….....29
Figure 3.2 Concept Two……………………………………………………………….31
Figure 3.3 Boiler ………..……………………………………………………………..35
Figure 3.4 Condenser Cylinder………………………………………………..……...37
Figure 3.5 Filter….…………………………………………………………………..... 44
Figure 3.6 Cooling Coil……………………………………………………………….. 45
Figure 3.7 Copper tubing………………………………………………………………46
Figure 4.1 Experimental Graph for Fuel Efficiency…………………………………49

8
 NOTATIONS
Pressure Drop Across the filter (N/m𝟐)………………….………………………………..∆𝒑
Density (Kg/m3)…………………………………………………………………………… ρ
Saturation Pressure (Pa)…………………………………………………………………….Ps
Volume of Condense (m)……………………………………………………………….. …Ѵ
Mass of Cooling Water (Kg)……………………………………………………………… Mw
Higher Calorific Value (KJ/Kg)…………………………………………………………. HCV
Surface area (m2)………………………………………………………………………… A
Specific Heat Capacity (kJ/Kg.K)……………………………………………………………………………………………C
Circumferential Stress (N/m2)…………………………………………………………………………………………… c
Temperature (OC or K)…………………………………………………………………… T
Thermal Conductivity (W/mK)………………………………………………………….. K
Volume (m3 or L)…………………………………………………………………………. V
Internal Pressure in Boiler (Pa)……………………………………………………………p
Latent Heat of Vapourization (kJ/kg)…………………………………………………….L
Total Heat Generated (kJ)………………………………………………………………..H

9
 ABSTRACT

As often the case in modern riverine societies close to brackish water source, there is

abundant water everywhere but unfortunately it is not suitable for drinking. Distillation is one

of the most effective means of getting tasteless water from brackish water. The salty water is

heated by energy from an external source. It evaporates and condenses in the condenser as

distillate. The distillate is the pure water which is suitable for drinking.

Distillation is not a new discovery in science. It has existed for centuries to provide for

human wants. Thus, this project does not only treat how fresh water can be gotten from

brackish water, but also considers a three stage filtration process involving – Gravel, Sand

and Activated Carbon. Dirty water from a Reservoir - which also acts a condenser for the

steam passing through the tubing – first goes through the 3-stage filtration system before it

enters into the boiler. In the boiler, it is heated into steam. The steam passes through the

copper tubing and it is condensed by the cooling water in the condenser.

This project is geared at studying water purification and desalination in general,

effectively utilizing the phenomena of Distillation, Condensation and Filtration. Thus, design

and fabrication of the system will be done, stating design specifications, developing

conceptual designs, boiler and condenser calculations, details of design of the selected

concept with its working drawings.

10
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND STUDY

Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa and ninth most populous country in the

world (Ogwueleka, 2009). Nigeria has population distributed at 48.3% urban and 57.7% rural

and a population density of 139 people per square Km (Ogwueleka, 2009). The above

statement implies that over ninety- eight million Nigerians live in the rural areas.

Water supply in Nigeria is characterized by low levels of access to an improved water

source. Responsibility for water supply is shared between three levels of government:

Federal, State and Local government. The Federal Government is in charge of water resource

management; State Government has the primary responsibility for urban water supply while

local government together with the communities are responsible for rural supply.

Niger Delta is the delta of the Niger River at the gulf of guinea on the Atlantic Ocean.

The region is endowed with many resources like water and crude oil. Despite the abundance

of brackish as well as fresh water, the region has been struggling with clean and portable

water supply since the 1980s. Presently, statistics show that water availability to individual

declined from 18.9litres in 1986 to less than 10litres per day among 50% of the urban and

rural population.

The wholesomeness of the water for human consumption remains one of the first

concerns of regional legislation. Water is crucial for human health, wellbeing and industrial

development. Water quality is dependent on physical, chemical, and bacteriological

characteristics of availability of water resources.

11
 Water demand exceeds supply in many parts of the world. As of 2004, 1.1 billion people

lacked access to improved water sources (Egirami, et al, 2004). Water is essential for both

life and livelihood. Although the vital role of safe water in maintaining health has been

recognized for centuries, many families, especially those in developing countries do not have

access to it. The situation in the rural areas of the Niger Delta region is like any other across

the country and sometimes worse because of heavy pollution of its water sources due to oil

exploration. For example, Niger Delta Environment Survey, (NDES, 2000), covering the

region found out that most settlements depend on untreated surface water and wells, which

result in health problems. In related study of the NDES (2004), it was found that the available

quantity of water to residents which was less than 10litres per person per day in 1994 had

reduced to 5.5litres per person per day in 2000. This shows that as the population increases,

there is a dramatic reduction in the quality and quantity of water available to the residents.

Surface and groundwater quality assessment and management are major issues having

profound impact on communities in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. Despites the region’s

abundant water resources, water quality is threatened by deteriorating environmental

conditions and lack of water resource management.

The problem of environmental pollution in the Niger Delta region of Nigeriaposes direct

consequences to the surfaces and ground water resources. These contaminants arise from

anthropogenic sources – natural waterlogging and incessant flooding. (Egirami, et al, 2014)

New water treatment facilities have helped to provide safe drinking water. Nevertheless

pollution from agricultural sources and dissolved organic carbon are issues in the Niger

Delta. Drinking water supply in numerous of these communities could be unhealthy and not

meeting regulatory standard.

12
 Rural dwellers in the Niger Delta have tried over the years to develop efficient methods

for purifying and desalinating water from dirty swamp and brackish water from estuaries, but

these methods have fallen short of standard.

Distillation would be an answer to the problem of unhealthy drinking water if

efficient and proper design of distillation machine – cheap, portable and readily available – is

manufactured for homes in rural communities living very close to estuaries.

The machine would need no electric power to run. It would be powered by coal,

charcoal or firewood depending on which one available.

