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Chapter 3
INTRODUCTION
The name “gas and oil separator” is one of a variety of terms used for pressure
vessels which separate multiphase well fluids into gaseous and liquid streams. Other
names found in the literature include: stage separator, knockout drum, trap,
vapor-liquid separator, flash drum, flash chamber, dry drum, scrubber, and settler.
Separators are used in many locations other than at wellheads, such as natural
gasoline plants, compressor suctions and discharges, liquid traps in gas transmission
lines, dehydration plants, and gas sweetening plants.
Such drums are designed to separate a gas from a liquid and, in some cases, to
separate three phases, i.e., a gas, a liquid hydrocarbon, and a liquid aqueous phase.
At times the removal of slugs of liquid from a gas is of such importance that the
separator may be sized for its liquid holding capacity. In general oilfield practices,
separators are used to separate oil, gas and water and to remove material such as
entrained solid impurities from the crude oil produced from the wells. A simplified
diagram of a spherical three-phase (oil-gas-water) separator is presented in Fig. 3-1.
GAS
OUTLET
CENTRIFUGAL-TYPE
t COALESCING-TYPE MIST
Fig. 3-1. A simplified diagram of a spherical three-phase (oil-gas-water) separator. (Modified after
Smith, 1962, p. 11-18, fig. 11-20),
60
In some cases of separator design, the amounts of vapor and liquid and their
significant physical properties are known. There are a number of design problems in
surface operations, however, where this information is not known and must be
calculated. It is essential to know the amount and composition of the total feed to
the separator in such cases. Then, assigning a temperature and pressure to the
separator, the amounts and compositions of the vapor and liquid streams leaving
the separator can be calculated, assuming that equilibrium is attained between these
exit streams.
The basic concept involves formation of a mixture of vapor and liquid that is
kept in intimate contact for a long enough time to enable the entire vapor phase to
attain equilibrium with the entire liquid phase. The equilibrium is attained in the
piping and equipment just upstream of the separator. The separator itself serves
only as a wide spot in the line to help in separating the phases.
For the so-called “isothermal” flash, the temperature at the discharge of the
mixing zone and within the separator is specified along with the pressure initially,
and is attained by proper design and operation of a heat exchanger. If there is no
heat exchanger, then an “adiabatic” flash calculation is made, wherein the total feed
enthalpy must equal the total product enthalpy at the lower separator pressure.
Here the separator temperature is unknown, so there is a double trial-and-error, one
nested within the other. Usually the separator pressure is set and a temperature is
assumed. The calculation is made exactly as for the isothermal flash. Then the
enthalpies of the exit streams are calculated and their sum compared with that of
the inlet mixture. At the correct temperature, the exit enthalpies are equal to the
inlet enthalpy.
In complex mixtures, feed F entering the flash separator consists of F,, F,,
F,, ..., F, moles of different components. At a given temperature and a fixed
+
pressure, V moles of gas are produced (V, + V, + V, + ... K). A liquid residue L
consists of L,, L,, L,, ... , L, moles of the several components present in F. Thus,
K/ Kn ( L n / L ) (3-1)
V,=KnLn(V/L) (3-2)
V, = F n / [ ( L / K n v ) + 11 (3-4)
Thus:
V = Fl/[ ( L / K , V ) + 11 + F 2 / [ L / K , V ) + 11 + ...
and
TYPES OF SEPARATORS
Inasmuch as most separators are designed for the removal of liquid drops from
the gas by the action of gravity, most of the discussion here deals with this general
type of separation. Another basic type of separator, however, uses the action of
centrifugal force to remove liquid drops from gas. These centrifugal separators use
multiple cyclones in parallel. Cyclones are relatively small and of standard size
which can be mass produced. These separators function best when the gas flows at
constant rate and pressure. At lower rates, the separation suffers, and at higher
rates, the pressure drop becomes excessive.
Gravity separators may be classified according to the shape of the vessel:
(I) Cylindrical
(a) Vertical
(b) Horizontal (single-tube or double-tube types)
(2) Spherical
Each one of these shapes has its own advantages, and there is no overwhelming
favorite among them. The vertical separator occupies less ground area and is
claimed to have the ability to handle large quantities of sand and to be easier to
TABLE 3-1
Comparison of different separator types
Ideal use Low to intermediate GORs and where High GOR crudes, foaming chdes, or for Intermediate or low GOR; preferably
relatively large slugs of liquid are ex- liquid-liquid separation. Good for a di- two-phase separation.
pected verse range of situations.
