Module 1.

The Formation of the Light Elements in the Big Bang Theory

Big Bang Theory

The big bang theory is a cosmological model stating that the universe started its expansion about 13.8 billion years ago. Pieces of
evidence supporting this theory are

 (1) occurrence of redshift,

 (2) background radiation, and
 (3) abundance of light elements.

Redshift

In the 1910s, Vesto Slipher and Carl Wilhelm Wirtz measured the wavelengths of light from spiral nebulae, which are interstellar clouds
of dust and ionized gases. They discovered that the light from the nebulae increased in wavelength. They explained their discovery as a

Doppler shift

The Doppler shift or Doppler effect explains that when an object gets closer to us, its light waves are compressed into shorter wavelengths
(blue shifted, because blue light has the shortest wavelength in the visible region).
On the other hand, when an object moves away from us, its light waves are stretched into longer wavelengths (redshifted, because red
light has the longest wavelength in the visible region).
Slipher and Wirtz then explained that the redshift or increase in wavelength was due to the increase in the distance between the Earth
and the nebulae. They concluded that the redshift occurred due to the expansion of space.
In 1929, Edwin Hubble used the redshift of light from galaxies to calculate the velocities and distances of these galaxies from the Earth.
He discovered that they were moving away from the Earth and from each other. His calculations supported the theory that the universe
is expanding.

Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation

In 1965, Robert Wilson and Arno Penzias discovered a low, steady “hum” from their Holmdel Horn antenna (an antenna built to support
NASA’s Project Echo).
They concluded that the noise is Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR), the remains of energy created after the big bang
expansion. Abundance of Light Elements The observed abundance of light elements supports the big bang theory.
The theory predicts that the universe is composed of 73% hydrogen and 25% helium by mass. The prediction correlated to the measured
abundances of primordial material in unprocessed gas in some parts of the universe with no stars.

Formation of Light Elements

Big bang nucleosynthesis is the process of producing the light elements during the big bang expansion. In the beginning, the universe
was very hot that matter was fully ionized and dissociated. Few seconds after the start of the big bang, the universe was filled with
protons, neutrons, electrons, neutrinos, and positrons.
After the first three minutes, the universe cooled down to a point where atomic nuclei can form. Protons and neutrons combined to form
atomic nuclei such as deuterium.
However, the temperature of the universe was still much greater than the binding energy of deuterium. Binding energy is the energy
required to break down a nucleus into its components. Therefore, deuterium easily decayed upon formation.

When the temperature cooled down below 1010 K, deuterium nuclei combined with other nuclei to form heavier ones.

 Helium-3 was formed from the fusion of two deuterium nuclei and a release of a neutron. (See figure on the formation of
Helium-3)
 Tritium or hydrogen-3 was produced from the fusion of two deuterium nuclei and a release of a proton. (See figure on the
formation of Tritium or hydrogen-3)

 Helium-4 was also synthesized from deuterium and helium-3. (See figure on the formation of Helium-4)

 Helium-4 was produced from the fusion of deuterium and tritium. (See figure on the formation of Helium-4)

 For the first three minutes, a substantial amount of neutrons was converted into helium-4 nuclei, before their decay. Helium
then combined to other nuclei to form heavier ones such as lithium-7 and beryllium-7.
  Lithium-7 was synthesized from helium-4 and tritium.

 Beryllium-7 was produced from helium-3 and helium-4.

Among the light elements formed, deuterium, helium-3, helium-4, and lithium-7 were stable. Beryllium-7 was unstable and decayed
spontaneously to lithium-7.
NAME:______________________________________ SCORE: ____________________
GRADE & SECTION: _______________________ __ DATE: ______________________
TEACHER’S SIGNATURE: _______________________
PARENT’S SIGANTURE: ________________________

QUIZ #1
1. Which of the following refers to the process of  D. The galaxy is moving away from the Earth,
producing the light elements such as helium? and the universe is expanding.