Drinking water has been distilled from sea water since at least ca. 200AD when the

process was clearly described by Alexander of Aphrodisias. Its history predates this, as a

passage in Aristotle’s Meteorologica (II.3, 358b16) refers to the distillation of water. Captain

Israel Williams of the Friendship (1797) improvised a way to distil water, which he described

in his journal.

1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Portal water should be suitable for drinking, cooking and bathing. It should be odourless,

colourless and tasteless. It should contain no harmful biological organisms and it should be

neutral in terms of acidic and alkaline content. But in the rural areas of the Niger Delta, the

accessible water is contaminated with impurities such as dangerous microorganisms, oil spills

and sewages. The water is also salty due to the effect of the ocean. This makes it unsuitable

and healthy for drinking.

13
 This project is therefore concerned with the design and fabrication of cheap, simple and

readily available system for getting pure water from the large body of impure water through

simple distillation method.

1.3 AIM & OBJECTIVES

1.3.1 Aim

To design and fabricate water purification and desalination machine for use in rural

riverine areas of the Niger Delta.

1.3.2 Objectives

- To design a water purification machine that doesn’t use electrical power.

- To fabricate the machine using locally obtained material.

- To get pure and fresh water as much as possible from brackish water using the principles

of distillation and condensation.

- To make the design portable and simple but attractive and technical.

1.4 RELEVANCE OF THE PROJECT

Water is essential for health; the World Health Organisation estimates that water
related diseases are responsible for 5.8% of all deaths and 5.5% of all Disability Adjusted
Life Years (DALYs) in high mortality developing countries. This includes the four billion
cases of diarrhoea that occur throughout the world each year, and the resultant 2.2 million
deaths. It also includes those caused by other water related diseases like typhoid fever. These
diseases result not only from ingestion of pathogens contained in poor quality water, but also
due to inadequate water supply for personal and domestic hygiene practices. The problem of

14
lack of portable drinking water in the Niger Delta rural areas has increased over the years,
majorly due to environmental pollutions which have not been legislated against.

Hence, this project is relevant in the areas of environmental pollution and water
management which have been neglected in this country - Nigeria. This project can be adopted
for the fabrication of inexpensive machine for used by households of rural riverine villages of
the Niger Delta.

1.5 SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE PROJECT

The project is restricted to the design and fabrication of portable, cheap and reliable

purification and desalination machine for use in rural riverine areas of the Niger Delta, using

cheap available engineering materials. The fabricated machine will be operated to produce

distilled water which will be tested and compared with the brackish water.

1.6 METHODOLOGY

The machine works on the principle of distillation. The unclean water to be distilled is

first passed through strainer to remove larger particles before it gets into the boiler. The

heating system makes use of fuel wood or charcoal which is cheap and easily obtainable. The

heating system heats the boiler to evaporate the unclean water contained in it, which is then

passed through a condenser, which uses water as its coolant to condense the steam back to

water. The water is then collected in a clean container, which could be glass, where it can be

taken for use.

15
 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW

Distillation has long been considered a way of making salt water drinkable and

purifying water in remote locations. As early as the fourth century B.C., Aristotle described a

method to evaporate impure water and then condense it for potable use. Arabian alchemists

were the earliest known people to use solar distillation to produce potable water in the

sixteenth century. However, the first documented reference for a device was made in 1742 by

Nicolo Ghezzi of Italy, although it is not known whether he went beyond the conceptual stage

and actually built it

2.1 WATER

Water is absolutely essential for life; it is undoubtedly the most important natural
resource that exists on our planet (Abowei and George, 2009). The quality of water available
and accessible to a community has tremendous impact on their living standard and well-
being. Thus global and local efforts are widespread at ensuring adequate provision of clean
and safe water to the world’s growing population. Although water plays an essential role in
supporting human life and biodiversity, it also has great potentials for transmitting diseases
when contaminated (Yakasai et al., 2004). Population growth coupled with other factors such
as urbanisation, agricultural activities, industrial and commercial processes have resulted in
the accumulation of wastes and pollutants which end up in water bodies, thereby altering the
water quality.

Water is a clear liquid having the chemical formula H2O, required by all forms of life on
Earth. It is a transparent fluid which forms the world’s streams lakes, oceans and rain, and is
the major constituent of the fluids of organism (Postel S. 1992). As a chemical compound, a
water molecule contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms. Water is a liquid at standard
ambient temperature and pressure, but often it coexists on Earth with the solid state, ice; and
gaseous state, steam (water vapour).

The major chemical and physical properties of water are:

a) Water is liquid at standard temperature and pressure of 273.15K and an absolute

pressure of exactly 1bar. It is tasteless and odourless.

16
 b) Water is transparent in the visible electromagnetic spectrum.
c) Water is a good polar solvent and is often referred to as the universal solvent.
Substances that dissolve in water e.g. salts, acid, sugar and some gases (e.g. oxygen
and carbon dioxide) are known as hydrophilic substances, while those that are
immiscible with water (e.g. fats and oils) are known as hydrophobic substances.
d) The boiling point of water is dependent on the ambient pressure. Thus water boils at
100 OC at sea-level.
e) The density of liquid water is 1000Kg/m3 at 4 OC.
f) Water forms an azeotrope (constant boiling mixture) with, many other solvents.
g) As an oxide of hydrogen, water is formed when hydrogen-containing compounds burn
or react with oxygen or oxygen-containing compounds. Water is not fuel, it is an end-
product of hydrogen.
h) Elements which are more electropositive than hydrogen such as lithium, sodium,
calcium, potassium and caesium displace hydrogen from water, forming hydroxides.

