Propulsion-I

(Notes)IIND Year IIND Sem

PREPARED BY: MR. SHUVENDRA MOHAN

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

Unit 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF GAS TURBINE ENGINES:

- Illustration of working of gas turbine engine

- Thrust equation
- Factors affecting thrust. Effect of pressure, velocity and temperature changes of air entering
compressor.
- Methods of thrust augmentation.
- Characteristics of turboprop, turbofan and turbojet
- Performance characteristics.

Faculty: Mr. Shuvendra Mohan

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Conversions:
Length 1 m = 3.2808 ft = 39.37 in
1 km = 0.621 mi
1 mi = 5280 ft = 1.609 km
1 nm = 6080 ft = 1.853 km
Area 1 nm = 6080 ft = 1.853 km
1 m2 = 10.764 ft2
1 cm2 = 0.155 in2
Volume 1 gal= 0.13368 ft3 = 3.785 L
1 L = 10-3 m3 = 61.02 in3
Time 1 hr = 3600 sec_= 60 min
Mass 1 kg= 1000 g = 2.2046 lbm = 6.8521 x 10-2 slug
1 slug= 1 lbf · sec2 /ft = 32.174 lbm
Density 1 slug/ft3 = 512.38 kg/m3
Force 1 N = 1 kg · m/sec2
1 lbf = 4.448 N
Energy 1 Btu= 778.16 ft· lbf= 252 cal= 1055 J
1 cal= 4.186 J
1 kJ = 0.947813 Btu= 0.23884 kcal
Power 1 W = 1 J/sec = 1 kg· m2/sec3
1 hp= 550 ft· lbf/sec= 2545 Btu/hr= 745.7 W
1 kW= 3412 Btu/hr= 1.341 hp
Pressure (stress) 1 atm = 14.696 lb/in2 or psi= 760 torr = 101,325 Pa
1 atm = 30.0 inHg = 407.2 inH20
1 ksi = 1000 psi
1 mmHg = 0.01934 psi= 1 torr
1Pa=l N/ni2
1 in Hg = 3376.8 Pa

Energy per unit mass 1 kJ /kg = 0.4299 Btu/lbm

Specific heat 1 kJ/(kg · 0C) = 0.23884 Btu/(lbm · °F)
Specific thrust 1 lbf/(lbm/sec) = 9.8067 N/(kg/sec)
Specific power 1 hp/(1bm/sec) = 1.644 kW /(kg/sec)
Thrust specific fuel consumption (TSFC) 1 lbm/(lbf ·hr)= 28.325 mg/(N · sec)

Power specific fuel consumption 1 lbm/(hp ·hr)= 168.97 mg/(kW · sec)

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Illustration of working of gas turbine engine:
The development of the gas turbine motor as an aircraft power plant has been rapid to the point
that it is hard to value that before the 1950s not very many individuals had known about this
strategy for airplane impetus. The likelihood of utilizing a response fly had intrigued flying
machine architects for quite a while, however at first the low speeds of early flying machine and
the unacceptably of a cylinder motor for creating the huge high speed wind current fundamental
for the jet introduced numerous deterrents.

A French specialist, René Lorin, licensed a stream impetus motor (fig. 1.1) in 1913, yet this was
an athodyd and was at that period outlandish to produce or use, since appropriate warmth standing
up to materials had not then been created and, in the second spot, stream drive would have been
incredibly wasteful at the low speeds of the flying machine of those days. Be that as it may, today
the advanced smash fly is fundamentally the same as Lorin's origination.

Fig. 1.1 Lorin’s jet engine.

In 1930 Frank Whittle was conceded his first patent for utilizing a gas turbine to deliver a
propulsive fly, yet it was eleven years previously his motor finished its first flight. The Whittle
motor shaped the premise of the cutting-edge gas turbine motor, and from it was built up the Rolls-
Royce Welland, Derwent, Nene and Dart motors. The stream motor (fig. 1.2), in spite of the fact
that showing up so unique in relation to the cylinder motor propeller mix, applies a similar essential
standard to impact impetus. As appeared in fig. 1.3, both move their aircraft exclusively by pushing
a substantial load of air in reverse.

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 Fig. 1.2 A Whittle-type turbo-jet engine.

Fig. 1.3 Propeller and jet propulsion.

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 Fig. 1.4 (a) h-s diagram of aircraft gas turbine engine (b) P-v diagram of gas turbine engine.

