Journal of Cereal Science 40 (2004) 283–288

www.elsevier.com/locate/jnlabr/yjcrs

Antiradical properties of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench)

flour extracts
Vasudeva G. Kamatha, Arun Chandrashekarb, P.S. Rajinia,*
a
Food Protectants and Infestation Control Department, Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore 570 020, Karnataka, India
b
Food Microbiology Department, Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore 570 020, Karnataka, India
Received 16 July 2004; revised 16 August 2004; accepted 16 August 2004

Abstract
Epidemiological studies support the belief that whole grains are protective against several chronic diseases. The health benefits of whole
grains are attributed in part to their unique phytochemical composition. Major phytochemicals in grains include various classes of phenolic
compounds, flavonoids and coumarin derivatives, etc. Phenolic compounds present in grains possess antioxidant properties that are
associated with the health benefits of grains and grain products. Sorghum is one of the main staple cereal grains in hot dry tropics and ranks
fifth among cereal crops in the world. Although sorghum is rich in phenolics and tannins which are proven anticancer and cardioprotective
constituents, human consumption of sorghum is limited. To our knowledge, there is limited literature on the profile of antioxidant
phytochemicals in the local white variety of sorghum. Hence, the objective of this study was to investigate the antioxidant property of white
sorghum flour extracts in vitro and also to identify the fractions responsible for the antioxidant activity. In the present study, we analyzed the
antioxidative properties of various extracts (water, 60% methanol, 60% ethanol, and 60% t-butanol) of white sorghum flour employing the
1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) model system. Phenolics, antiradical and antioxidant activities were also examined in
chromatographic sub-fractions of the soxhlet methanolic extract. Our results indicated that the various extracts exhibited significant
antioxidant activity that did not correlate with the phenolic content. Further, two sub-fractions eluted with methanol and acetone/methanol
were found to possess strong antioxidant activity in two assay systems. Our results suggest that a diet rich in sorghum may be useful in
combating diseases in which free radical production plays a key role.
q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Sorghum flour extract; Phenolics; Radical scavenging activity; Antioxidant activity; Polyphenols

1. Introduction and promotes the progression of a number of chronic

Free radicals play an important role in oxidative stress
(OS) related to pathogenesis of various degenerative
diseases. OS is generated when the balance is in favor of
free radicals as a result of an increased production or
depletion of antioxidant moieties. OS is recognized to be a
contributory factor in neurodegenerative disorders such as
Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases and also initiates
* Corresponding author. Tel.: C91 821 2513210.
Abbreviations: BHT, butylated hydroxytoluene; DPPH, 1,1-diphenyl-2-
picrylhydrazyl; GAE, gallic acid equivalent; OS, oxidative stress; TPC,
total phenolic content.
E-mail address: rajini29@yahoo.com (P.S. Rajini).
0733-5210/$ - see front matter q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jcs.2004.08.004
diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, cataract
and inflammation (Temple, 2000). Antioxidants reduce
oxidative damage to biomolecules by modulating the effects
of reactive oxidants (Duthie et al., 1996).
The demand for natural antioxidants for use in foods
has increased recently because of questions about the
long-term safety of synthetic antioxidants such as butylated
hydroxytoluene (BHT). In addition to their long-term
safety and capacity to improve food quality and stability,
these natural antioxidants can also act as nutraceuticals to
terminate free radical chain reactions in biological systems
and thus may provide additional health benefits to
consumers. Increasing experimental evidence has
suggested that these compounds can affect a wide range
284 V.G. Kamath et al. / Journal of Cereal Science 40 (2004) 283–288
of cell biological functions by virtue of their radical
scavenging properties (Aruoma, 1998). Recent studies have
suggested the role of phenolic compounds as the major
source of natural antioxidants in foods of plant origin
(Hagerman et al., 1998). Several workers have highlighted
the relationships between food phenol composition and
antioxidant activity. While some authors found a corre-
lation between polyphenol content and antioxidant activity,
others found no relationship (Moure et al., 2001). Cereal
grains are reported to be a good source of phytochemicals
such as polyphenols (phenolic acids and their derivatives),
flavonoids and tannins. Several studies have been con-
ducted on the antioxidant properties of grains such as
wheat and wheat products (Baublis et al., 2000a–c;
Onyeneho and Hettiarachy, 1992; Zielinski and
Kozlowska, 2000), oats (Peterson, 2001) and rice (Kejian
et al., 1994).