2.1.1 Types of Water

a) Hard Water – this is saturated with calcium, iron, magnesium, and many other
inorganic minerals. Water in lakes, rivers, on the ground, in the deep wells is classified as
hard water. Many city-systems take water from rivers or lakes, or reservoirs supplied with
mountain water; they erroneously call their supplies “soft-water” but it is soft only in
comparison with water which is harder.

b) Boiled Water – boiling helps remove some of the germs, but concentrates the inorganic
minerals. Other germs are carried into the fertile element for rapid and lusty propagation of
germs and viruses already in the body.

c) Raw Water – this has not been boiled. Raw water may be hard (as calcium hardened
water) or soft as rain water. It contains millions of germs and viruses. In every densely
inhabited drop, one of these viruses and bacteria may adversely affect the thyroid gland, the
liver and other vital body organs.

d) Rain Water – this has been condensed from the clouds. The first drop is distilled water.
But when it falls as rain, it picks up germs, dust, smoke, minerals, strontium-90, lead and
many other atmospheric chemicals. By the time rain water reaches the earth it is so saturated
with dust and pollutants it may be yellowish in colour.

17
 e) Snow Water – this is frozen rain. Freezing does not eliminate any germs. All snow-
flakes have hardened mineral deposits. Melt the cleanest snow and you will find it saturated
with dirt, inorganic minerals, germs and viruses.

f) Filtered Water – this water has passed through a fine strainer, called a filter. Some
calcium and other solid substances are kept in the filter, there is no filter made which can
prevent germs from passing through the fine meshes. Each pore of the finest filter is large
enough for a million viruses to seep through in a few moments.

g) Soft Water – this water is soft in comparison with water which is harder. It contains
many trace minerals and chemicals, viruses and bacteria. It is not to be confused with
“softened-water”. Soft water may be classified as water which is harder than distilled water.

h) Reverse Osmosis – this is a system of water purification which allows pre-filtered water
to be forced through a semi-permeable membrane to separate impurities from our drinking
water. However, this membrane allows only certain molecules to pass through providing the
water pressure is exactly constant. The matter of water pressure is a problem still to be
solved. Furthermore, the membrane allows some iron and nitrate molecules to pass through.

i) De-ionized Water – a process of exchanging “hard” ions for “soft”. The total ions are
still present. The end result is the same. But the water has the appearance of being distilled.
Since water leaving the sodium-cation exchanger has little hardness, it contains sodium ions.

j) Distilled Water – this is water that has first been turned into steam so that all of its
impurities are left behind. Then through condensation, it is turned back into pure water. It is
the only pure water: the only water free from all contamination. Distilled water may be
considered the only pure water on earth.

2.1.2 Portable Water

Portable water, also known as drinkable water or improved drinking water, is water
safe enough for drinking and food preparation. This is water that has been filtered, cleaned, or
treated to meet the standards for drinking, meaning that it is reasonably clear of contaminants
and harmful bacteria.

Globally, in 2012, 89% of people had access to water suitable for drinking. Nearly 4
billion had access to tap water while another 2.3 billion had access to wells or public taps. 1.8
billion People still use an unsafe drinking source which may be contaminated by faeces. This

18
can result in infectious diarrhoea such as cholera and typhoid among others (WHO/UNICEF,
2014).

Drinking water quality standard describes the quality parameters set for drinking
water. Drinking water must be wholesome, and this is defined in law of standards for a wide
range of substances, organisms and properties of water in regulations. The standards are set to
be protective of public health and the definition of wholesome reflects the importance of
ensuring that water quality is acceptable to consumers. (Guardian of Drinking Water Quality,
2016). The standards set by WHO for healthy drinking is that drinking water has to be:

a. filtered,

b. cleaned

c. treated.

2.1.3 Water Pollution

Water pollution is the contamination of natural water bodies by chemical, physical,

radioactive or pathogenic microbial substances.

Water pollution is any chemical, physical or biological change in the quality of

water that has a harmful effect on any living thing that drinks or uses or lives in it.

2.1.4 Classification of Water Pollutants.

The various types of water pollutants can be classified in the following major
categories:

1) Organic Pollutants;

a) Oxygen Demanding Waste – the wastewaters such as, domestic and municipal
sewage, wastewater from food processing industries, canning industries, paper and
pulp mills, breweries, etc. have considerable concentration of biodegradable organic
compounds either in suspended, colloidal or dissolved form. These wastes undergo
decomposition and degradation by bacteria activity. Thus, the dissolved oxygen
available in the water body will be consumed for aerobic oxidation of organic matter
present in the wastewater.

19
 b) Synthetic Organic Compound – this include synthetic pesticides, synthetic
detergents, food additives, pharmaceuticals, insectides, plastics and volatile organic
compounds (VOCs). Most of these are toxic and biorefracrtory organics i.e., they are
resistant to microbial degradation. Concentration of some of these in traces make
water unfit for different uses.

c) Oil – it is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons and degradable under bacteria

action. Oil enters into water through oil spills, leak from oil pipes, and wastewater
from production and refineries.

2) Pathogens;

The pathogenic microorganisms enter into water through sewage discharge as a

major source or through wastewater from industries. Viruses and bacteria can cause
water borne diseases, such as cholera, typhoid, polio and infectious hepatitis in
human.

3) Nutrients;

The agricultural run-off, wastewater from fertilizers industries and sewage

contains substantial concentration of nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus. These
water supplies nutrients to the plants and may stimulate the growth of algae and other
aquatic weeds in receiving waters.

4) Suspended Solids and Sediments;

These comprise of silt, sand and minerals eroded from land. These appear in the
water through the surface runoff during raining season and municipal sewer.

5) Inorganic Pollutants;

Apart from the organic matter discharged in the water body through sewage and
industrial wastes, high concentration of heavy metals and inorganic pollutants
contaminate the water. These compounds are non-biodegradable and persist in the
environment. These pollutants include mineral acids, inorganic salt, trace element,
metals, metallic compound, cyanides, sulphates etc.

6) Thermal Pollution;

20
 Considering thermal pollution results due to discharge of hot water from thermal
power plants, nuclear power plants and industries where water is used as a coolant.
This affects the aquatic life and in the long run reduces the dissolved oxygen content
of the water adversely.