A typical ideal system is illustrated in Figure 1.4a. Shown are the compressor, combustor, and
turbine. It is important to remember that the compressor and turbine are on the same shaft, and
thus power is extracted from the fluid by the turbine and used to drive the compressor. Also shown
in Figures 1.11band c are the h-s and p-v diagrams for the cycle. The compression process, in
which work is performed on the fluid mechanically and the pressure and enthalpy ideally increase
isentropically (at constant entropy), is from 2 to 3. The combustion process, in which a fuel burns
with the air, increases the enthalpy significantly from 3 to 4, and the process (3 to 4) is ideally
isobaric.
The expansion process, in which the pressure and enthalpy ideally decrease isentropically and
energy is mechanically extracted from the fluid, is from 4 to 5.
For a closed cycle, the gas is heated with a heat exchanger from 3 to 4 (not a combustion process),
and hot gas products from the turbine are cooled with a heat exchanger and fed back into the
compressor for process 5 to 2. Typically, the heat exchanger is very heavy, which makes the closed
cycle inappropriate for jet engines and results in an exhaust temperature that is too cool for
propulsion purposes.
For the closed cycle, the compression and expansion processes are ideally isentropic and the heat
exchanger processes are ideally isobaric.

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 Fig 1.5 Classification of gas turbine engines.

Thrust Equation:

Fig. 1.6 shows the internal and the external flow for a turbojet engine (propulsive device) occurring
through an imaginary control surface with a very large areas of cross-section A1 and A2 at entry
and the exit. The flow of air and gases (internal flow) through the engine is separated from the
external flow of air by the solid boundaries of the engine casing.
Ambient air enters at a pressure Pa and velocity u; hot gases leaves the engine at pressure pe and
high velocity ce. In case of complete expansion of gases the propelling pe= pa and ce = cj.

Fig 1.6. Internal and external flows through a propulsive device.

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The flow rate at the engine inlet (cross-sectional area Ai) is ṁa kg/s;
And at the engine exit (cross-sectional area Ae = Aj) it is (ṁa + ṁf )kg/s.
Engine

Part of the airflow at ambient conditions at station 1 (far upstream of the inlet) is swallowed by the
engine and the experiences change in the momentum flux by the action by the action of the engine;
the remaining flow passes over the engine without any change in the momentum flux.

Thrust on the engine (and the aircraft) is exerted on account of changes in the momentum flux as
well as pressure.

Net thrust = Momentum thrust + Pressure thrust

F = Fmom + Fpr (1)

For steady flow parallel to the direction of flight equation

Fmom = ∫𝐴 𝑐𝑒 2 𝐴 − ∫𝐴 𝑢2 𝐴 − ∫𝐴 𝑢2 𝐴 − ∫𝐴 −𝐴 𝑢2 𝐴 (2)

𝑒 2 −𝐴𝑒 𝑖 1 𝑖

The external flow does not experience any change in the momentum flux; therefore,
∫𝐴 𝑢2 𝐴 − ∫𝐴 −𝐴 𝑢2 𝐴 = 0
2 −𝐴𝑒 1 𝑖

Fmom = ∫𝐴 𝑐𝑒 2 𝐴 − ∫𝐴 𝑢2 𝐴 (3)

𝑒 𝑖

For one-dimensional flow at stations1 and 2,

Fmom = e ce2 Ae - i u2 Ai (4)
From continuity equation
ṁa = i u Ai (5)
ṁ = ṁa + ṁf = e ce Ae (6)
Equations 4, 5 and 6 give:

Fmom = (ṁa + ṁf) ce - ṁa * u

Neglecting ṁf as negligible as compared to ṁa

Fmom = ṁa (ce – u) (7)

Pressure force on the control surface for the external flow outside the cross-sectional area Ai
(Assuming Ai > Ae) is zero; therefore,

Fpr = pe Ae + pa(Ai –Ae) – pa Ai

Fpr = (pe – pa)Ae (8)
Same result is obtained by writing the above relations for Ae > Ai
Equation 7 and 8 in equation 1 gives:
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F = ṁa (Ce – u ) + (pe – pa )Ae (9)
The reference velocity know as “effective velocity jet” (Cj) is defined by the following relation
through equation 9:

F = ṁa (Ce – u ) = ṁa (Ce – u ) + (pe – pa )Ae (10)

When the pressure at the jet exit plane is same as the ambient pressure Ce = Cj ; in this case 8 and
10 are identical.