63
clean. The horizontal separator can handle foaming crude oils better and is claimed
to be more economical for handling large gas volumes, The spherical separator is
easier to install and is more compact and adaptable for portable use (see Table 3-1).
A gas-liquid separator may consist simply of an empty vessel, which causes the
fluid velocity in the entering pipe to be reduced by enlarging the cross-sectional area
of flow. Usually, however, the separator includes internal parts to promote sep-
aration of the phases.
In both cases the separator may be visualized as consisting of:
(1) Primary separation section (entrance) for separating the bulk of the liquid
from the gas. It is desirable to remove the liquid slugs and large droplets of liquid
quickly from the gas stream, and to remove gas from the liquid. Decreasing the
kinetic energy (i.e., the velocity) of the fluids is often accomplished with the use of a
tangential inlet to impart a centrifugal motion to the entering fluids.
ov
I I n l e t f o r two-phase feed
OV Outlet f o r leaving vapor
OL Outlet f o r leaving l i q u i d
(1) Primary separation s e c t i o n
(2) Secondary separation s e c t i o n
(3) Liquid separation s e c t i o n
(4) Mist extractor
(5) Vortex breaker
I
OL
(a)
Fig. 3-2. Internal parts of a gravity separator. a. Vertical separator. b. Horizontal separator.
64
Fig. 3-3. Basic types of mist eliminators. I. Vane type (courtesy of Peerless Manufacturing Co., Dallas,
Tex.): A = mist extractor installation in top of column with trays (top outlet): B = side outlet configura-
tion in vertical column; C = plan view of installation A , showing vane bank arrangement; D = horizontal
vessel configuration showing angled position of separator elements; and E = photograph of mist
extractor bundle. 11. Mesh pads - Fleximesh@mist eliminator (Copyrighted 1984 by Koch Engineering
Company, Inc.)
65
110 I 360 97 7
unit Overhead vapor is now free of entrained liquid 163 I 535 94 0
86 I 282 98 2
140 I 459 98 4
117 65 I 213 98 5
70 112 65 I 213 98 6
50 80 48 I 157 990
20 0 320 450 1476 96 0
27 0 432 610 I 2000 94 6
40 64 125 I 410 97 0
40 64 150 / 492 97 0
The mesh pads provide a large surface area of many knitted and crimped wires
for collection and coalescence of liquid mist. With the pads usually installed in a
horizontal position, the vapor flows upward and the liquid downward. Such mist
eliminators are capable of removing very fine droplets (e.g., 4-6 pm) and have good
removal efficiency over a wide range of throughput. Pressure drops can be less than
1-in. water. Caution is given to the possibility of plugging caused by the deposition
of solid materials such as silt, sand, and paraffins.
( 5 ) Vortex breaker to prevent the liquid from sucking any gas into the liquid exit
pipe. Typically, the liquid exit pipe is centered at the bottom of the vessel. A simple
vortex breaker can consist of a solid circular plate larger than the exit pipe,
supported by three legs about 4-6 in. above the bottom of the vessel.
(6) Adequate control devices such as the liquid dump (discharge) valves, gas
pressure valves, and safety relief valves.
Figure 3-2 shows schematically the internal parts of (a) a vertical gravity
separator and (b) a horizontal gravity separator. Additional internal parts may be
present in some separators: for example, an inlet baffle plate to help reduce the
kinetic energy of the entering stream and a “boot” attached to the bottom of the
horizontal vessel where an aqueous liquid phase can be withdrawn. Figure 3-3 shows
the two basic types of mist extractors. The gas phase flows horizontally through the
vane type and vertically through the mesh pad.
There are several factors which affect the performance of a vapor-liquid sep-
arator. For a feed of given composition, the temperature and pressure are signifi-
cant. With increasing temperature and/or decreasing pressure, the flow volume of
vapor increases and the volume of liquid decreases. In addition, there is a decrease
in the densities of both vapor and liquid phases. Other physical properties also
change with changing temperature and pressure, but the density is the more
significant physical property involved.
