abc of biology

Vaccination(Project)

NISHI KANT "UMANG"

6 years ago

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INTRODUCTION

Vaccination is the administration of antigenic material (a vaccine) to stimulate adaptive immunity to a

disease. Vaccines can prevent or ameliorate the effects of infection by many pathogens. There is strong
evidence for the efficacy of many vaccines, such as the influenza vaccine the HPV vaccine and the
chicken pox vaccine among others. Vaccination is generally considered to be the most effective method
of preventing infectious diseases. The material administered can either be live but weakened forms of
pathogens (bacteria or viruses), killed or inactivated forms of these pathogens, or purified material such
as proteins.

The word vaccination was first used by Edward Jenner in 1796. Louis Pasteur furthered the concept
through his pioneering work in microbiology. Vaccination is so named because the first vaccine was
derived from a virus affecting cows—the relatively benign cowpox virus—which provides a degree of
immunity to smallpox, a contagious and deadly disease. In common speech, ‘vaccination’ and
‘immunization’ generally have the same colloquial meaning. This distinguishes it from inoculation which
uses unweakened live pathogens, although in common usage either is used to refer to an immunization.
The word “vaccination” was originally used specifically to describe the injection of smallpox vaccine
TYPES OF VACCINE

All vaccinations work by presenting a foreign antigen to the immune system in order to evoke an
immune response, but there are several ways to do this. The four main types that are currently in clinical
use are as follows:

An inactivated vaccine consists of virus particles which are grown in culture and then killed using a
method such as heat or formaldehyde. The virus particles are destroyed and cannot replicate, but the
virus capsid proteins are intact enough to be recognized and remembered by the immune system and
evoke a response. When manufactured correctly, the vaccine is not infectious, but improper inactivation
can result in intact and infectious particles. Since the properly produced vaccine does not reproduce,
booster shots are required periodically to reinforce the immune response.

Virus-like particle vaccines consist of viral protein(s) derived from the structural proteins of a virus. These
proteins can self-assemble into particles that resemble the virus from which they were derived but lack
viral nucleic acid, meaning that they are not infectious. Because of their highly repetitive, multivalent
structure, virus-like particles are typically more immunogenic than subunit vaccines (described below).
The human papillomavirus and Hepatitis B virus vaccines are two virus-like particle-based vaccines
currently in clinical use.

VACCINATION SCHEDULE
Immunization Schedule for Babies

Age

Vaccine

At Birth BCG, OPV (0 dose), HepatitisB (1st dose)

6 weeksDPT (1st dose), OPV (1st dose), HepatitisB (2nd dose)

10 weeks DPT (2nd dose), OPV (2nd dose), HepatitisB (2nd dose)

14 weeks DPT (3rd dose), OPV (3rd dose), HepatitisB (3rd dose)

9 – 12 months Measles vaccine

15 – 18 months DPT (4th dose), OPV (4th dose), MMR vaccine

5 years DT

10 years TT, HepatitisB

16 years TT

VACCINE INGREDIENTS
This list of vaccine ingredients indicates the culture media used in the production of common vaccines
and the excipients they contain:

Vaccine

Culture media

Excipients

Anthrax vaccine (BioThrax) Puziss-Wright medium 1095, synthetic or semisynthetic Aluminum

Hydroxide, Amino Acids, Benzethonium Chloride, Formaldehyde

or Formalin, Inorganic Salts and Sugars, Vitamins

BCG (Bacillus Calmette-Guérin) (Tice) Synthetic or semisynthetic Asparagine, Citric Acid, Lactose,
Glycerin, Iron Ammonium Citrate,

Magnesium Sulfate, Potassium Phosphate

DTaP (Daptacel) Cohen-Wheeler or Stainer-Scholte media, synthetic or semisynthetic Aluminum

Phosphate, Ammonium Sulfate, Casamino Acid, Dimethyl-betacyclodextrin,

Formaldehyde or Formalin, Glutaraldehyde, 2-Phenoxyethanol

VACCINATION POLICIES

Immunity and herd immunity

Vaccination policies aim to produce immunity to preventable diseases. Besides individual protection
from getting ill, with some vaccines policies aim also to provide herd immunity which is based on the
idea that the pathogen will have trouble spreading when a significant part of the population has
immunity against it.

Eradication of disease

Malaria Clinic in Tanzania helped by SMS for Life program which organizes malaria vaccine delivery

With some vaccines, a goal of vaccination policies is to eradicate the disease – make it disappear from
Earth altogether. The World Health Organization coordinated the global effort to eradicate smallpox
globally Victory is also claimed for getting rid of endemic measles, mumps and rubella in Finland The last
naturally occurring case of smallpox occurred in Somalia in 1977. In 1988, the governing body of WHO
targeted polio for eradication by the year 2000, but didn’t succeed. The next eradication target would
most likely be measles, which has declined since the introduction of measles vaccination in 1963.

Individual versus group goals

Rational individuals will attempt to minimize the risk of illness, and will seek vaccination for themselves
or their children if they perceive a high threat of disease and a low risk to vaccination
VACCINE COURT

Vaccine court is the popular term which refers to the Office of Special Masters of the U.S. Court of
Federal Claims, which administers a no-fault system for litigating vaccine injury claims. These claims
against vaccine manufacturers cannot normally be filed in state or federal civil courts, but instead must
be heard in the Court of Claims, sitting without a jury. The program was established by the 1986 National
Childhood Vaccine Injury Act (NCVIA), passed by the United States Congress in response to a threat to
the vaccine supply due to a 1980s scare over the DPT vaccine. Despite the belief of most public health
officials that claims of side effects were unfounded, large jury awards had been given to some plaintiffs,
most DPT vaccine makers had ceased production, and officials feared the loss of herd immunity.
Some parents of children with autism spectrum disorders have attributed the disorders’ onset to
vaccines, often citing the mercury-based preservative thiomersal as the cause, and have demanded
compensation from vaccine makers. However, the mainstream medical and scientific communities have
consistently found no link between routine childhood vaccines and autism.