 A. supernova nucleosynthesis 7. Sequence the following products of big bang

 B. big bang nucleosynthesis nucleosynthesis from lowest to highest by mass.
 C. cosmic ray spallation
 D. rp-process  A. Hydrogen> deuterium> helium> lithium
 B. Lithium> Hydrogen> deuterium> helium
2. ________ are the remains of energy created after the  C. Deuterium> Hydrogen> helium> lithium
Big Bang expansion.  D. Helium> Hydrogen> deuterium> lithium

 A. Gravitational wave 8. Which of the following events during the big bang
 B. Blackbody radiation expansion led to the nucleosynthesis of helium-3 and
 C. Cosmic microwave background radiation hydrogen?
 D. Magnetic field
 A. The temperature of the universe cooled down
3. Who was the scientist who used the redshift of light below 1010 K.
from galaxies to calculate their velocities and distances  B. The temperature of the universe increased
from the Earth? above 1010 K.
 C. The nucleosynthesis of helium-4 halted.
 A. Robert Wilson  D. Beryllium-7 spontaneously decayed.
 B. Edwin Hubble
 C. Arno Penzias 9. Refer to the figure below. Which of the following is the
 D. Vesto Slipher by-product of the nucleosynthesis of helium-4 from a
deuterium and tritium?
4. According to the big bang theory, how much time was
needed to produce the light elements hydrogen and
helium?

 A. 3 minutes
 B. 5 hours
 C. 7 million years
 D. 13.8 billion years  A. proton
 B. gamma radiation
5. What happens when something redshifts?  C. helium-3
 D. neutron
 A. Its energy increases.
 B. Its frequency increases. 10. Refer to the figure below. Which of the following is
 C. Its size increases. the other starting material for the nucleosynthesis of
 D. Its wavelength increases. beryllium-7 from helium-4?

6. What does the increase in wavelength of light from a

galaxy mean?

 A. The galaxy is moving towards the Earth, and

the universe is expanding.
 B. The galaxy is moving towards the Earth, and
the universe is being compressed.  A. proton
 C. The galaxy is moving away from the Earth,  B. gamma radiation
and the universe is being compressed.  C. helium-3
 D. neutron
Module 2. The Formation of Heavier Elements during Star Formation and
Evolution
Elements heavier than beryllium are formed through stellar nucleosynthesis. Stellar nucleosynthesis is the process
by which elements are formed within stars. The abundances of these elements change as the stars evolve.

Evolution of Stars

The star formation theory proposes that stars form due to the collapse of the dense regions of a molecular cloud.
As the cloud collapses, the fragments contract to form a stellar core called protostar. Due to strong gravitational
force, the protostar contracts and its temperature increases. When the core temperature reaches about 10 million
K, nuclear reactions begin. The reactions release positrons and neutrinos which increase pressure and stop the
contraction. When the contraction stops, the gravitational equilibrium is reached, and the protostar has become a
main sequence star.

In the core of a main sequence star, hydrogen is fused into helium via the proton-proton chain. When most of the
hydrogen in the core is fused into helium, fusion stops, and the pressure in the core decreases. Gravity squeezes
the star to a point that helium and hydrogen burning occur. Helium is converted to carbon in the core while
hydrogen is converted to helium in the shell surrounding the core. The star has become a red giant.

When the majority of the helium in the core has been converted to carbon, then the rate of fusion decreases.
Gravity again squeezes the star. In a low-mass star (with mass less than twice the Sun’s mass), there is not enough
mass for a carbon fusion to occur. The star’s fuel is depleted, and over time, the outer material of the star is blown
off into space. The only thing that remains is the hot and inert carbon core. The star becomes a white dwarf.

However, the fate of a massive star is different. A massive star has enough mass such that temperature and
pressure increase to a point where carbon fusion can occur. The star goes through a series of stages where heavier
elements are fused in the core and in the shells around the core. The element oxygen is formed from carbon fusion;
neon from oxygen fusion; magnesium from neon fusion: silicon from magnesium fusion; and iron from silicon
fusion. The star becomes a multiple-shell red giant.

The fusion of elements continues until iron is formed by silicon fusion. Elements lighter than iron can be fused
because when two of these elements combine, they produce a nucleus with a mass lower than the sum of their
masses. The missing mass is released as energy. Therefore, the fusion of elements lighter than iron releases
energy. However, this does not happen to iron nuclei. Rather than releasing energy, the fusion of two iron nuclei
requires an input of energy. Therefore, elements lighter than and including iron can be produced in a massive star,
but no elements heavier than iron are produced.
When the core can no longer produce energy to resist gravity, the star is doomed. Gravity squeezes the core until
the star explodes and releases a large amount of energy. The star explosion is called a supernova.

Pieces of Evidence

The discovery of the interstellar medium of gas and dust during the early part of the 20th century provided a
crucial piece of evidence to support the star formation theory. Other pieces of evidence come from the study of
different stages of formation happening in different areas in space and piecing them together to form a clearer
picture.
Energy in the form of Infrared Radiation (IR) is detected from different stages of star formation. For instance,
astronomers measure the IR released by a protostar and compare it to the IR from a nearby area with zero
extinction. Extinction in astronomy means the absorption and scattering of electromagnetic radiation by gases
and dust particles between an emitting astronomical object and an observer. The IR measurements are then used
to approximate the energy, temperature, and pressure in the protostar.
NUCLEAR FUSION IN STARS: NUCLEOSYNTHESIS

WHY ARE STARS HOT AND BRIGHT?