Some systems may contain small amounts of surfactants, which cause formation
of foam (in vapor-liquid systems) and emulsions (in liquid-liquid systems). Forma-
tion of foam and emulsion adversely affects the performance of separators, espe-
cially when they are stable. Inasmuch as the presence of surfactants is usually not
known in advance, separators are usually designed on the assumption that they are
not present.
Most separators are designed for the removal of liquid droplets from gas by the
action of gravity. This separation depends on the physical properties of gas and
liquid, and the diameter of the particles. Excellent discussions of the scientific
concepts are available, but they only identify the general form of the mathematical
relationships. Most laboratory studies were concentrated on the settling of (1) solid
particles rather than liquid, (2) a single particle rather than a swarm of particles, and
(3) particles having a particular diameter rather than a mixture of sizes.
61
In designing separators, the size distribution of the droplets is not known. Even if
it was given, however, it is not known how to select a proper “average” diameter to
attain the desired separation.
Thus, the most important factors influencing the design of a separator are: (1)
flow rate of the gas, (2) flow rate of the liquid, (3) density of the gas, and (4) density
of the liquid.
SEPARATOR DESIGN
Gas capacity
or
and
A = Q/60 u (3-9)
where: u = superficial gas velocity based on the cross-sectional area of gas flow,
ft/sec; G = superficial gas mass velocity, based on the cross-sectional area of gas
flow, lb/ft2hr; Q = g a s flow rate, actual cubic feet per minute at the flowing
temperature and pressure, ACFM (Actual Cubic Feet per Minute); A = cross-
sectional area of gas flow, ft2; yG = specific weight of gas, lb/ft3; yL = specific
weight of liquid, Ib/ft3; K = an empirical factor representing past experience found
to give satisfactory operations, with typical values of 0.25 for vertical separators and
0.50 for horizontal separators.
Liquid capacity
Liquid capacity of a separator is dependent upon the retention time (the holding
time) of the liquid within the vessel. Liquid holding time is provided to: (1) remove
slugs of liquid from the flowing stream in order to protect downstream vapor-han-
dling equipment; (2) keep downstream liquid-handling equipment operating satis-
factorily should there be a temporary feed stoppage or overload; and (3) separate
the occluded gas particles from the liquid phase. This last justification can become
quite important when the liquid is very viscous. Answers to the following questions
suggest the rules for holding time for each specific case:
68
(1) In the case of removing slugs of liquid from vapor: (a) What is the estimated
maximum liquid rate or the size of slug? (b) How much time would be required to
attain the liquid removal rate?
(2) For a temporary feed stoppage: (a) What would be the effect on downstream
equipment if the drum loses liquid? (b) How much time would it take for the
operator to correct for the loss?
(3) For a temporary feed overload: (a) What would be the effect on the
downstream vapor-handling equipment if the drum overflows? (b) How much time
would it take for the operator to correct for the temporary overload?
Past experience suggests the following holding times for liquids:
(1) Gas-oil separators-2-4 minutes.
(2) Gas-oil-water separators-with oil viscosity of less than 100 cP, 3-10 min,
and for oil viscosity of greater than 100 cP, 10-20 min.
These are typical values which may be changed for specific cases.
Vessel design
Example 3-I
Calculate the diameter and height of a vertical separator for the following
conditions:
Gas rate = 300 ACFM
Gas density = 3.90 lb/ft3
Liquid rate = 22 GPM
Liquid density = 40.0 lb/ft3
69
TABLE 3-11
Some geometric properties of circles a
~
h / D = 2 . 4 8 1 ( A / A T ) - 1 2 . 2 9 (A/A,)2+31.133 (A/AT)3
Given h / D to calculate A / A ,
Between h / D of 0 and 0.25 (maximum error =1.35%):
A / A , =1.231 ( h / D ) = 0.1138
( l - A / A T ) =0.21 ( l - h / D ) + 3 . 5 2 ( l - h / D ) 2 - 4 . 9 3 (1-h/D)3
L L
Fig. 3-4. Diagram for Table 3-11,
i
Liquid residence time = 4.0 min
Liquid level in the separator is expressed as a fraction of the vessel length between
limits of 0.20 and 0.70. (This is not considered to be a rigid specification.)