7) Radioactive Pollutants;

Radioactive materials originate from the following:

a) Mining and processing of ores.

b) Use in research, agriculture, medical and industries activities, such as I131, P32,
Co60, S35, etc.
c) Radioactive discharge from nuclear power plants and nuclear reactors e.g. Sr90,
Cs137, Pu248, etc.

2.1.5 Sources of water

a. Surface water

This is water that collects on the ground or in a stream, river, lake, reservoir, or
oceans. Surface water is constantly replenished through precipitation, and lost through
evaporation and seepage into ground water supplies. According to Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA, 2007) 68% of community water system users received their water from a
surface water source, such as the later (United States Geological Survey (USGS).

b. Ground water

Ground water, which is obtained by drilling wells, is water located below the ground
surface in pores and spaces in the rock.

2.2 Distilled Water

Distilled Water is a very quality form of water that first has to be turned into steam so that all
of its impurities are left behind. Then through condensation, it is turned back into pure water.
It is the only pure water: the only water free from all contamination. Distilled water may be
considered the only pure water on earth.

21
2.2.1 Benefit of Drinking Distilled Water

1. Dr. Allen E. Banik, M.D. Author, “The Choice is Clear” says… “Distilled water is the
greatest solvent on earth. It is the only water that can be taken into the body without damage
to the tissues.”

2. According to Dr. Paul Bragg, “When distilled water enters the body, it leaves no residue of
any kind. It is free of salts and sodium. It is the most perfect water for the healthy functioning
of the kidneys (83% water). It is the perfect liquid for the blood (83% water), the ideal liquid
for the efficient functioning of the lungs(86% water), stomach, liver(85% water) and other
vital organs. Why? Because it is free of all inorganic minerals. It is so pure that all liquid drug
prescriptions are formulated with distilled water. From his book: “The Shocking Truth About
Water”

3. Dr. Teofilio de la Torre says…“distilled water prevents calcification of the body.”

4. In his book, Issue of Nature’s Path, Dr. Charles McFerrin says…“Distilled water is
’empty’ water – a hungry water, a water capable of absorbing body poisons.

5. The inventor of telephone, Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, recognized the health value of
distilled water, and claimed that its daily use prolonged his life. Afflicted and bed-ridden with
sciatica.

6. Dr. Robert W. Flinchbaught says…“Distilled water dissolves the inorganic mineral

deposits in the body. A growing body of evidence suggests that distilled water dissolves and
removes disease–causing minerals and flushes out the hundreds of dangerous chemicals that
have been taken into the body as well. Distilled water is not only free from pollutants, but it
apparently helps remove them as well from the cells of the body, thus purifying the body so
that it can function as it should. —from “Pure Water is Life”

7. Dr Peter A. Lodewick, Diabetic Doctor says…“The only type of water that seems to be fit
for consumption is distilled water, which is water that is absolutely free of any minerals or
chemicals. Distillation is the single most effective method of water purification.”

8. Dr. Norman W. Walker says…Distilled Water collects the inorganic minerals

which remain in the body, the minerals which the natural water originally collected from
its contact with the earth and the rocks. Such minerals, having been rejected by the cells of

22
the body are of no constructive value. They are debris which distilled water is capable of
picking up and eliminating from the system.

9. In Dr. Paul’s book, “Not A Drop To Drink” he says…“When one drinks impure, dirty
water, the body acts as a filter, trapping a percentage of the solids suspended in the water. A
filter eventually becomes clogged and useless – fit only to be thrown away. The human
body might well face the same fate. But the basic point is that only distilled water avoids
mineral build ups in the body and distilled water is without doubt the best water available to
man- and the only truly pure water available in our waste-laden society.”

10. Frank N. Hepburn, Chief, Nutrient Data Research Branch, United States Department
of Agriculture, Consumer Nutrition Division says…“There is nothing about distilled water
that would make it harmful for the body. It may be helpful to remember that distilled water is
the only water available for crews of Naval vessels at sea.”

11. Chronic Fatigue Syndrome sufferers are instructed to drink distilled water.

12. Distilled water helps to excrete excessive heavy metals from the body.

13. Dr. Clifford C. Dennison, Ed. D., an Associate Professor at Lee College in Cleveland,
Tennessee, and a lifelong water researcher and expert says…“there are hundreds of case
histories of people who have enjoyed success in alleviating or overcoming health problems
like arthritis, heart disease, high blood pressure, hardening of the arteries, or any other dozens
of infirmities that humans suffer when they began drinking DISTILLED
WATER exclusively.”

14. In his book, The Importance Of Distilled Water In Aging, Dr. Chester Handley says
distilled water is molecularly unstable. It means that when it goes in your bloodstream
it breaks apart easier and latches on to debris, waste products and unwanted materials that are
floating round in your blood stream. It is also one of the best ways there is for reducing blood
pressure.

15. For those that follow the Bible…The water God chooses to pour abundantly upon man is
distilled water. JOB 36:27 “For he draws up the drops of water, he distills his mist in the rain
which the skies pour down, and drop upon man abundantly.”

23
2.3 The Filtration System

2.3.1 Natural Filtering

 Percolation: Slow movement of water through the pores in soil, permeable rock and
other natural filters that filter the water.
 Filter: Porous substance that allows liquids to pass through but catches or retains
small particles, filtering the liquid.
 Filtration is a process in which solid particles are separated from either a gas or a
liquid. Filtration is often called “Dead End Filtration”, because the suspended
particles end up in the filter,

2.3.2 Filtration Elements

Separation in filtration is of a mechanical nature, as solid particles are retained by a porous
filtering medium that the liquid is forced through. Driving pressure is required to “force” the
liquid through the filtering medium. Since we desire to use natural pressure in the system,
e.g. from gravitational force, the supply should be from a higher reservoir. Charcoal, sand,
and gravel can be used to filter brackish water.