Factors affecting thrust:

In the first category are such factors as:

1. Engine rpm
2. Size of the nozzle area
3. Weight of the fuel flow
4. Amount of air bleed from the compressor
5. Turbine inlet temperature
6. Use of water injection

Non- Design factors include:

7. Speed of the aircraft

8. Temperature of the air
9. Pressure of the air
10. Density

RPM effect:

Engine rpm in revolutions per minute has a very great effect on the thrust developed by a jet engine.
Figure 1.7 shows that very little thrust is developed at a very low RPM. As compared with the
thrust developed at high engine rpm and that is given rpm change has more effect on thrust at
higher engine speeds that at lower engine speeds. The weight of air pumped by a compressor is a
function of its rpm. Recalling the formula:

F = Wa (V2 -V1)/ g

It is evident that increasing in the weight of air being pumped will result in an increase in Fn or
thrust.

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 Fig. 1.7 A non-linear relationship exists between engine rpm and thrust

Speed effect:

The formula: F = Wa (V2 -V1)/ g

Shows that any increase in the forward velocity of the airplane will result in a decrease in thrust.
The faster the aircraft goes the greater will be the initial momentum of the air. In relation to the
engine. (V1 increasing). But the jet nozzle velocity is generally fixed by the speed of the sound.
Obviously, the V2 -V1 difference or the momentum change will become smaller as airplane speed
increases (Fig. 1.8).

Fig. 1.8 Effect at airspeed on thrust with no ram-pressure compensation

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The loss of thrust will be will be partially offset by the increase in Wa due to ram. (Fig 1.9) Not as
much thrust is recovered due to the ram pressure rise as would seem to be indicated on first
examination. At high airplane speeds there is considerable temperature rise in addition to the rise
in pressure (Fig 2.0). The actual weight of airflow increase into the engine will be directly
proportional to the rise in the pressure and inversely proportional to the square root of the rise in
temperature.

Fig. 1. 9. Ram effect on thrust

Fig. 2.0 The ram-effect result comes from two factors

Wa = δt / √θt
δt = Total Pressure
θt = Total Temperature
Losses may occur in the duct during high speeds as a result of air friction and shock wave
formation.

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Effects of pressure, velocity and temperature:
Pressure effects:
An increase in pressure results when there are more molecules per cubic foot. When this situation
occurs, there are more molecules available to enter the engine inlet area and as a result
an increase in Wa occurs through the engine.
Air usually enters the front of the compressor at a pressure that is less than ambient, indicating that
is here is considerable suction at the inlet to the engine. This is somewhat negative pressure at the
engine inlet may be partly or completely over come by ram pressure as the airplane increases.
From this point on, there is considerable pressure total rise through the successive compression
stages, with the rate of rise increasing in the later stages of compression. The exit area of the
exhaust nozzle, the exit area of the turbine nozzle, and rate of the fuel flow all can determine the
compression ratio of the compressor.
The final static pressure rise is accomplished in the divergent section of the diffuser. From the
diffuser, the air passes through the combustion section where a slight pressure loss is experienced.
The combustion chamber pressure must be lower than the compressor-discharge pressure during
all phases of engine operation in order to establish a direction of airflow toward the rear of the
engine and allow the gases to expand as combustion occurs.

A sharp drop in pressure occurs as the air is accelerated between converging passages of the turbine
nozzle. The pressure continues to drop across the turbine wheel as some of the pressure energy in
the hot gas is converted to a rotational force by the wheel. If the engine is equipped with more than
one turbine stage, a pressure reduction occurs across the turbine wheel. Pressure changes after the
turbine depend upon the type of exhaust nozzle used and whether the nozzle used is under chocked
or non-chocked condition.

Temperature effects:

The gas turbine engine is very sensitive to variations in the temperature of the air. Air entering the
compressor at sea level on a standard day is at a temperature of 59˚[ 15˚C]. Due to compression,
the temperature through the compressor gradually climbs to appoint that determined by the number
of compressor stages and its aerodynamic efficiency. On some large commercial engines], the
temperature at the front of the combustion section is approximately 800˚F[427˚C] in the hottest
part of the flame. As the air enters the combustion chambers, fuel is added and temperature is
raised about 3500˚F [1927˚C] in the hottest part of the flame. Since the temperature is above the
melting point of the most metals., the combustion chamber and the surrounding parts of the engines
are protected by a cooling film of the air. The acceleration of the air through the turbine section
further reduces the temperature. In any case, if the engine if the engine operates in air temperature
hotter than standard, there will be less thrust produced. Conversely, engine operation in the air
temperature colder than standard day conditions will produce a greater than rated thrust.
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 Fig 2.1. Effect of air temperature on thrust

Velocity effects:
Since the jet drives the main thrust mainly from the reaction to the action on a stream of air as it
flows through the jet engine, the velocity of the air at the front of the compressor must be less than
sonic for most present-day compressors. If the ambient air velocity is zero, the air velocity is in
front of the duct increases as it is drawn into the compressor, because the incoming air at xero
forward velocity has no kinetic energy relative to the engine intake before entering, it does not
contribute to the total compression ratio.

