Aquinas and Dōgen on Entrance into the Religious Life

Author(s): Douglas K. Mikkelson

Source: Buddhist-Christian Studies, Vol. 25 (2005), pp. 109-121
Published by: University of Hawai'i Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4139153
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 ESSAYS

Aquinas and Dogen on Entrance into

the Religious Life

Douglas K. Mikkelson
University of Hawai'i-Hilo

Comparative studies of Christianity and Buddhism have the potential to dra

wide array of dialogic partners from their respective histories. Two promising
didates are Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) and Dogen (1200-1253). Aquina
the angelic doctor whose theological thinking became normative for Roman
olicism; Dogen was the prominent Zen master whose influence on the intel
development of Zen Buddhism is unsurpassed. As it happens, both men "en
into the religious life," and within their respective collected works we see con
able attention to the topic. If we seek to explore what they had to say on th
ject, we might benefit by identifying some texts from both thinkers that coul
as focal points for a comparative analysis. Of the massive accumulated writi
both men, the largest are Aquinas's Summa Theologiae and Dogen's Shobogen
it seems logical to start our search by turning our attention to these monum
works.

Let us begin with the Summa Theologiae. In the secunda secundae Aquinas
addresses a total of 189 topics presented in a question-and-answer format. The first
170 topics concern "themes related to all stations of life"; questions 171-189 explore
"details related to particular callings" (2a2ae, Prologus). Question 189, hereinafter
identified as 2a2ae q. 189, is specifically devoted to the topic of "entering the reli-
gious life" (de ingressu religionis). 1
When we turn to the Shobogenzo, we find a work titled Shukke Kudoku. "Kudoku"
means "merit"; '"shukke," commonly translated as "leaving home," denotes a person
who has renounced home and family in order to enter monastic life. Thus "Shukke
Kudoku" can be rendered in English as "The Merit of Entering the Religious Life."2
Given that these texts are relatively accessible and substantive presentations of
comparable length on issues pertaining to the religious life, they seem to be good
focal points for this discussion. At the same time, both thinkers addressed the sub-
ject in other venues also, and we can briefly refer to this material as well. But in this
article I will primarily concentrate on how a comparative analysis of these two texts
illuminates the subject. Defining the discussion in this fashion has the advantage of
presenting Aquinas's and Dogen's views in a particular time and place, leaving aside
the more complex issue of how their views may have changed over time.

Buddhist-Christian Studies 25 (2005). ? by University of Hawai'i Press. All rights reserved.

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110 DOUGLAS K. MIKKELSON

Let us begin with Aquinas. Aquinas be

of inquiry to be pursued, in effect divid
first on the list is "whether those alone
in keeping the commandments." The co
precepts of the decalogue, the Ten Co
5:6-21.
Aquinas's standard modus operandi was to first entertain arguments leading to
a conclusion opposing his own. In this question he outlines five lines of argument
and in each instance the arguments lead to the assertion that one should not practic
the counsels "until one is practiced in keeping the commandments" (nisi prius sit
exercitatus in praeceptis); by "counsels" Aquinas means the observance of poverty
chastity, and obedience that are undertaken by those who enter the religious life. As
he had explained previously, "The difference between a counsel and a precept lies in
this, that a precept implies necessity, while a counsel is left to the choice of the on
to whom it is given" (la2ae q. 108.4).3 Precepts such as the commandments, in
other words, enjoin an obligation; counsels are optional.
We will discover Aquinas's own answer soon, but we should first note how Aqui-
nas begins his discussion of entrance into the religious life. He begins by posing
question about whether or not one practiced in keeping the commandments shoul
enter the religious life. In the course of answering his own question, he essentiall
reframes it, seeking to explore whether or not one should practice the counsels befor
one has become adept at keeping the commandments. For Aquinas, both formula-
tions of the question ultimately amount to the same thing, since observing the coun-
sels is a necessary condition of entering the religious life. Yet we should not overlook
the fact that, of all the possible ways Aquinas could commence a discussion on enter
ing the religious life, he begins by addressing the relationship of keeping the com-
mandments and observing the counsels.
Something similar takes place in the Shukke Kudoku. The opening sentences read:
"As the Daichido-ron tells us, the Bodhisattva Nagarjuna asked himself, 'If we fol
low even the Buddhist precepts for laymen we can be born in the celestial world
attain the way of Bodhisattvas, and realize enlightenment. Why, then, is there any
need to follow the precepts for monks?"' (SK, 69). Like the Ten Commandments o
the Judeo-Christian tradition, the precepts for laymen apply to all in the Buddhist
tradition.4 By "precepts for monks" Dogen means the sixteen bodhisattva precept
(bosatsu kai).5 For Dogen, taking the bodhisattva precepts is inseparable from enter-
ing the religious life. So the question "Why is there a need to follow the precepts for
monks?" is none other than the question of "Why is it necessary to enter the reli
gious life?"
How Dogen answers this question will be addressed momentarily, but we should
again pause in order to note how both Aquinas and D6gen place a matter of moral-
ity at the front of their teaching on entering the religious life. More specifically, we
see Dogen, in a manner similar to Aquinas, begin his discussion by addressing the
relationship of precepts obligatory to all the faithful and the precepts voluntarily
undertaken by those who enter the religious life. One might note a distinction