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) is an important
staple food in developing countries of the semi-arid tropics
and serves as one of the main sources of energy and protein
in these populations (Hulse et al., 1980; Oria et al., 2000).
Sorghum is also one of the main coarse cereal crops of India,
and the demand for sorghum for human consumption is
rising (Sheorain et al., 2000). In India, the white variety of
sorghum is widely used in a variety of foods whereas in
other countries such as Japan and the USA, white sorghum
is used only to a small extent (United States Grain Council,
2001).
Sorghum contains various phytochemicals, viz.
phenolic compounds (Hahn et al., 1983; Waniska et al.,
1989), polyflavonols (Hahn et al., 1984) and thiols
(Simontacchi et al., 2003). Further, the sorghum grain
cuticle is reported to contain flavonoids (Hahn et al.,
1984), anthocyanins (Kaluza et al., 1988) and tannins
(Rey et al., 1993). These phytochemicals have gained
increased interest due to their antioxidant activity,
cholesterol-lowering properties and other potential health
benefits. Hence, sorghum could serve as an important
source of phytoceuticals. However, sorghum grain and its
products have been investigated only to a limited extent
for their potential antioxidant properties (Awika et al.,
2003).
Awika et al. (2003) have compared the antioxidant
activities of certain sorghum and sorghum products
measured by three methods. In the present study, the in
vitro antioxidant activity of solvent extracts of white
sorghum flour was investigated. White sorghums have no
detectable tannins or anthocyanins and very low total
extractable phenol levels (Awika and Rooney, 2004). The
aims of this study were to determine the potent antioxidant
extracts of white sorghum flour, to isolate the fractions
responsible for the antiradical activities and to determine the
antiradical activities by various assay methods such as 1,1-
diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging, and
b-carotene bleaching.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
Sorghum (S. bicolor L var M-35-1) grain samples, local
white variety, were purchased from local market and
cleaned to remove debris. Butylated hydroxytoluene
(BHT), 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), gallic acid,
b-carotene and Tween-40 were from Sigma Chemical Co.
(St Louis, MO). Linoleic acid was from Sisco Research
Laboratories (Mumbai, India). All other chemicals and
solvents were of analytical grade.
2.2. Sample extraction
Sorghum grains were powdered in a ‘Disk Mill’ (Glen
Mills Inc., Cliffton, NJ, USA) to obtain a fine powder and the
total flours were employed in the study. The flour was de-
fatted using petroleum ether, aerated and used. The defatted
flour was extracted with distilled water, 60% methanol, 60%
ethanol, 60% t-butanol (20%, w/v) by shaking for 3 h and
then centrifuged to separate the supernatant. The supernatant
(extract) was then used for the assay for radical scavenging
activity and estimation of total phenolic content.
2.3. Fractionation of methanolic extracts of sorghum
Sorghum flour was extracted with methanol (10%, w/v)
in a Soxhlet extractor for 48 h. The methanolic extract was
evaporated to dryness using a rotary flash evaporator and the
solid residue weighed. The residue (1.5 g) was applied to a
silica gel (60–120 mesh) chromatographic column (3.4!
50 dm) and eluted using solvents of increasing polarity,
starting with chloroform, a mixture of chloroform/ethyl
acetate (1:1, v/v), ethyl acetate, ethyl acetate/acetone (1:1,
v/v), acetone, acetone/methanol (1:1, v/v), methanol and
finally a mixture of methanol/water (1:1, v/v). Eight
(200 ml) fractions were collected. The fractions were
evaporated under vacuum using a rotary evaporator at
40 8C. The residues were weighed to determine the percent
yield and then dissolved in 3 ml of methanol, and stored in
dark at K20 8C for further analysis.