International AIDS Vaccine Initiative

The International AIDS Vaccine Initiative (known as IAVI) is a global not-for-profit, public-private
partnership working to accelerate the development of vaccines to prevent HIV infection and AIDS. IAVI
researches and develops vaccine candidates, conducts policy analyses, serves as an advocate for the field
and engages communities in the trial process and AIDS vaccine education. The organization takes a
comprehensive approach to HIV and AIDS that supports existing HIV prevention and treatment programs
while emphasizing the need for new AIDS prevention tools. It also works to ensure that future vaccines
will be accessible to all who need them. The organization has offices in Africa, Europe, India and the
United States.

Activities

IAVI’s scientific team, drawn largely from private industry, researches and develops AIDS vaccine
candidates and engages in clinical trials and research through partnerships with more than 50 academic,
biotechnology, pharmaceutical and governmental institutions. A major portion of the organization’s
activities occur in developing countries, where 95 percent of new HIV infections occur. IAVI sponsors
AIDS vaccine trials in collaboration with local scientists primarily in Africa and India, where subtypes of
HIV different from that common in North America circulate.The organization also has provided resources
to translational research to fill roles traditionally played by the biotechnology or biopharmaceutical
companies
VACCINATION ACT

The UK Vaccination Acts of 1840, 1853 and 1898 reflect the continuing argument over vaccination policy
in the United Kingdom. Similar legislation was passed in the USA and other countries.Alfred Russel
Wallace gave an account of smallpox and vaccination in 1895 in which he characterized the historical
policies into encouragement, compulsion, and penal compulsion.

United Kingdom

– The 1840 Act

Made variolation illegal.

Provided optional vaccination free of charge.

In general, the disadvantages of variolation are the same as those of vaccination, but added to them is
the generally agreement that variolation was always more dangerous than vaccination.

Vaccination was first made compulsory in 1853, and the provisions were made more stringent in 1867,
1871, and 1874.

– The 1853 Act

By the Act it was required:

That every child, whose health permits, shall be vaccinated within three, or in case of orphanage within
four mouths of birth, by the public vaccinator of the district, or by some other medical practitioner.

That notice of this requirement, and information as to the local arrangements for public vaccination,
shall, whenever a birth is registered, be given by the register of births to the parents or guardians of the
child.

ADJUVANTS AND PRESERVATIVES

Vaccines typically contain one or more adjuvants, used to boost the immune response. Tetanus toxoid,
for instance, is usually adsorbed onto alum. This presents the antigen in such a way as to produce a
greater action than the simple aqueous tetanus toxoid. People who get an excessive reaction to
adsorbed tetanus toxoid may be given the simple vaccine when time for a booster occurs.

In the preparation for the 1990 Gulf campaign, Pertussis vaccine (not acellular) was used as an adjuvant
for Anthrax vaccine. This produces a more rapid immune response than giving only the Anthrax, which is
of some benefit if exposure might be imminent.

They may also contain preservatives, which are used to prevent contamination with bacteria or fungi.
Until recent years, the preservative thiomersal was used in many vaccines that did not contain live virus.
As of 2005, the only childhood vaccine in the U.S. that contains thiomersal in greater than trace amounts
is the influenza vaccine which is currently recommended only for children with certain risk factors.
Single-dose Influenza vaccines supplied in the UK do not list Thiomersal (its UK name) in the ingredients.
Preservatives may be used at various stages of production of vaccines, and the most sophisticated
methods of measurement might detect traces of them in the finished product, as they may in the
environment and population as a whole.

HISTORY

Inoculation was developed in ancient China. Scholar Ole Lund comments: “The earliest documented
examples of vaccination are from India and China in the 17th century, where vaccination with powdered
scabs from people infected with smallpox was used to protect against the disease. Smallpox used to be a
common disease throughout the world and 20% to 30% of infected persons died from the disease.
Smallpox was responsible for 8% to 20% of all deaths in several European countries in the 18th century.
The tradition of inoculation may have originated in India in 1000 BCE The mention of inoculation in
theSact’eya Grantham, an Ayurvedic text, was noted by the French scholar Henri Marie Husson in the
journal Dictionaire des sciences me`dicales. Almroth Wright, the professor of pathology at Netley,
further helped shape the future of vaccination by conducting limited experiments on the professional
staff at Netly, including himself. The outcome of these experiments resulted in further development of
vaccination in Europe. The Anatolian Ottoman Turks knew about methods of inoculation.This kind of
inoculation and other forms of variolation were introduced into England by Lady Montagu, a famous
English letter-writer and wife of the English ambassador at Istanbul between 1716 and 1718, who’d
almost died from smallpox as a young adult and was physically scarred from it.
TRIGGERING IMMUNE SENSITIZATION

Some modern vaccines are administrated after the patient already has contracted a disease, as in the
case of experimental AIDS ,cancerand alzheimer’ disease vaccines .

Vagina given after exposure to small pox , within the first hour days , is reported to attenuate the disease
considerbaly and vaccination within the first week is known to be benificial to a degree .
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN VACCINATION AND INOCULATION

Many times this words are used interchangeably , as if they were synonyms . infact they are different
things .
As Doctor Byron plant explains: “ vaccination is the more commonly used term whish actually consists of
a “safe” injection of a sample taken from a cow suffering from cow pox …… Inoculation ,a practice
probably as old as the disease itself, is the injection of the variola virus taken from a pustule or scab of a
small pox sufferer into the superficial layers of the skin , commonly on the upper arm of the subject .

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