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 AQUINAS AND DOGEN 111

between Aquinas and Dogen here, inasmuch as t

of poverty, chastity, and obedience. However, a
sattva precepts "are not so much commandments
by the monk who is initiated into the way."6 Th
sattva precepts can be thought of as supererogat
ence, for example, is construable as the precept "
time.

We should acknowledge that both Dogen and Aquinas recognized an intermedi-

ary state between the laity and the religious life per se. In accordance with his tra-
dition, Aquinas recognizes the presence of novices who live in a religious commu-
nity for a year before the taking of vows. For his part, D6gen sometimes speaks of
monks who have not yet received the precepts. Both of these states are distinguish-
able from those individuals who have taken the supererogatory precepts/vows and
thus are full-fledged entrants into religious life.
Now we can return to Dogen's answer to the question posed. Once again, he uses
Ndg-rjuna's voice: "Although it is true that both laymen and monks can realize
enlightenment, there is a difference in the relative difficulty each encounters. Because
laypersons have to make a living, it is difficult for them to devote themselves com-
pletely to Buddhist training. If they attempt to do so, their livelihood will be endan-
gered, while if they do the opposite, they must necessarily neglect their practice of
the Way" (SK, 69). The life led by a layperson, Dogen tells us, is not well disposed
for leading a religious life. In his final sentence of 2a2ae q. 189, Aquinas makes a
similar point: "(L)ife in the world does not dispose for the perfection of the religious
life, but rather impedes it."
In any event, Dogen allows N-garjuna's voice to elaborate the point for him via
a lengthy quotation. In time we learn that "it is much easier to observe the Buddhist
precepts and practice the Way if one enters monkhood. Furthermore, by entering
monkhood and observing the bodhisattva precepts it is possible to fully make these
noble Buddhist precepts a part of oneself. For this reason laypersons should defi-
nitely enter the monkhood and follow the bodhisattva precepts" (SK, 70). In other
words, the observance of the bodhisattva precepts makes it easier to observe the Bud-
dhist precepts expected of all Buddhists, precepts inseparable from the realization of
enlightenment. For this reason, Dogen (with Nagarjuna's help) promotes entering
the religious life.
Dogen, therefore, sees entering the religious life and practicing supererogatory
precepts/vows as desirable because, in part, it makes the practice of the obligatory
precepts easier to execute. Notably, Aquinas makes a similar point. Here we can ben-
efit from Jason Aumond's careful analysis of 2a2ae q. 189.1, Reply 5. In the course
of his reconstruction of Aquinas's argument, he notes that by observance the coun-
sels "make possible the perfect and facile observance of the commandments."7
So far in this comparative analysis we have explored the thought of Dogen and
Aquinas in relation to a question posed by Dogen. Now let us return to the question
initially posed by Aquinas. To the question of "whether those alone should enter reli-
gious life who are practiced in keeping the commandments," Aquinas responds,

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112 DOUGLAS K. MIKKELSON

"[T]he Lord called Matthew, a publican

ments, to the observance of the counsels
lowed him' [Luke 5:28]. Therefore it is
observing the commandments before pro
Thus Aquinas views the practice of super
vance of the obligatory precepts easier,
practicing the commandments in order t
supererogatory precepts. That Dogen hol
from his mention of a story about "a d
in Jetavana Garden, asked for and receiv
71). Obviously, if the Brahman was drun
ing the fifth precept expected of layper
again we see how D6gen extols the value o
engage in Buddhist practice.
Actually, Aquinas addressed this questio
purposes is an answer he gives in one of
tra Doctrinam Retrahentium a Religione:

If it were necessary that the observan

cede the practice of the Counsels and
would not be right, nor would the chur
children in religious houses, there to b
sels before they have kept the Comman
custom, a usage supported by grave au
sages of scripture.8

After reading this passage, we should pr

the questions following 2ae q. 189.1 of
2a2ae q. 189.5, where Aquinas asks "wh
religious life?" Aquinas answers "yes" to

"The Lord said, 'Suffer the little child

me.'" Origen comments, "The disciples o
cept of justice, rebuke those who offer
Lord urges his disciples to condescen
therefore take heed of this, lest, under
dain the Church's little ones as though
to come to Jesus."