Using eq. 3-7: u = 0.25[(40.0 - 3.90)/3.90)]0.5= 0.76 ft/sec
Vapor rate = ACF G ( T)(
min )= T)( 300 (
= 5.00 ACF/sec &)
70
5 .oo
Vapor area = -
o.76 - 6.58 ft2
Vessel diameter = [4(6.58)/~]'.~= 2.89 ft = 34.7 in.
Using a 36-in. diameter vessel, the liquid height required for a 4-min residence
time would be:
r 1
The designer will probably select a diameter of 3.0 ft for the vessel and one of the
above two lengths.
Example 3-2
Repeat Example 3-1 for a horizontal separator. Using eq. 3-7: u =
o.50( 40.0 - 3.90)O.'
= 1.52 ft/sec
3.90
Vapor rate = 300/60 = 5.00 ft3/sec
Vapor area = 5.00/1.52 = 3.29 ft2
(1) Initially the vapor-liquid interface is considered to be the centerline of the
vessel. This may be adjusted later.
Vessel area = (2)(3.29) = 6.58 a:t
Vessel diameter = ( .I
I
)
4 X 6.58
= 2.89 ft or 34.7 in.
Thus, a 36411. diameter-vessel can be used.
Length of vessel needed for 4 min residence time would be:
Ths indicates that the liquid holdup requirement is not as significant as the
vapor handling requirement.
(2) Reduce the vessel diameter by lowering the vapor-liquid interface so as to
maintain the same required vapor area of 3.29 ft2.
On assuming a diameter of 30 in.:
A, = 77/4(%)' = 4.909 ft2
A / A , = 3.29/4.909 = 0.67
71
1440(V,)
Q= (3-10)
STAGE SEPARATION
-WELL-
FLUID
FIRST LI' SLCOMD
- STAGE
STAOE STA0E
TWO
I +' 2nd
THREE - STAGE
J FOUR - STAGE
Fig. 3-5. Schematic diagrams of two-stage, three-stage, and four-stage separations.
In actual field practice, three stages are usually optimal. Economic study involves
determination of fixed and operating costs for each additional separator and
comparing them to the incremental oil production that results from the addition of
t h s stage to the separation system. Inasmuch as the production varies with time
during the lifetime of a producing field, the optimum also changes. Thus, a detailed
economic analysis is usually not very useful or justifiable in most cases.
Examples of two-stage, three-stage, and four-stage separations are presented in
Fig. 3-5. The two-stage separation is most applicable for low-gravity oils, low
gas/oil ratios, and low flowing pressures. On the other hand, the three-stage
separation is most applicable for intermediate-gravity oils, intermediate to high
gas/oil ratios, and intermediate wellhead flowing pressures. Finally, the four-stage,
separation is most applicable for high-gravity oils, high gas/oil ratios, and high
flowing pressures. Four-stage separation is also used where high-pressure gas is
needed for market or for pressure maintenance.
73
(3-11)
Determination of optimum pressure for first stage when second stage is atmospheric
To determine the optimum pressure for the first stage when the second stage is
atmospheric, the following procedure can be used.
(1) Vary the pressure on the high-stage separator.
(2) Follow the gas/oil ratios on both stages until they are stabilized.
(3) Determine the gasoline content of the gas from each stage, by a method such
as gas chromatography.
(4) Plot the gas/oil ratio of each separator, and the cumulative for both
separators, versus the pressure of the high-stage separator (Fig. 3-6.a).
( 5 ) Plot the gasoline content of the gas from each separator versus the pressure
of the high-stage separator (Fig. 3-6.b). The gasoline content for each separator may
decrease with increasing pressure of the high stage. For the low stage, this is due to
the increase in gas evolved overshadowing the increase in the gasoline vaporized. On
the other hand, for the high stage, it is due to the decrease in gasoline vaporized,
with increasing pressure.
(6) From the graphs of Fig. 3-6.a and 3-6.b, compute and plot the gallons of
gasoline lost per barrel of crude oil versus the pressure of the high-stage separator
(Fig. 3-6.c). The optimum pressure is at the minimum of the latter curve, providing
the primary objective of the separation is to remove as much gasoline as possible
from the gas.
Y
0
IL
a
.----
Curnulotire
Fig. 3-6. Schematic diagram of variation, with increasing pressure of high-stage separator, in a. gas/oil
ratio; b. gasoline content of separator gas; and c. total gasoline lost (to the gas phase) in two-stage
separation.
ing type of evaluation can be used to choose the optimum pressure for the second
stage, while the first stage is operating at the desired value. If the pressure of the
highest stage is not fixed by such requirements, it may be treated as another variable
in the evaluation.