Nuclear Fusion and Nucleosynthesis
Stars are giant nuclear reactors. In the center of stars, atoms are taken apart by tremendous
atomic collisions that alter the atomic structure and release an enormous amount of energy. This
makes stars hot and bright.

Nuclear fusion is an atomic reaction that fuels stars. In fusion, many nuclei (the centers of
atoms) combine together to make a larger one (which is a different element). The result of this
process is the release of a lot of energy (the resultant nucleus is smaller in mass than the sum of the ones that
made it; the difference in mass is converted into energy by the equation E=mc2).

Stars are powered by nuclear fusion in their cores, mostly converting hydrogen into helium.

The production of new elements via nuclear reactions is called nucleosynthesis. A star's mass
determines what other type of nucleosynthesis occurs in its core (or during explosive changes in its
life cycle). Each of us is made from atoms that were produced in stars and went through a supernova.

 Small stars: The smallest stars only convert hydrogen into helium.
 Medium-sized stars (like our Sun): Late in their lives, when the hydrogen becomes depleted, stars like
our Sun can convert helium into oxygen and carbon.
 Massive stars (greater than five times the mass of the Sun): When their hydrogen becomes depleted,
high mass stars convert helium atoms into carbon and oxygen, followed by the fusion of carbon and
oxygen into neon, sodium, magnesium, sulfur and silicon. Later reactions transform these elements into
calcium, iron, nickel, chromium, copper and others. When these old, large stars with depleted cores
supernova, they create heavy elements (all the natural elements heavier than iron) and spew them into
space, forming the basis for life.
NAME:______________________________________ SCORE: ____________________
GRADE & SECTION: _______________________ __ DATE: ______________________
TEACHER’S SIGNATURE: _______________________
PARENT’S SIGANTURE: ________________________

QUIZ #2
 A. Protostar> main sequence star> red giant>
1. Which of the following describes stellar white dwarf
nucleosynthesis?  B. Protostar> main sequence star> white dwarf
>red giant>
 A. It is the formation of elements during a  C. Main sequence star> protostar> red giant>
supernova explosion. white dwarf
 B. It is the process by which elements are  D. Main sequence star> red giant> white dwarf>
produced in gas clouds. protostar
 C. It is the formation of light elements such as
hydrogen and helium. 7. Which of the following is the major factor predicting
 D. It is the process by which elements are formed the fate of a star?
within stars.
 A. strength of gravitational force
2. Which of the following is a stellar core formed when  B. mass of the star
the fragments of a collapsed molecular cloud contract?  C. amount of iron produced
 D. temperature of the star
 A. protostar
 B. supernova
 C. red giant
 D. main sequence star 8. Which of the following elements are not formed during
stellar evolution?
3. Which of the following is a star that has used up its
hydrogen supply in the core and switched into the  A. carbon
thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen in the shell  B. oxygen
surrounding the core?  C. gold
 D. cadmium
 A. protostar
 B. supernova 9. When does a massive star enter the stage of becoming
 C. red giant a supernova?
 D. main sequence star
 A. when the star has used up all its hydrogen fuel
4. The formation of a star starts with the dense regions of  B. when the chromium fusion stops
molecular clouds.  C. when the silicon fusion stops
· What force pulls matter together to form these regions?  D. when the star has burned all its oxygen
 A. magnetic force 10. Which of the following are true about the formation
 B. nuclear force of elements lighter than iron in the core of the stars?
 C. electromagnetic force I. When the elements combine, they release
 D. gravitational force energy which can fuel the nuclear fusion
reactions in the star.
5. What happens when most of the hydrogen in the core II. When the elements combine, they produce a
is fused into helium in the stellar core? nucleus with a mass lower than the sum of their
masses.
 A. Hydrogen fusion stops, and the pressure in the III. When there is an input of energy from nuclear
core decreases. fission reactions in the star, the elements are
 B. Hydrogen fusion continues, and the pressure formed.
in the core increases. IV. When the elements combine, they produce a
 C. Gravity squeezes the star until helium and nucleus with a mass greater than the sum of their
hydrogen burning occur. masses.
 D. Nuclear energy increases until carbon and
helium burning occur.
 A. I only
6. Arrange the following stages of stellar evolution of a  B. II only
low-mass star.  C. I and II
 D. III and IV