1. Charcoal (Granular Activated Carbon filtering): Granular activated carbon filtering

utilizes a form of activated carbon with a high surface area, and absorbs many compounds,
including many toxic compounds. Water passing through activated carbon is commonly used
in concert with hand pumped filters to address organic contamination, taste, or objectionable
odours. Activated carbon filters are not usually used as the primary purification techniques of
portable water purification devices, but rather as secondary means to complement another
purification technique. It is most commonly implemented for pre- or post-filtering, in a
separate step than ceramic filtering, in either case being implemented prior to the addition of
chemical disinfectants used to control bacteria or viruses that filters cannot remove. Activated
charcoal can remove chlorine from treated water, removing any residual protection remaining
in the water protecting against pathogens, and should not, in general, be used without careful
thought after chemical disinfection treatments in portable water purification processing.
Carbon Core filters with a 0.5 µm or smaller pore size are excellent for removing bacteria and
cysts while also removing chemicals.

A. Absorbs impurities in the water.

B. Removes unwanted chemicals, unwanted colours, flavours and odours from the water

24
C. Filters some pathogens but will quickly use up the filter absorbing ability.
D. Can contribute to contamination because the charcoal provides a breeding ground for
bacteria and algae.

2. Sand: One of the oldest water treatments known. Two types of sand filtration: Slow sand
filtration and rapid sand filtration. Slow sand filtration removes small particles in the water
through adsorption and straining. Very reliable, but a very slow process. Rapid sand filtration
is not part of the purification process in rapid sand filtration like slow sand filtration.
Removes impurities and remnants of flocculation in most municipal water treatment plants.

3. Gravel: Lightweight, porous, has lots of crevasses giving it an excellent surface area for
bacteria to colonize. Traps small bugs, sediments and any other large particles found in
water.
Allows some contaminants like micro-organisms and industrial chemicals to get through.

Experimental results showed that gravel filtered the water the best, even though it took the
longest to filter the water. The next best filter was sand, filtering the water the second fastest.
The last filter was charcoal.

2.3.3 Errors
Failure to wash charcoal, which resulted in black water.
Use of normal charcoal instead of activated charcoal.

2.3.4 The Filter flow theory

Let us now consider the following
• filter permeability
• the significance of the filter area in filtration
• the significance of the liquid temperature in filtration
• the significance of the filter scaling and fouling
• pulsating filter operation.
During a filtration process the liquid will flow through the filter cake and filter cloth, through
more or less fine pores, and you can therefore assume that the liquid flow is laminar and
follows the general equation (Poiseuille’s) for laminar flow. The formula is a general one and
can be used for many other types of filtration.

25
 Δp / L=kVn / D2
Where:
Δp = pressure drop across the filter [N/m2]
L = the porous channel lengths through the filter [m]
k = a proportionality factor
V = the liquid’s linear speed in the channels [m/s]
n = the liquid’s dynamic viscosity [kg/ms]
D = pore diameter (hydraulic diameter) [m]

2.3.4.1 Filter permeability

Some of these parameters are obviously difficult to measure. Therefore a more practical and
common way of describing the phenomenon is by using the term “filter permeability”, which
expresses the filter’s ability to transport the liquid through it. High permeability means easy
passage for the liquid and low permeability means difficult passage for the liquid (great
resistance). According to Darcy’s law this interrelationship can be expressed as follows:
Δp=Qnt/aA
Where:
Δp = pressure drop across the filter [N/m2]
a= the permeability coefficient
(1/_ is the filter’s resistance figure, often designated R)
Q = flow through the filter [m3/s]
n = the liquid’s dynamic viscosity [kg/ms]
t = the filter thickness [m]
A = the filter area [m2].

2.3.4.2 The significance of the filter area in filtration

The transport of water in the filter, as mentioned, is through fairly narrow channels, resulting
in laminar flow. Increasing the flow area in the filter will reduce the pressure, and also the
rate at which deposits begin to build up. This can be seen from Poiseuille equation, and also
Darcy’s law, when a, A, n and t remain constant.

26
2.4 Distillation

Distillation is a process of separating the component substances from liquid mixture

by selective evaporation and condensation (Sarton G, 1975). Distillation may result in
essentially complete separation (nearly pure component), or it may be a partial separation that
increases their concentration of selected components of the mixture (Robert James, 1970).

2.4.1 Desalination process through distillation

Getting a safe and consistent water supply is one of the major human problems today.
Though, the spherical earth is covered by water, only half of 1% is drinkable. (Theresa
Crouse, 2015). For instance, people who live in coastal regions, like the Niger Delta, are
surrounded by water but it does no good to them because of the fact that they would
dehydrate if they dare drink it.

The best way to desalinate water through distillation is by the application of heat. The
water is simply heated until it evaporates into steam. Thereafter, the evaporated steam is
collected as it condenses back to water. The water evaporates but the salt and other impurities
don’t. The evaporated steam flows through a copper tube and it condenses in it’s a water
bath.

2.5 FUEL

A fuel is any material that can be made to react so that it releases chemical or nuclear
energy as heat or to be used for work (Hall, 2007). The concept was originally applied solely
to those materials capable of releasing chemical energy but has since also been applied to
other sources of heat energy such as nuclear energy.

The heat energy released by reaction of fuels is valued for warmth, cooking, or
industrial processes, as well the illumination that comes with combination.

2.5.1 Chemical fuels

Chemical fuels are substances that release energy by reacting with substances around
them, most notably by the process of combustion. Most of the chemical energy released in
combustion was not stored in the chemical bond of the fuel, but in the weak double bond of
molecular oxygen (Elert G, 2007).

27
 Chemical fuels are divided in two ways. First by their physical properties, as a solid
liquid or gas. Secondly, on the basis of the occurrence: primary (Natural fuel) and secondary
(artificial fuel)(EPA, 2007).