Aquinas grounds his response on a bibl

tional support from the commentary of
Clearly Dogen also would answer this qu
for his argument are in the history of B
words in the Shukke Kudoku: "[T]he ei
suiryapradipa forsook their future thron

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 AQUINAS AND DOGEN 113

continents in order to become monks. The six

Mahabhijfiajfianabhibhdi did the same" (SK, 74
Naturally, the affirmation of admitting children
requiring further consideration. Of the variou
them, we can understand how Aquinas proceeds
q. 189.1. Immediately after affirming that one
the commandments before entering the religio
a response wherein he addresses the subject of "i
Generally speaking, impediments indicate an act
interfered with, obstructed, and so forth. In t
of impediments figure implicitly in Aquinas's
children should be admitted into the religious lif
answer takes the direction it does, is partly expl
context and, more specifically, the previous lines
typically surrounded this question.
In The Simple Impediments to Holy Orders: An
tary, H. J. Vogelpohl argues that "Children can b
gious) Orders without the consent of parents.
of the Church. The choice of state of life does
evidence of this viewpoint in medieval canon law,
the Decretals of Gregory IX (part II of the Cor
"Because he has free choice, he is not compelled
the choice of his profession."9 Whatever Vogelpo
of the church, Figueras Casarius's analysis in De
gionem usque ad Decretum Gratiani clearly demo
teaching. Discussing the formulation of impedi
observes that parental consent was required by t
regulations of certain other Desert Fathers.'o
Furthermore, the Decretum Gratiani (part I
acknowledge the right of parents to annul their
life, if the child was a minor at the time of the
for boys)." The same situation holds for girls w
of age, as confirmed in the following remark: "If
her own volition undertakes consecration, her
have it annulled, if they wish").12 In certain in
can be annulled by her father. The Decretum Gr
maintains that if a woman, living in her fathe
father can annul the vow if he expresses his disa
of it.13

Aquinas incorporates these positions within his discussion of "simple" vows and
"solemn" vows in the responsio of 2a2ae q. 189.5. A simple vow consists only of a
promise to God proceeding from the interior deliberation of the mind. This vow has
its binding force from divine law, but it can be nullified in two ways. First, by lack
of deliberation, as in the case of the insane, whose vows do not bind, as stated in the

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114 DOUGLAS K. MIKKELSON

Decretals of Gregory IX. The same is true

reason to be capable of fraud. Usually boy
girls at twelve. They are therefore called
some and later in others, depending on
Second, the binding force of a simple
thing not under his own power; for exam
to enter the religious life or is even ord
for the master can nullify this, accordi
boys and girls under the age of puberty c
as regards the disposition of their lives,
him to do so, as Numbers explicitly tea
Aquinas's appropriating of the Corpus
tant respects. First of all, if a child poss
of puberty, her simple vow is binding
until the legal age. Even then the obligat
father (2a2ae q. 189.5, Reply 3). Further
"solemn vows" that make one a monk o
before the age of puberty, even if one has
so that one professing becomes a religi
As we see, of the myriad concerns that
ing into the religious life, Aquinas seek
potential impediment. Notably, the same
Shukke Kudoku. D6gen recounts the sto
ghanandi, born in Sravasti Castle to Kin

At the age of seven he lost interest in w

ing verse to his parents:

I bow respectfully to my compass

And esteem the mother of my ow
I now desire to become a monk.
Pray be compassionate with your

His parents, however, firmly refused t

the young prince to begin fasting, unti
on the condition that he remain in th
gave him the name Samghanandi, and
become his teacher. During the followin
himself in the Way, though he continu
a monk when I remain in this castle?