2.4. Total phenolic content
The total phenolic content of the various extracts and the
fractions was quantified using the Folin–Ciocalteu reagent
according to Singleton and Rossi (1965). Aliquots of the
extract/fractions with volumes adjusted to 3 ml with
distilled water were incubated with 0.5 ml of 95% EtOH
and 0.25 ml of Folin’s reagent (1:1 diluted with distilled
water) for 5 min at room temperature. Na2CO3 (5%)
solution (0.5 ml) was added, mixed and the mixture held
for 60 min at room temperature. The absorbance of the
solution was then measured at 720 nm against a reagent
blank. Gallic acid (0.1 mg/ml) was used as the standard
 V.G. Kamath et al. / Journal of Cereal Science 40 (2004) 283–288 285

and the phenolic content in the extract/fraction was Table 1

expressed as milligram equivalent of gallic acid (GAE) Total phenolic content and radical quenching activity of different extracts
per gram flour or microgram gallic acid/milligram fraction. Extract TPC (mg GAE/g IC50a (mg/ml)
flour)
2.5. Antiradical activity Water extract 0.763G0.060 17.11
Methanol extract 0.461G0.100 17.66
The total free radical scavenging capacity of various Ethanol extract 0.486G0.004 18.02
t-Butanol extract 0.524G0.040 17.34
extracts/fractions was estimated by the DPPH method of
Sanchez-Moreno et al. (1998). DPPH solution (0.1 mM in TPC, total polyphenol contents; GAE, gallic acid equivalent. Values are
95% ethanol, 1.5 ml) was mixed with the extract/fraction meanGSE (nZ6).
a
IC50 is expressed as the weight of the flour from which the extract was
and the final volume adjusted to 1.75 ml with 95% ethanol.
prepared to quench 50% DPPH radicals under experimental conditions.
The reaction mixture was shaken well and held for 20 min at
room temperature and the absorbance of the resulting
solution measured at 517 nm against a reagent blank. The
radical scavenging activity was measured as a decrease in flour from which the extract was obtained (Table 1). Among
the absorbance of DPPH and expressed as percent radical the extracts prepared with different solvents, the water
quenching compared to that without the extracts. extract showed the highest TPC, followed by 60% t-butanol,
Kinetic studies were conducted to assess the free radical 60% ethanol and 60% methanol.
scavenging activities of the various fractions according to
Sanchez-Moreno et al. (1998) with slight modifications. 3.2. Comparative DPPH radical scavenging activity
Varying concentrations of extracts were reacted with DPPH of different extracts
solution (0.1 mM in 95% EtOH, 1.5 ml) at room tempera-
ture. The absorbance at 517 nm was measured at various For each extract, the quantity of flour from which the
time points and used to calculate the percent scavenging of extract was obtained in order to reduce the DPPH
DPPH radicals. The IC50 of each sample was obtained by concentration by 50% of its initial concentration in the
plotting the % scavenging of DPPH at the steady state reaction mixture was calculated and expressed as an IC50
(30 min) of the reaction against the corresponding fraction value and the results are presented in Table 1. All four
concentration. The IC50 is the concentration of the extracts appeared to be equally efficient in quenching the
antioxidant needed to quench the DPPH by 50% under the DPPH radical as evident from the IC 50 values.
experimental conditions.
The antioxidant activity of the isolated fractions was
evaluated according to the b-carotene–linoleate model 3.3. Yield and total phenolic content of sub-fractions
system based on the procedure of Taga et al. (1984). of methanolic extract
Aliquots of the fractions (50 ml or 0.2 mg fraction) were
added to 3 ml of b-carotene emulsion and the mixture The methanolic extract of the flour was separated into
shaken well and held at 50 8C in water bath for various eight sub-fractions using different solvents. The amount of
periods. The absorbance of the mixture was read at 470 nm components extracted by solvents was weighed and
at, 10, 20, 30, 40 and 60 min intervals. Each sample was expressed as the percent yield and the results are presented
read against an emulsion prepared as described, but without in Table 2. The highest yield was obtained with methanol
b-carotene (blank). BHT was employed as model antiox-
idant for comparative purposes. Table 2
Yield, total phenolic content and radical quenching activity of different
2.6. Statistical analysis sub-fractions of methanolic extract

Solvent fractions Yield (% w/w) TPC (mg GAE/ IC50 (mg GAE/
All data are expressed as meanGSE. Data were analyzed mg fraction) ml)
by analysis of variance (P!0.05) and the means separated Chloroform 0.95G0.06 8.5G0.45 12.56
by Duncan’s multiple range test. Results were processed Chloroform/ethyl 29.5G4.94 175.2G3.5 34.37
using Statistica version 5.0 (Statsoft, USA). acetate
Ethyl acetate 6.10G0.84 122.0G0.6 41.06
Ethyl acetate/ 1.35G0.17 68.1G0.55 17.38
acetone
3. Results Acetone 1.30G0.16 65.0G0.4 18.86
Acetone/methanol 12.50G0.42 318.0G0.3 8.20
3.1. Total phenolic content (TPC) of different extracts Methanol 39.45G4.03 374.0G2.85 9.18
Mehanol/water 9.20G0.28 197.8G0.2 15.57
The total phenolic content of the different extracts was TPC, total polyphenol content; GAE, gallic acid equivalent. Values are
expressed in terms of gallic acid equivalent (GAE) per gram meanGSE (nZ6).