GENERAL TYPES OF CHEMICAL FUEL

Table 2.1

Primary (natural) Secondary (artificial)

Solid fuels Wood, coal, peat, dung Cake, charcoal
e.t.c.
Liquid fuels Petroleum Diesel, gasoline, kerosene, LPG, coal
has, naptha
Gaseous fuels Natural gas Hydrogen, prepare, coal gas, water gas,
blest furnace gas coke oven gas CNG

2.5.2 Charcoal
Charcoal is a light, black residue, consisting of carbon and any remaining ash, obtained by
removing water and other volatile constituents from animal and vegetable substances.
Charcoal is usually produced by slow paralysis, the heating of wood or other substances in
the absence of oxygen (Michael Smith, el al, 2007)

28
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Conceptual Design

3.1.1 Concept One

Fig 3.1

In the above concept, there are only four components which are: the condenser, the

filter, the boiler and the burner. The condenser also acts as a reservoir in this concept. A

29
copper tube is routed between the boiler and the condenser. The tube is wound into five turns

inside the condenser. When the water boils in the boiler, it vapourised into steam, which

flows though the copper tube and it condenses completely in the condenser, due to the cold

water inside it. At regular intervals, or when the need arises, the cooling water from the

condenser is allowed to flow through a valve into the filter.

The filter does a three stage filtration of the water as it passes through gravel to sand and

then activated carbon before it flows again through another valve into the boiler where it is

boiled into steam. Meanwhile, the condenser is manually refilled with water. Thus, the

condenser is performing dual functions: first as a condenser, and second, as reservoir. The

base of the machine is made of mild steel. The condenser, filter and boiler are made up of

stainless steel. The burner is made up of mild steel.

ADVANTAGES OF CONCEPT ONE

The advantages of concept are as follows:

1. It can be easily fabricated.

2. The system is not too complex.

3. The cost of fabrication is reduced.

4. Size and weight is significantly reduced.

5. The water entering the boiler is raised to a certain temperature in the condenser before

it enters the boiler. This will save energy effectively since it will take lesser heat and

time for the already warm water to boil.

6. There are no moving parts, hence there is no wear caused by friction and failure.

30
3.1.2 Concept two

Fig 3.2

In concept two shown above, there are five major components namely: reservoir, filter,

boiler, condenser and burner. The reservoir is manually filled with water. Then it flows into

the filter through a valve. The filter does the filtration of the water in three stages: namely

gravel sad and activated charcoal. When water is needed in the boiler, it is allowed to flow

from the filter through the valve into the boiler. Heat from the boiler makes the water boil to

get steam. The steam flows through the copper tube, and it is condensed completely in the

31
condenser. When the cooling water in the condenser becomes very hot and dirty, it is

siphoned out using siphon as applicable.

CATEGORY WEIGHTING FOR EVALUATION

Table 3.1

s/n Design specification Weighting factor Concept One Concept Two

1 Cost 0.15 6(0.90) 5(0.75)

2 Weight 0.15 7(1.05) 6(0.95)

3 Size 0.05 6(0.30) 6(0.30)

4 Technical feasibility 0.10 8(0.80) 7(0.70)

5 Maintenance 0.10 5(.50) 5(0.50)

6 Reliability 0.10 5(0.50) 5(0.50)

7 Ease of application 0.20 8(1.80) 7(1.40)

Efficiency 0.15 8(1.20) 6(0.98)

Total score 1.00 6.85 6.00

Basing the judgment on the analysis of table 3.1 above, concept one is chosen because

it has a higher score. This is because it costs less in terms of fabrication and weighs less due

to fewer components which it is made of.

Concept two is heavier because of the extra reservoir component which it is

composed of. The size is larger and the extra cost of constructing a reservoir adds up to the

total cost of constructing the system. Hence, it is not a feasible design

32
3.2 DETAILED DESIGN

3.2.1 Design consideration

The machine is design and fabricated with the intentions to perform in the following

capacity:

(a) To burn a charcoal in order to produce a large amount of heat.

(b) This heat generated should be able to boil completely 10 litres of water in the boiler.

(c) The machine should be able to condense the steam generated (due to heating in the

boiler) into pure water in the condenser.

3.2.2 Design specification

These specifications under-listed spell the various performance characteristics of the

machine.

Below are the pre-design or set values of the machine:

1. Weight of the machine: < 50kg

2. Size:

(a) Dimensions of the base: 100mm x 500mm

(b) Total height of machine: 1600mm

(c) Boiler diameter: 200mm

Boiler height: 400mm

(d) Filter diameter: 200mm

Filter height: 300mm

(e) Condenser diameter: 400mm

Condenser height: 400mm

3. Materials for boiler, filter and condenser compartment – stainless steel (AISI3140).

4. Mild steel to be used for the stand and burning chamber.

5. Fuel to be used – charcoal or domestic solid waste.

33
6. Temperature of the condensed/pure water 85o – 90o.

7. Filtration material – charcoal

3.2.3 CALCULATIONS AND ANALYSIS

The following Designs/Calculations were carried out on the project:

a. BOILER DESIGN

Specification

1. Maximum temperature in the boiler = 110oC

2. Diameter for boiler, D=200mm

3. Thickness of boiler, t = 3mm

Using steam table at 110oC

Ps = 1.45bar

Calculating the circumferential steam

Thus

𝑐 = 𝑝𝑑
2𝑡

Thus

1.45𝑥105 𝑥 0.2
c = 2 𝑥0 .003

= 4.83Mpa

Allowable stress for the steel used (ALSI3146)

= 504Mpa

Since

Allowable stress  > c the design is safe.