Samghanandi subsequently leaves the c

eventually he realizes enlightenment an
script to the story, Dogen observes that "
at home' and 'leaving home' were heard

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 AQUINAS AND DOGEN 115

In the story of Samghanandi we seem to see

by Aquinas: children, prior to adulthood, require
the religious life. But we also seem to see an imp
that children who have reached the age of adulth
life even against the wishes of parents. Despite ni
Zenrita, Samghanandi clearly does not see himsel
can I be a monk when I remain in this castle?"
and Dogen clearly finds no fault in the decisio
example." Previously in the text, Dogen briefly
the Buddha, who in his adulthood left to take u
approval of his father.
Added to this is Dogen's observation that Hu
eventually became a patriarch. Such is the mer
79). Knowledge of Hui-neng's story enables us t
remark. According to the Platform Sutra of the
child his father died. Hui-neng was an only ch
mother; they lived in extreme poverty, and he s
support them. One day, however, he engaged in
had heard reciting the Diamond Sutra. From this
Patriarch and a community of disciples in Fen
what he said," concludes Hui-neng, "I realized I
Then I took leave of my mother and went to Fen
obeisance to the Fifth Patriarch, the priest Hung
Hui-neng's action and Dogen's endorsement of
cinctly expressed by Aquinas in 2a2ae q. 189.6,
entering religious life in order to support one's
is constructed from proof texts: "Matthew states
and father and followed the Lord. From this, say
follow Christ and not be bound by concerns of s
facie this may sound like a green light to neglect
subsequently clarifies that "if parents are in suc
supported except by the help of their children,
neglect the support of their parents and ente
Aquinas frame an answer in terms of a potenti
gious life. However, the impediment applies only
children of adult age are free to enter religious li
of parents.
How would Dogen answer the question? Prima facie he would seem to endorse
entering the religious life despite the need of parents, given his invocation of the
Hui-neng story. But to explore Dogen-and for that matter, Aquinas-further on
this question actually requires a shift in foci. Let's begin with a new text in Aquinas,
namely 2a2ae q. 101.4 of the Summa Theologiae, which asks "are duties of religion
to be overridden in favor of those of religion?" Consistent with 2a2ae q. 189.6,

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116 DOUGLAS K. MIKKELSON

Aquinas therein maintains that "if [a lay

selves without him, he must not abando
that would be breaking the commandm
another text he remarks that when Hui-
ten pieces of silver for his mother's food
This was part of his response to essentia
here he seems to acknowledge the wisd
before entering into Buddhism; nonethe
that "though your aged mother might s
leaves his home to become a monk, seven
Here and elsewhere in the Shobogenzo Z
leading the religious life can fulfill their
itual rather than material support, as is
tual foci are different than the ones ide
of them is outside the scope of this dis
detail elsewhere.16 But we can note tha
monki, is one made by Aquinas in 2a2
one's parents extends not only to mate
proper respect. Hence even those in relig
one's parents by praying for them, by
with their state as religious. Those who l
in a different way, according to their
here on the obligation incurred by the
calls to mind how Aquinas began 2a2ae
the religious life applies to the practice
Question 2a2ae q. 189.9 asks whether
religious life. To this question Aquinas a
"Those who encourage others to enter re
great reward," states Aquinas. "The mer
hood is superior to that of Kings Yama,
75). Significant here is not just the poin
able is the fact that of the myriad ways
pose their affirmative answer in term
encouraging others to enter the religiou
Much of the Shukke Kudoku is an ex
including the exhortation to encourage o
to family members. "If one feels compa
one's parents, one should urge them to
states Dogen (SK, 74). Apparently this
and involves outright compulsion; Dog
Buddha's own family: "The Venerable R
dhodana's grandson. King Suddhodhana
grandson, but the Bhagavat made Rahu

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 AQUINAS AND DOGEN 117

of the Shukke Kudoku is devoted to delivering pe

religious life, however, indicates the value D6g
and executed.

If we read Aquinas's elaboration of his answe

Aquinas outlines three ways in which inducemen
ceptable. The first is "if one compels another to
is forbidden by the Decretum Gratiani." The pro
elaborate on in his answer, is the case of one Lam
monastery and placed his eight-year-old son Lam
bertus was forced to wear a monk's habit and fo
and the local authorities. Lambertus appealed t
his case. In his decision Nicholas noted that the

confirmed the fact that when he put the hood o

same Lambertus always resisted, and never co
in time he had the cowl put on by violent mean
the reason that at no time did he promise to u
priest or an abbot anywhere did he promise to
of the rule or undertake further subjection t
it is declared that in view of the fact that even
monastic rule to the extent of strict observatio
bertus go along with wearing the hood. [Thus]
Lambertus by no means ought to be made
Nothing therefore is valid unless voluntary.17