On the other hand, if the airplane speed is high subsonic or supersonic, the air’s velocity is showed
in the duct. Airflow velocity through the majority of compressors is almost constant, and in most
compressors may decrease slightly. A fairly large drop in airspeed occurs in the enlarging diffuser
passage. The turning point where flow velocity starts to increase is in the combustion chamber as
the air is forced around the forward end of the combustion chamber inner liner and through the
holes along the sides.

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 Fig. 2.2 Pressure, temperature and velocity variations in a typical turbojet engine with and without
afterburner operation

Fig 2.3 Pressure, temperature and velocity variations in a typical turboprop engine

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Methods of thrust augmentation:
If the thrust of an engine has to be increased above the original design value, one of the following
methods may be employed:
1. Increase of turbine-inlet temperature, which will increase the specific thrust and hence the thrust
for a given engine size.
2. Increase of the mass flow rate through the engine without altering the cycle parameter.

Both techniques imply some redesign of the engine and either/or both methods may be used to
update the existing engine. For example, the inlet area may be increased, but this would be obtained
at the expense of increased drag and weight. However, in some circumstances, there will be a
requirement for temporary increase in thrust for a short time, for example, during takeoff, climb,
and acceleration from subsonic to supersonic speed, or during combat maneuvers. In these
circumstances, the thrust must be augmented for the fixed engine size. Numerous schemes have
been proposed but the two methods most widely used are:
1. Water injection
2. Reheat or afterburning

Water Injection:

Water injection is an old aviation technology that was previously used to enable an increase in
engine thrust or power during takeoff. The thrust force depends to a large extent on the mass or
the density of the air flow passing through the engine. There is, therefore, a reduction in thrust as
the atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude, and/or the ambient air temperature increases (on
very hot days). Thus, it is frequently necessary to provide some means of thrust augmentation for
non-afterburning turbojet or turbofan engines. The thrust (or power for turboprop or turboshaft
engines and stationary gas turbine) may be restored or even boosted as much as 10%–30% for
takeoff by cooling the airflow with water or water-methanol (methyl alcohol) injection. The
technique is to inject a finely atomized spray of water or W/M (a mixture of water and methanol)
into either the inlet of compressor or into the combustion chamber inlet. The compressor inlet
water-injection system is either all water or a mixture of water and methanol, but the combustion-
chamber water injection is always water/methanol. When methanol is added to water, it gives anti-
freezing properties and also provides an additional source of fuel. The maximum thrust of an
engine using water or W/M injection is called the “wet rating.” Fig. 2.4 illustrates a typical turbojet
engine thrust restoration. Water has to be very pure (so-called demineralized) since any impurities
cause rapid buildup of hard deposits on vanes and rotor blades. It vaporizes rapidly causing intense
cooling. Turbojet engines usually employ water injection into the combustion chamber inlet, while
in turboprop engines water or W/M is injected into the compressor inlet.
This leads to an increased jet pipe pressure, which in turn results in additional thrust. Injection of
water only reduces the turbine-inlet temperature, which enables an increase of fuel flow rate and
an increase in the maximum rotational speed of the engine and thus provides additional thrust.
When methanol is used with water, the turbine-inlet temperature is restored partially or fully by
the burning of the methanol in the combustion chamber. As aircraft engines have matured and
became capable of generating ever more thrust, water injection for new engines has been

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abandoned, though there are still a few aircraft in service that continue to use water injection. This
is due to the extra weight, cost, and extra maintenance arising from the additional system of tanks,
pumps, and control system. Moreover, for turbojets, “wet” takeoffs meant excruciating noise and
usually a lot of black smoke.

Fig. 2.4 Thrust restoration of a turbojet engine using water injection. (Courtesy: Rolls-Royce Plc.)