Whinery and Campbell (1958, p. 53) developed a method for determining the
optimum second-stage pressure in three-stage separation. Their method is simple,
accurate (mean error of * 5 % ) , and eliminates the need for flash vaporization
calculations. An empirical analysis yielded two equations:
p 2 = A ( p,)o.686+ c, (3-13)
p 2 = A ( p,)o.765+ c2 (3-14)
75
Fig. 3-7. Relationship between constant A and pseudo-specific gravity of feed ( T = 80OF). (After
Whinery and Campbell, 1958, p. 54, fig. 2; courtesy of the S.P.E. of A.I.M.E.)
* M-1000 and MM =1000OOO; Mcf -1000 standard cu ft; standard legal temperature in most
cases = 60'F.
16
.
C, DIMENSIONLESS SHIFTING CONSTANl
Fig. 3-8. Relationship between shifting constant C and constant A . (After Whinery and Campbell, 1958,
p. 54, fig. 3; courtesy of the S.P.E. of A.I.M.E.)
139
,
138.
Fig. 3-9. Relationship between second-stage pressure (psia) and stocktank recovery in gal/MMcf of
residue gas. (After Whinery and Campbell, 1958, p. 53, fig. 1; analysis 6, T = SOOF; courtesy of the S.P.E.
of A.I.M.E.)
71
If it is not desirable to use the experimental methods outlined above, the problem
may be solved by calculations with equilibrium ratios. Such calculations, however,
are tedious unless a computer is available.
In computing the compositions of the liquid and the vapor when neither
composition is known, but the equilibrium constants are given, the following
procedure can be used.
(1) Assume a value for V / L (or L / V ) to get (V/L)ass,l.
(2) Preferably using eqs. 3-5 and 3-6, compute the number of moles of each
component in the liquid and the number of moles of each component in the vapor.
(3) Add each group to get the calculated V .
(4) Divide the calculated V by the calculated L to get the ( V/L)calc,l.
(5) If the ( V/L)cdc,lis equal to ( V/L)ass,l, the assumption was correct within the
desired accuracy.
( 6 ) If ( V/L)calc,l is not equal to ( V/L)ass,l, assume another value for V / L where
(V/L)ass,2= (V/L)cdc,l + [(V/L)ca,c.l - (V/L)ass.lI; that is, make (V/L)ass,2 as far
beyond (V/L)caIc.l, as (J‘/LlCdc.1 is beyond (V/L)ass.l*
(7) One could also plot [( V / L ) a s s-, ( V / L ) c d c ,versus
] ( V/L)ass,;but the above
rule has worked out better in the experience of the writers in this type of problems,
because the relationship is far from being linear.
In computing the temperature and composition of vapor when the composition
of liquid is known, the procedure described below can be followed.
(1) Assume a temperature and record equilibrium ratios.
(2) Compute y1 = K1xl, y2 = K 2 x 2 , . . , and Cy.
(3) Assume another temperature which will make E y approach 1. The higher the
temperature, the greater is the value of K . For a fixed x , therefore, y will increase
with increasing temperature.
(4) Plot Cy versus temperature, and establish the point of intersection at Cy = 1.
The assumption of steady-state flow through the separator gives the mass
balances for each individual component as follows:
r;] = y + L, (3-15)
where I;] = moles of component “ 1 ” in the feed, = moles of component “i” in the
vapor, and Li= moles of component “ i ” in the liquid. On an over-all basis:
r;;=v,+L, (3-16)
The second assumption of equilibrium between vapor and liquid in the mixture
gives:
Y, = K , x , (3-17)
Substituting eq. 3-15 into eq. 3-18 and rearranging gives the following relationship:
(3-19)
Equation 3-18 or 3-19 or any of the possible rearrangements of eqs. 3-15 and 3-18
may be used in a conventional iterative method. A value of L, is assumed, is
obtained from eq. 3-16 and the individual L, is determined using eq. 3-20. The
assumed L, is correct if the calculated xy=lL, agrees with it within closely defined
limits. After satisfactory agreement, each is calculated from eq. 3-15, and mole
fractions for vapor and liquid can be determined.