34
Fig3.3

35
 b. CONDENSER DESIGN

Condensing water from 100oC (at steam) steam to 90oC (water)

Heat generated

Q = m(Ct + l)

Given that:

Mass of water = 10kg

Latent heat of vaporization,

L = 2264kJ/kg

Q = 10(4.2 x 10 + 2264) = 23060kJ

Heat gained by cool water in the bath = heat loss by steam in the copper

tube

MwCwtw = 23060kg

Considering a temperature change (t) of about

23060 23060
Mw = =
4.2 𝑥 60 252

= 91.51kg of water

But

 = m/v

𝑚 91.5
V = = = 0.092m3
 1000

From the calculated volume from our specification = 0.20m3

36
(Volume of cylinder = D2L)

Fig 3.4

37
 c. BURNING CHAMBER DESIGN

The amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature of water from 25 oC to 110o and

to turn it into steam

Assumption: neglect the heat energy used/expended on the boiler

H=MCT + ML = M(CT = L)

Where

H =total heat energy needed to be applied

M = mass of the water

C = specific heat capacity of water

L = latent heat of vaporization of water

T = change in temperature (T = T2 – T1)

And

MCt = heat energy needed to boil the water from 25oC to 100oC.

ML = heat energy needed to vapourize the boiled water.

Now

M = mass of 10 litres of water = 10kg.

T = T2 – T1 = 100 – 25 = 75oC = 348 -15k

C = 4.187kg/kgK

L = 2264.75kj/kg

38
H = m(Ct + L)

= 10(4.134 x 348.15) + 2264.76)

= 37224.6405ks

Calculation for the mass of charcoal fuel needed to supply the heat energy H

The heating value of charcoal is 7500Kcal/kg; that is, 1kg of charcoal has 7500Kcal

energy content.

Energy yield of fuel wood: this is the part of the total energy content of fuel wood

effectively utilized during combustion.

Charcoal has a thermal energy yield of 28 per cent.

That is 1kg of charcoal which has 7500kcal energy content only effectively yield a

thermal energy of.

28
x 7500 = 2100Kcal
100

Since 1kcal = 4.1840kJ

 2100kcal = (4.184 x 2100)kJ/kg

= 8,786.4kJ/kg

The mass of charcoal needed to supply the heat energy

H=37,224.605kJ

37,224.605
Mass of Charcoal = =4.24kg
8,786.4

39
3.3 MATERIAL SELECTION

For every standard design, materials selection is one aspect that is very important, and

hence cannot be ignored. This is because this aspect of design affects the reliability and cost

of the machinery. It becomes even more important when the materials that make up these

components are subjected to high temperature. Material selections for this design are based

on the under-listed criteria.

(a) Highest temperature limit.

(b) Resistance to corrosion.

(c) Market availability.

(d) Thermal conductivity.

Below are the components, materials and the basis for their selection in a tubular

form:

Table 3.2: Materials and selection criteria

s/n Components Material Basis for selection

1 The base frame/stand Mild steel  High thermal conductivity

 High tensile stress

 High thermal stress resistance

2 Steam tube Copper  Good thermal conductivity

 Resistance to corrosion

3 Burning chamber Mild steel

 Very high melting products

 High thermal resistance

4 Boiler Stainless  Resistance to corrosion

40
  High thermal conductivity

 High thermal stress

 Aesthetics and reliability

5 Filter Steel  Resistance to corrosion

 Aesthetics and reliability

6 Condenser Stainless  Resistance to corrosion

steel  Aesthetics and reliability

3.4 Size of the Machine Components

The main components that make up the desalination machine are:

(a) Boiler compartment:

Diameter, D = 200mm

Height H, = 400mm

(b) Filter compartment:

Diameter, D = 200mm

Height H, = 300mm

(c) Condenser compartment:

Diameter, D = 400mm

Height H, = 400mm

(d) Dimension of the base:

Length, L = 1000mm

Breath, B = 500mm

Height, from the floor to the base of the boiler: 500,,

41
Height from the floor to the base of the filter: 900mm

Height from the floor to the base of the condenser: 1200mm

3.5 MANUFACTURE SPECIFICATION

Manufacturing specification are the specification chosen from the range of detailed

design specifications with which the final design of the components will be based. They

includes:

i) Total length of the structure: 1000mm

ii) Total breath of the structure: 500mm

iii) Total height including the height of the condenser: 1600mm

iv) Temperature of condensate entering the condenser: 100oC

v) Temperature of pure water flowing from the tap, below 90oC

Table 3.4 Bill of engineering measurement and evaluation

s/n Part name Material Dimension Quantity Cost

N
1 Boiler Stainless 1000mm by 1000mm 1 15,000

Steel Sheet

2 Filter Stainless 1000mm by 1000mm 1 15,000

Steel Sheet

3 Condenser Stainless 1500mm by 1500mm 1 25,000

Steel Sheet

42
4 Steam Tube Copper Demeter 2.5mm 1 4,460

Tube L = 3m

5 Angle bars Mild steel 10mmx10mmx3mm; 6 9,000

L=2.5m

6 Rollers 4 2,600

7 Valves Stainless 3 2,580

steel

8 Steel Plate Mild Steel 1500mmx1500mmx3mm 1 11,190

9 Spray Painting 3,000

10 Labour 20,000

11 Miscellaneous 11,700

TOTAL 119,530

43
3.6 WORKING DIAGRAMS

Fig 3.5

44
Fig 3.7

45
Fig 3.6

46
3.7 MANUFACTURING PROCESS

1. Boiler: the boiler is made of stainless steel. A sheet of stainless steel 200mm by

400mm is cut out. Therefore, the stainless steel sheet is folded into a cylindrical compartment

with a diameter of 200mm and a height 400mm. we thereafter, welded the joint together

using electrodes. The bottom is also welded appropriately.

The top of the boiler is formed into a dome of 200mm, from a sheet plate, and we then

welded the joint using electrodes

2. Condenser: The condenser is made of stainless steel. The cut sheet of 400mm by

400mm is folded into cylindrical compartment and we then weld it along the joint. The base

of the condenser is cut into a circular shape of diameter 400mm, and it is appropriately

welded.