Note how Pope Nicholas pays close attention to

stances whereby Lambertus comes to "put on the
nifies monk status, and canon lawyers sought t
of it by others.18 Of crucial importance to their
or not "putting on the hood"-that is, assuming
son to enter the religious life, whether or not th
That putting on the hood was a sufficient cond
enter the religious life was advanced in earlier
contradicted this view, including the authority A
"nothing is valid unless voluntary."
Key to the proof-text Aquinas cites is the poin
a monastic habit, "[nowhere] did he promise to
the rule." As we saw previously, Aquinas viewed
cepts known as the counsels as a necessary cond
religious life. Given this and the proof text Aq
clude that Aquinas also did not consider puttin
a person to enter the religious life.
Clearly Dogen also did not view donning a reli
to enter the religious life. Nonetheless, he did see

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118 DOUGLAS K. MIKKELSON

not intentionally performed (as in the c

ately apostatized when he became sobe
even when it was performed in fun, wit
cepts. As an example of the latter Dogen
varnd-j-taka-sutra: "In a previous exist
licentious words while dressed imprope
as a joke. Owing to this good deed I wa
Ka-yapa" (SK, 70). For that matter, eve
would have regarded as the cavalier app
by Dogen: "We should understand tha
sacred kasdya, he has realized the grea
received the precepts for monks."
Dogen repeatedly emphasizes the inse
ing the religious life. Yet he also encour
breaking the precepts. The aforemention
Utpala, is depicted as relentlessly encou
The women object: "'We are still young a
are afraid it would be difficult for us t
would break the precepts.' 'Perhaps yo
would be better for you to enter the nu
replied, 'we will inevitably fall into he
That encouraging someone to enter the
objection entertained by Aquinas in on
"The Lord says, 'Woe to you, because y
a proselyte. And when he is made, you m
yourselves [Matthew 23:15]. But this is w
to enter religious life. Therefore this se
the objector's argument as inapplicable
"Hence it is clear that is not reprehensib
rather to give a bad example to the conv
he clearly views the nun's encouragemen
up as a good example for the potential
may break the precepts and fall into h
Yet "I can tell you that even if you break
hood, you will still be able to realize A
That D6gen did not believe in restrict
dent in these stories, as he himself conf
drunken Brahman and the prostitute, N
the monkhood and follow the precept
attitude is largely shaped by a combina
been fortunate enough to be born with
at our good fortune, we should enter t
drop, and so, having been fortunate eno
not waste our lives" (SK, 73).

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 AQUINAS AND DOGEN 119

Even allowing for the possibility that Dogen's c

monkhood is hyperbole, Aquinas clearly views th
are persuaded to enter religious life must still go
which they can test the difficulties of religiou
admitted to religious life" (2a2ae q. 189.9). Aqu
ing on vocation, that is, the desire to lead a cert
takes to be a "call" from God. Not all are called t
to lead the religious life are accepted, and not a
that they are appropriate for and adequate to t
aware of this last point; Dogen quotes the follow
sadaka and Sariputra: "Jamubuksadaka asked, 'W
Buddhism?' Sariputra answered, 'It is to follow
Thus Aquinas and Dogen are cognizant of the ch
Choosing the religious life is a big step, so to spe
to enter religious life without consulting many
eration," as 2a2ae q. 189.10 puts it? In the closi
works, both Aquinas and D6gen address this qu
Aquinas's basic response appeals to scripture an
at the Lord's call, Peter and Andrew 'immediate
[Matthew 4:20]. Chrysostom comments, 'Christ
delay not even for a moment."' As for Dogen, he
and he appeals to the actions of the Buddhist patr
who renounced their future thrones: "You sho
exalted entrance into the religious life really is. W
to these royal personages, and should be quick
so? What tomorrow are they waiting for? Our
inhalation. Thus, it is wise to enter the monkh
Dogen, we see, emphasizes the exalted status of
tences previously declared that "we should realiz
is exalted above all things." In the words of Aqui
"Entrance into the religious life is in itself a b
this, contradicts Christ."
In this article I have explored how Aquinas an
taining to entrance into the religious life by est
Theologiae and the Shukke Kudoku of the Shobog
in this fashion has the advantage of identifying t
views in a particular time and place, without havi
points over time. Of course, broadening the bo
worthwhile endeavor, and I think such an exerci
mutual concern.