Reheat or Afterburning:

Afterburning (or reheat) is a method of augmenting the basic thrust of an engine to improve the
takeoff, climb, and (for military aircraft) combat performance. The increased thrust can be
obtained by a larger engine, but this would increase the weight, frontal area, and overall fuel
consumption. Afterburning provides the best method for thrust augmentation for short periods.
Afterburning requires another combustion chamber located between the low-pressure turbine (or
the turbine if only one turbine exists) and the jet pipe propelling nozzle. Fuel is burnt in this second
combustion chamber utilizing the unburned oxygen in the exhaust gas. This increases the
temperature and velocity of the exhaust gases leaving the propelling nozzle and therefore increases
the engine thrust.
The burners of the afterburner are arranged so that the flame is concentrated around the axis of the
jet pipe. Thus, a portion of the discharge gases flow along the walls of the jet pipe and protect these
walls from the afterburner flame, the temperature of which is in excess of 1700°C. The area of the

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afterburning jet is larger than a normal jet pipe would be for the same engine in order to reduce
the velocity of the gas stream. The afterburning jet pipe is fitted with either a two-position or a
variable-area propelling nozzle.
The increase of thrust in an afterburning engine is also accompanied by an increase in specific fuel
consumption. Therefore, afterburning is limited to periods of short duration. Fuel is not burnt in
the afterburner as efficiently as in the engine combustion chamber since the pressure in the
afterburner is not the peak pressure in the cycle.

Fig 2.5 Typical thrust augmentation due to afterburning

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 1. Turbojet engine:
The turbojet is the basic engine of the jet age. It is the simplest turbine-based jet engine. It is a
reaction engine, which was invented by the two fathers of jet engines: Frank Whittle from Britain
and von Ohain from Germany. The first flight of an airplane powered by a turbojet engine was the
He178 German aircraft powered by the He S-3 engine on August 27, 1939. Based on von Ohain’s
work, the German engine designer Anslem Franz developed his turbojet engine that powered the
jet fighter Me 262 built by the firm Messerschmitt. Frank
Whittle in England, having no knowledge of Ohain’s engine, built his W.1 turbojet engine, which
powered the Gloster E28/39 aircraft.

Fig. 2.6. Classification of turbojet engines.

Performance characteristics:
a. Low thrust at low forward speed
b. High-thrust specific fuel consumption
c. Low specific weight (W/T)
d. Small frontal area
e. Good ground clearance

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2. Turbofan engine
The turbofan engine was designed as a compromise between the turboprop and turbojet engines.
It includes a large internal propeller (normally denoted a ducted fan) and two streams of air flowing
through the engine. The primary stream travels through all the components like a turbojet engine,
while the secondary air passes through the fan and is either ducted outside through a second nozzle
identified as the cold nozzle or mixes with the hot gases leaving the turbine(s) and both are expelled
from a single nozzle. Turbofan engines have a better performance and fuel economy than a turbojet
at low power setting, low speed, and low altitude, represents the numerous types of turbofan
engines. Turbofan engines may be classified as
1. Forward-fan or aft-fan configuration
2. Low bypass ratio or high bypass ratio

Fig 2.7 Classification of turbofan engines

Performance characteristics:
a. High thrust even at low speed
b. Thrust-specific fuel consumption is better than that in a turbojet engine
c. Less noise compared with turbojet engine
d. Low propulsive efficiency at very high speed, though higher than turbojet; generally better
performance in the range of subsonic and transonic speeds
e. Fair ground clearance

3. Turboprop engine
Turboprop engines combine the best features of turbojet and piston engines. The former is more
efficient at high speeds and high altitudes, while the latter is more efficient at speeds under 400–
450 mph and below 30,000 ft. Consequently, commuter aircraft and military transports tend to
feature turboprop engines. A turboprop engine differs from a turbojet engine in that the design is
optimized to produce rotating shaft power to drive a propeller, instead of thrust from the exhaust

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gas. The turboprop uses a gas turbine to turn a large propeller. The shaft that connects the propeller
to the turbine is also linked to a gearbox that controls the propeller’s speed. The propeller is most
efficient and quiet when the tips are spinning at just under supersonic speed. Moreover, no
propeller is capable of withstanding the forces generated when it turns at the same speed as the
turbine. Turboprop engines may be further classified into two groups, depending on the turbine
driving the propeller. In the first group, the propeller is driven by the same gas turbine driving the
compressor. In the second group, additional turbine (normally denoted as free-power turbine) turns
the propeller.
Performance characteristics:
a. High propulsive efficiency at low speed. More complicated and heavier than turbojet and
turbofan engines
c. Low SFC
d. Large ground clearance as high wing design is employed in turboprop powered aircraft
e. Highest noise level

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