286 V.G. Kamath et al. / Journal of Cereal Science 40 (2004) 283–288
Fig. 1. Correlation between DPPH radical quenching activity and total
phenolic content of sorghum fractions. GAE, gallic acid equivalents.
(39.5%) followed by chloroform–ethyl acetate (29.5%) and
acetone–methanol (12.5%).
The total phenolic content of the various sub-fractions
was expressed in terms of gallic acid equivalent (GAE) per
mg of the fraction and the results are presented in Table 2.
Methanolic fraction showed the highest TPC followed by
acetone–methanol, methanol–water, chloroform–ethyl
acetate and ethyl acetate.
3.4. Free radical quenching activity of the sub-fractions
The free radical scavenging activity of chromatographic
fractions was tested by measuring their ability to quench the
stable DPPH radical. The concentration of the fractions
employed in the assay was based on the TPC in the
fractions. The IC50 obtained for the different fractions are
shown in Table 2. The most potent fractions appeared to be
acetone–methanol and methanol with IC50 values 8.2 and
9.18 mg of GAE/ml, respectively. Hence, detailed studies on
the radical quenching and antioxidant activities were made
using these sub-fractions.
Fig. 2. Effect of sub-fractions of methanol extracts on quenching of DPPH
radicals—time related effect. (50 ml (0.2 mg) of either extract of sorghum
was employed for quenching. An equal volume of the respective solvents
was used in control. 50 ml (10 mM) BHT was used.) Each value represents
meanGstandard error (nZ6).
Fig. 3. Inhibition of peroxyl radical mediated b-carotene bleaching by sub-
fractions of methanolic extract-time related effects. (50 ml (0.2 mg) of
either extract of sorghum was employed for quenching. An equal volume of
the respective solvents was used in control. 50 ml (10 mM) BHT was used.)
Each value represents meanGstandard error (nZ6).
3.5. Correlation between phenolic content and antiradical
activity of sorghum extract fractions
The total phenol content of the sub-fractions did not
correlate with their antioxidant activity (Fig. 1). The
correlation coefficient was: DPPH radical quenching vs
TPC, R2ZK1.5708.
3.6. Reaction kinetics of the fraction-DPPH
The DPPH free radical scavenging activity of the sub-
fractions is shown in Fig. 2. Both fractions tested had similar
kinetic curves against DPPH as determined spectro-
photometrically. The radical scavenging activity of both
fractions was higher than that of BHT.
3.7. Antioxidant activity of the fractions
in b-carotene–linoleic acid system
Fig. 3 shows the decrease in absorbance of b-carotene in
the presence of the two sub-fractions of sorghum extracts
with the coupled oxidation of b-carotene and linoleic acid.
Both the sub-fractions were found to oxidise the b-carotene
at slow rates similar to that of BHT.
4. Discussion
The antioxidative phytochemicals in grains, vegetables
and fruits have received increased attention recently for
their potential role in prevention of human diseases as well
as in food quality improvement (Chu et al., 2002; Nandita
Singh, 2002; Nandita Singh and Rajini, 2004). Phenolics are
considered as a major group of compounds that contribute to
the antioxidant activities of grains. Sorghum and barley are
 V.G. Kamath et al. / Journal of Cereal Science 40 (2004) 283–288
two important food grains reported to contain significant
quantities of phenolic compounds (Dicko et al., 2002).
Despite this, sorghum grain and its products have not been
explored extensively for their phytochemical attributes. In
the present study, TPC varied among the various extracts of
sorghum flour. Water extract showed the highest TPC
followed by the three alcoholic extracts, which showed
considerably lower TPC. Aqueous alcohols and acetone
with different levels of water have been widely used to
extract phenolic components from plant materials. The
solvent system is generally selected according to the
purpose of extraction, polarity of the components of interest
overall cost and safety. Zielinski and Kozlowska (2000)
reported on the efficiency of 80% ethanol and 80% methanol
as extractants for wheat phenolic acids. Soxhlet extraction
of phenolic compounds from wheat with absolute ethanol
was also found to be effective (Yu et al., 2002). In the
present study, we found that TPC of methanolic extracts of
sorghum (Folin–Ciocalteu method) was similar to that
reported by the Prussian blue method (Ramputh et al.,
1999).