To be sure, both texts address matters with lit

other. Of the entirety of 2a2ae q. 189, only five
responses appear to have significant analogou
Aquinas was also concerned with historically dis

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120 DOUGLAS K. MIKKELSON

whether or not it is lawful to transfer f

2a2ae q. 189.8). Furthermore, the Shuk
ulating the manifold ways in which be
than what has been explored in this arti
Indeed, as noted at the beginning of
merit of entering the religious life." Ap
last statement about merit: "There has
time who failed to enter the monkhood
the true Law, the excellent mind of enli
which the Buddhas and patriarchs have
For his part, Aquinas also ends 2a2ae q
statement about the merit of entering
themselves this sweet yoke, he promises t
for their souls. May he who promised th
is above all things God, blessed forever a

NOTES

1. See Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae (London: Blackfriars, 1964

Summa employed in this article are based on the method used in the Black
Whenever possible, I have tried to conform my translation to the Blackf
ever, my own interpretive perspective has led me to make a few minor
points. Thus I must take full responsibility for all translations from Latin
article.
Aquinas's answers to his own questions followed a standard format: a list of opinions usu-
ally at odds with Aquinas's own views on the subject, an initial indication of his own views
preceded by the words sed contra ("on the other hand"), a responsio expanding upon his sed
contra, and replies to the opinions in accord with his own response. Citations in this article
will include this information only when it adds clarity to the discussion.
2. See Yuho Yokoi, Zen Master Digen: An Introduction with Selected Writings (New York:
Weatherhill, 1981) for the translation of the Shukke Kudoku employed in this article. Some
minor changes in the translation have been made at a few points, however, for which I bear
full responsibility. For the original source of these translations see Okobu Doshu, Digen Zenji
zenshu (Tokyo: Chikuma shobo, 1969-1970). In order to avoid a cumbersome proliferation
of footnotes, I have decided to include all citations of the Summa Theologiae and the Shukke
Kudoku within the text of the article itself. Citation of these texts usually appear directly after
a quotation or paraphrase, but in instances where I make explicit reference to a passage in the
course of a sentence, I have let this suffice as a citation in order to avoid tiresome redundancy.
All other passages quoted and paraphrased are cited in the footnotes. Citations of the Shukke
Kudoku follow the pagination in Yokoi's translation, preceded by the abbreviation SK
3. Following Blackfriars, the citation indicates that the passage is from the prima secundae
of the Summa, that is, the first half of part two.
4. The precepts to be observed by laypersons are not to take life, not to take what is not
given to one, not to engage in improper sexual conduct, not to lie, and not to drink intoxi-
cants.

5. For a good discussion of what Dogen conceived the bodhisattva precept

Jin Kim, Dogen Kigen-Mystical Realist (Tucson: University of Arizona P
6. Ibid.
7. See the Blackfriars translation of the Summa, p. 233.

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 AQUINAS AND DOGEN 121

8. The translation is from J. Proctor, An Apologyfo

and Company, 1902), p. 388.
9. The Latin text reads as follows: "Tunc, enim, qui
propositi sequi parentum non cogitur voluntate." The E
own.

10. Caesarius Figueras, De Impedimentis Admissionis in Religionem usqu

tiani (Montserrat: Abadia de Montserrat, 1957).
11. Decretum Gratiani C. XX q. 2, c. 221. This and all subsequent transl
cle from the Corpus luris Canonici, which includes the Decretum Gratian
Gregory IX, are my own.
12. Decretum Gratiani C. XXXII q. 2, c. 14.
13. Ibid.
14. Philip Yampolsky, trans., The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch
bia University Press, 1967), pp. 126-127.
15. D6gen, Shobogenzo Zuimonki 3.14. For an excellent translation of
Masunaga, A Primer of Soto Zen: A Translation of Dogen's Shobogenzo
University Press of Hawai'i, 1971.
16. See Douglas K. Mikkelson, "On Entering the Religious Life: A Di
Response, A Zen Response." The Eastern Buddhist, n.s. 39, no. 2 (199
17. Decretum Gratiani C. XX q. 3, c. 4.
18. See The Decretals of Gregory IX. In X, 11.31.3 we read: "As for cler
and being called monks, we think: Let them be monks, or let them desist
19. See, for example, a section of the Decretals of Gregory IX titled
Transeuntibus ad Religionem, X, 11.31.9.
20. Aquinas held the view that the Matthean passage in question ref
knowledge of those who would seek to impose the Torah regulations o
tians, an idea he adopted from Hilary of Potiers.

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