3. Filter: The filter compartment like the boiler and condenser is cut out of a stainless

steel sheet, but with a dimension of 200mmm by 300mm. we folded the sheet into cylindrical

shape, using bench vice and rolling machine. Thereafter, the joint is welded together; the

inner chamber of the filter is formed from wire gauze of dimensions. 160mm by 290mm. the

edge of the cylindrical compartmented is tapered to a diameter of 200mm

4. Overall stand: Twenty-six (26) pieces of angle bars are welded together to form the

stand for the three equipment. The main base is constructed using two (2) angle bars with

length of 1000mm, and 8 other angle bars each with length of 500mm. The filter stand is

constructed using eight (8) bars; four (4) have a length of 400mm, while the remaining four at

the top has a length of 200mm.

The condenser stand is constructed using eight (8) angle bars also. The four angle bars

used as stand have a length of 700mm while remaining four, used for crossing have the same

length of 400mm. the whole structure is welded together using electrode.

47
 CHAPTER FOUR

TEST, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 TEST AND RESULTS

After fabrication was completed, the system was tested to check for performance as

regards how efficient it is in terms of fuel consumption. The test was carried out in a space of

four days to ascertain the volume (in litres) of water a measured mass (in Kg) of charcoal can

produce. The method that was used in carrying out the work was that of loading the Burning

Chamber with charcoal lumps, igniting them and hence leaving the lumps to burn to ashes

while they heat up the Boiler filled with water. At the end of every testing period, the water

collected from the complete combustion of the measured mass of fuel was measured using a

Measuring Cylinder, and the volume recorded.

The results of the tests are as stated in table 4.1 below and the graph shown in fig 4.1 was

plotted using MATLAB.

TABLE 4.1

DAY Mass of Charcoal (Kg) Volume of Water (Litres)

1 1.0 1.3
2 1.5 1.8
3 2.0 2.6
4 2.5 3.7
Total 7 9.4

48
Fig 4.1 Graph of Volume of Water Generated Against Mass of Charcoal Consumed.

4.1.1 MACHINE EFFICIENCY

Theoretically (from our calculation in Chapter three), 4.24Kg of charcoal produced

10litres of distilled water. Hence, 7Kg of charcoal will produce 16.51Litres of distilled
water.

Thus,

Theoretical volume of water distilled = 16.51Litres

Actual volume of water distilled = 9.4Litres

But,
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 9.4
Efficiency = 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 × 100 = 16.51 × 100 = 56.94%

The machine efficiency is calculated to be about 57%, since 7kg of charcoal generated 9.4L
of water, which shows that the machine is economical.

49
4.2 DISCUSSION

The problem of getting portable water has been a major issue since the inception of man.

It tends to be even worse for those living in riverine villages near the sea, where ocean water

merges with fresh water to form brackish water. To solve this challenging problem, the

project has been able to address both theoretically and practically how fresh water can be

generated from salty water using very cheap fabricated system. The system does the

purification and desalination by first passing the dirty and salty water through the 3-layer

filtration system of gravel, sand and activated carbon, after which it passes into the Boiler

where it is superheated to steam. The steam flows through the copper tubing and it is

condensed to water by the cooling water in the condenser.

From the tests and results, it was calculated that the system efficiency in terms of fuel

consumption was approximately 57%. This goes to show that the machine is economical and

viable and better attention should be paid to it by the public in search of a long lasting

solution to the problem of undrinkable water in rural riverine area of the Niger Delta.

Our major challenge in the cause of testing was in the generation of sufficient heat energy

at the shortest possible time. It always takes a very long time (over two hours) before a given

mass of charcoal can ignite completely to generate heat sufficient enough to boil water to

steam. This challenge was overcome by boiling water over night and collecting the distilled

water in the morning for the four days under review. Also the burning chamber is designed to

be detachable so that cooking gas or kerosene stove can easily be incorporated to do the

heating.

In future design, the boiler should be built inside the burning chamber to allow for

effective distribution of heat to the boiler and to avoid heat loss.

50
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION

The following have been realised in this work:

1. Thorough Background Study, Conceptual designs, detailed designs and working drawings

of Water Purification and Desalination Machine for Use in Rural Riverine Areas of the Niger

Delta.

2. Experimental and calculated values were used and the results from the design showed that

a) Theoretically, 7kg of Charcoal generated approximately 16.5Litres of distilled water.

b) Practically, 7kg of charcoal could produce only 9.4Litres of distilled water.

c) Hence, the machine/system efficiency was calculated to be approximately 57% .

3. The results from test conducted showed that as the mass of charcoal in the burning

chamber increases, the volume of water collected increase.

4. It was learnt that to achieve result in the shortest possible time, the copper tubing running

into the condenser was lagged to minimize heat loss.

5.2 RECOMMENDATION

With the problem of getting portable water on the increase as water pollution increases

with geometric progression in recent years, it is strongly recommended that the Federal

51
Government, NGOs and International Organization rendering aids to developing countries,

should critically look into this design, modify it where necessary and mass-produce it with

the sole intent of distributing the machines to rural riverine dwellers who since the discovery

of crude oil have suffered for want of portable water. The system is compatible with varying

kinds of fuels like charcoal, dry domestic solid waste and even cooking gas, which to a very

large extent are readily available.

Once this is achieved, health-related issue associated with polluted water will be

eradicated and life will be good for those in the rural riverine areas who have been so

abandoned since the discovery of the most revered Black Gold.

52
REFERENCES

Audu, T. (2007). Recycling of Municipal Solid waste, A seminar paper delivered in the
University of Benin, Nigeria.

Bary Wilson, P. N. (2013). A Comparative Assessment of Commercial Technologies for

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 APPENDIX

Fig 6.1 Water Purification and Desalination Machine

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 Fig 6.2 Water Purification and Desalination Machine Being Tested.

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