All the four extracts of sorghum showed significant
scavenging activity against DPPH radicals. The IC50 values
(in terms of the quantity of the flour from which the extract
is prepared) were almost equal for all the four extracts,
despite the variation in the TPC. Variable results have been
reported on the relation between phenolic content and
antioxidant activity of different plant materials. Whereas
some authors found a correlation between the polyphenol
content and the antioxidant activity, others found no such
relationship. Adom and Liu (2002) reported a direct
correlation between TPC and antioxidant activity in extracts
of corn, wheat, oats and rice. Similarly, Velioglu et al.
(1998) found a significant relation between total phenolics
and antioxidant activity of grain products. However,
Zielinski and Kozlowska (2000) found no correlation
between TPC and antioxidant activity of water extracts of
buckwheat and rye. This was explained by the fact that
Folin–Ciocalteu method measures other constituents than
phenolics and that its specificity is poor. The Folin–
Ciocalteu reagent is reported to detect all phenolic
compounds present in extract including those in extractable
proteins (Shahidi and Naczk, 1995). Tsaliki et al. (1999)
observed an increase in antioxidant activity of lupin seed
flour with different compounds responsible for this activity
such as phenolic compounds, peptides/amino acids and
phospholipids. Similarly, no correlation between antiox-
idant activity and phenolic content was found in malt
(Maillard and Berset, 1995) or in certain plant extract
(Kahkonen et al., 1999), since other compounds were found
to be responsible for the antioxidant activity. Cereal proteins
have also been reported to exert strong antioxidant activity
(Iwama et al., 1987).
In the present study, among the six sub-fractions of
methanolic extracts, we could not observe a direct
correlation between the TPC and antioxidant activity.
287
The different relative radical scavenging capacity of the
individual fractions may be explained by the variation in the
compositions of the fractions and the different mechanisms
involved in the radical–antioxidant reactions. These com-
ponents may have a wide variety of chemical structures that
could react with radicals by donating protons (free radical
quenching), radical addition, redox reaction (electron
transfer) and radical combination (Yu et al., 2002). Our
studies further corroborate the recent findings of Awika
et al. (2003), who reported that various sorghum products
possess high antioxidant activity.
Methanol appears to be the best solvent for extracting
compounds such as phenolics, flavonoids and other polar
material in cereals (Velioglu et al., 1998; Watanabe,
1998). In the present study, methanolic extract of sorghum
appeared to possess strong antiradical activity, and hence
a comprehensive investigation was performed to isolate
and identify the active antiradical components present in
sorghum flour using methanol as the extracting solvent.
Although the goal is not yet complete, we were able to
identify two solvent sub-fractions rich in antioxidant
components. The acetone–methanol and methanol sub-
fractions were high in terms of yield, and radical
quenching activity. Further, these sub-fractions at concen-
trations equal to that of BHT showed greater or nearly
equal antioxidant activities in the two-antioxidant assay
systems employed. The radical scavenging activity and
the inhibition of oxidation exhibited by these fractions
may be due to the presence of relative concentration and
synergistic effect of compounds of both hydrophilic and
hydrophobic nature in these fractions (Frankel and Mayer,
2000).
Studies are in progress to investigate the chemical
components that contribute to total antiradical activities and
relationship between antioxidant activity and health benefits
of sorghum flour. The present study, however, confirms that
the cereal grain sorghum (white) could provide a significant
source of natural antioxidative compounds that may have
potent beneficial health effects. By combining the knowl-
edge of traditional foods with laboratory results of in vitro
antiradical activities and necessary in vivo studies, it may be
possible to show that nutritionally enriched sorghum flour
can serve as a food source with the potential for enhancing
human health.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the Director, Central Food
Technological Research Institute, Mysore, India, for his
support in this study. The authors also wish to acknowledge
the financial support from the Indian Council of Medical
Research (ICMR), New Delhi, India, in carrying out these
investigations.
288 V.G. Kamath et al. / Journal of Cereal Science 40 (2004) 283–288
References
Adom, K.K., Liu, R.H., 2002. Antioxidant activity of grains. Journal of
Agricultural and Food Chemistry 50, 6182–6187.
Aruoma, O.I., 1998. Free radicals, oxidative stress and antioxidants in
human health and disease. Journal of American Oil Chemists’ Society
75, 199–212.
Awika, J.M., Rooney, L.W., 2004. Sorghum phytochemicals and their
potential impact on human health. Phytochemistry 64, 1199–1221.
Awika, J.M., Rooney, L.W., Wu, X., Prior, R.L., Cisneros-Zevallos, L.,
2003. Screening methods to measure antioxidant activity of sorghum
(Sorghum bicolor) and sorghum products. Journal of Agricultural and
Food Chemistry 51, 6657–6662.
Baublis, A.J., Clydesdale, E.M., Decker, F.A., 2000a. Antioxidants in
wheat-based breakfast cereals. Cereal Food World 45, 71–74.
Baublis, A., Decker, E.A., Clydesdale, F.M., 2000b. Antioxidant effects of
aqueous extracts from wheat based ready-to-eat breakfast cereals. Food
Chemistry 68, 1–6.
Baublis, A.J., Lu, C., Decker, E.A., Clydesdale, E.M., 2000c. Potential of
wheat-based breakfast cereals as a source of dietary antioxidants.
Journal of American College of Nutrition 19, 308S–311S.
Chu, Y.F., Sun, J., Wu, X., Liu, H., 2002. Antioxidant and antiproliferative
activities of common vegetables. Journal of Agricultural and Food
Chemistry 50, 6910–6916s.
Dicko, M., Hilhorst, R., Gruppen, H., Traore, A.S., Laane, C., Van-
Berkel, W.J.H., Voragen, A.G.J., 2002. Comparison of content in
phenolic compounds, polyphenol oxidase, and peroxidase in grains of
fifty sorghum varieties from Burkina Faso. Journal of Agricultural and
Food Chemistry 50, 3780–3788.
Duthie, S.J., Ma, A., Ross, M.A., Collins, A.R., 1996. Antioxidant
supplementation decreases oxidative DNA damage in human lympho-
cytes. Cancer Research 56, 1291–1295.
Frankel, E.N., Mayer, A.S., 2000. The problems of using one-dimensional
methods to evaluate multifunctional foods and biological antioxidants.
Journal of Science Food Agriculture 80, 1925–1941.
Hagerman, A.E., Riedl, K.M., Jones, G.A., Sovik, K.N., Ritchard, N.T.,
Hartzfeld, P.W., Riechel, T.L., 1998. High molecular weight plant
phenolics (tannins) as biological antioxidants. Journal of Agricultural
and Food Chemistry 46, 1887–1892.
Hahn, D.H., Faubion, J.M., Rooney, L.W., 1983. Sorghum phenolic acids,
their high performance liquid chromatographic separations and their
relation to fungal resistance. Cereal Chemistry 60, 255–259.
Hahn, D.H., Rooney, L.W., Earp, C.F., 1984. Tannins and phenols of
sorghum. Cereals Food World 29, 776–779.
Hulse, J.H., Learing, E.M., Pearson, O.E., 1980. Sorghum and the Millets:
Their Composition and Nutritive Value. Academic Press, New York.
Iwama, K., Hatori, M., Ibuki, F., 1987. Prominent antioxidant effect of
wheat gliadin on linoleate peroxidation in powder model systems at
high water activity. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 35,
628–631.
Kahkonen, M.P., Hopia, A.I., Vuorela, H.J., Rauha, J.P., Pihlaja, K.,
Kujala, T.S., Heinonen, M., 1999. Antioxidant activity of plant extracts
containing phenolic compounds. Journal of Agricultural and Food
Chemistry 47, 3954–3962.
Kaluza, W.Z., McGrath, R.M., Roberts, T.C., Schroeder, H.H., 1988.
Separation of phenolics of Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench grain. Journal
of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 28, 1191–1196.
Kejian, W., Wending, Z., Paul, B.A., Richard, J.E., Abdul, W.M.S.,
Jacob, L., 1994. Antioxidant properties of wild rice. Journal of
Agricultural and Food Chemistry 42, 34–37.
Maillard, M.N., Berset, C., 1995. Evolution of antioxidant activity during
kilning, role of insoluble bound phenolic acids of barley and malt.
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 43, 1789–1793.
Moure, A., Cruz, J.M., Franco, D., Dominguez, M., Sineiro, J.,
Dominguez, H., Nunez, M.J., Parajo, J.C., 2001. Natural antioxidants
from residual sources. Food Chemistry 72, 145–171.
Nandita, S., 2002. Studies on the biological activity of potato waste (peel)
components for their possible applications. PhD thesis, University of
Mysore, Mysore, India, p. 258.
Nandita, S., Rajini, P.S., 2004. Free radical scavenging activity of an
aqueous extract of potato peel. Food Chemistry 85, 611–616.
Onyeneho, S.N., Hettiarachy, N.S., 1992. Antioxidant activity of Durum
wheat bran. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 40, 1496–
1500.
Oria, M.P., Hamaker, B.R., Axtell, J.D., Huong, C.P., 2000. A highly
digestible sorghum mutant cultivar exhibits a unique folded structure of
endosperm protein bodies. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences (USA) 97, 5065–5075.
Peterson, D.M., 2001. Oat antioxidants. Journal of Cereal Science 33, 115–
129.
Ramputh, A., Teshome, A., Bergvinson, D.J., Nozzolillo, C., Arnason, J.T.,
1999. Soluble phenolic content as an indicator of sorghum grain
resistance to Sitophilus oryzae (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Journal of
Stored Products Research 35, 54–64.
Rey, J.P., Pousset, J.L., Levesque, J., Wanty, P., 1993. Isolation and
composition of a natural dye from the stems of Sorghum bicolor (L.)
Moench subsp. Americanum caudatum. Cereal Chemistry 70, 759–760.
Sanchez-Moreno, C., Larrauri, J.A., Saura-Calixto, F., 1998. A procedure
to measure the antiradical efficiency of polyphenols. Journal of Science
Food and Agriculture 76, 270–276.
Shahidi, F., Naczk, M., 1995. Methods of analysis and quantification of
phenolic compounds, Food Phenolic: Sources, Chemistry, Effects and
Applications. Technomic Publishing, Lancaster, PA, pp. 287–293.
Sheorain, V., Banka, R., Chavan, M., 2000. Ethanol production from
sorghum. In: Chandrashekar, A., Bandyopadyay, R., Hall, A.J. (Eds.),
Technical and Institutional Options for Sorghum Grain Mold Manage-
ment. ICRISAT, India, pp. 228–239.
Simontacchi, M., Sadovsky, L., Puntarulo, S., 2003. Profile of antioxidant
content upon developing of Sorghum bicolor. Plant Science 164,
709–715.
Singleton, V.L., Rossi, J.A., 1965. Colorimetry of total phenols with
phospho molybdic phoshphotungstic acid reagents. American Journal
of Enology and Viticulture 16, 144–158.
Taga, L.C., Miller, E.E., Pratt, D.E., 1984. Chia seeds as a source of natural
lipid oxidant. Journal of American Oil Chemists’ Society 61, 928–931.
Temple, M.J., 2000. Antioxidants and disease: more questions than
answers. Nutrition Research 20, 449–459.
Tsaliki, E., Lagouri, V., Doxastakis, G., 1999. Evaluation of the antioxidant
activity of lupin seed flour and derivatives (Lupinus albus ssp.
Graecus). Food Chemistry 65, 71–75.
United States Grain Council, 2001. Sorghum Production and Usage Data.
http://www.grains.org/grains/sorghum.html .
Velioglu, Y.S., Mazza, G., Gao, L., Oomah, B.D., 1998. Antioxidant
activity and total phenolics in selected fruits and vegetables, and grain
products. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 46, 4113–4117.
Waniska, R.D., Poe, J.H., Bandyopadyay, R., 1989. Effects of growth
conditions on grain molding and phenols in sorghum caryopsis. Journal
of Cereal Science 10, 217–225.
Watanabe, M., 1998. Catechins as antioxidants from buckwheat (Fago-
pyrum esculentum Moench) groats. Journal of Agricultural and Food
Chemistry 46, 839–845.
Yu, L., Haley, S., Perret, J., Harris, M., Wilson, J., Qian, M., 2002. Free
radical scavenging properties of wheat extracts. Journal of Agricultural
and Food Chemistry 50, 1619–1624.
Zielinski, H., Kozlowska, H., 2000. Antioxidant activity and total phenolics
in selected cereal grains and their different morphological fractions.
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 48, 2008–2016.