Although the solution to eq. 3-19 or 3-20 is straightforward, complications may
arise for some problems due to slow convergence strategy for manual as well as
computer calculations to attain required accuracy in a reasonable time interval. Two
strategies for achieving this are described here: (1) the Lockhart-McHenry (1958)
method, which is currently used by many engineers, and (2) the Lockhart method
(pers. comm., 1983) presented here for the first time.
Lockhart and McHenry (1958) proposed a method which reduces the usual time
and luck required for making flash-equilibrium calculations for multicomponent
mixtures. It reduces a multicomponent mixture to a hypothetical binary system.
When using the conventional method of calculation, the convergence may be slow
(calculated V / F versus assumed V / F ) , which makes it difficult to bracket the
TABLE 3-111
Lockhart-McHenry method, sample problem 3 (from Lockhart and McHenry, 1958; with permission of Hyakxarbon Processing, by Gulf Publishing Co.,
Houston, Tex.)
- - - __
Total B 1484.7 1771.4 3289.4 813.8
V/F= 0 V / F =1 V / F = 0.5
K: + 2.39 (eq.3.23) 2.11 (eq.3-24) 2.17 (eq.3-25)
K1; + 0.523 (eq.3-23) 0.314 (eq.3-24) 0.475 (eq.3-25)
1118 , 778 1016
-
- 685 ~
- 858 -
- 814
V* -+ 433 (eq.3-22) - 80 (eq.3-22) 202 (eq.3-22)
V * / F -+ 0.292 -0.0539 0.136
80
correct answer. On the other hand, on using the Lockhart-McHenry method, the
convergence to the correct answer is very sharp: it is equivalent to the intersection
of two lines at an angle of never less than 45".
For a binary mixture of components A and B (the more volatile and less volatile,
respectively), V can be solved by the following equation:
Lockhart and McHenry also offered the following equations for the multicompo-
nent mixtures:
for
ASSUMED V/F
Fig. 3-10. Calculated V * / F versus assumed V / F . The convergence to the correct answer is very sharp,
and is equivalent to the intersection of two lines at an angle of never less than 45'. (After Lockhart and
McHenry, 1958, fig. 3; with permission of Hydrocurbon Processing, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, Tex.)
81
(3-28)
The C,: L, as compared with the assumed L, gives the direction of the correct L,.
For example, if at an assumed value of L , / F of 0.5 the calculated Zym1 L , / F < 0.50,
then the correct value of L , / F will be less than the calculated value of Z:- L , / F . If
the’calculated c m 1 L , / Fequals 0.5 exactly, then this is the correct value of L,/F.
On the other hand, if the calculated Z:-l L , / F exceeds 0.5, the correct value of L , / F
will be greater than the calculated value of Z ,: L , / F .
The second calculation should always be made to insure that there are two phases
at the temperature and pressure of the flash equilibrium. If the CymlL , / F < 0.5, then
the second calculation should be made at an assumed value of L , / F = 0, which is
the dew-point calculation:
(3-29)
i-1
For some liquid to be present, this ratio (eq.3-29) must be greater than unity.
82
TABLE 3-IV
Calculation of average E for the mixture
At L , / F = 0 3-29
(Dew-point)
At L , / F = 1.0 3-30
(Bubble-point)
ZI;
At any value of V, 3-19
If the Ci“,,L,/F > 0.5, then the second calculation must be made at an assumed
value of L,/F = 1.0, which is the bubble-point calculation:
(3-30)
1-1
In order for some vapor to be present, this ratio (eq. 3-30) must be greater than
unity.
The third calculation at intermediate values of t ; / F (or L , / F ) may be made
using either eq. 3-19 or 3-20, as desired.
The proposed convergence technique uses the conventional calculations, but has
one additional step at the end of each iteration to calculate the “average” K for the
entire feed mixture. At the correct values of L , and t;, the average f equals unity.
In a legitimate flash calculation, K > 1.0 at the bubble-point and K < 1.0 at the
dew-point. The average K is calculated by using equations given in Table 3-IV.
For manual calculations, it is fast and easy to plot a graph of versus the
assumed L , (or t;). Sketching-in the curve through these points determines the next
assumption to be made. The curve is revised if necessary, after each new point is
calculated until satisfactory closure is attained.
When using computers, it is convenient to have a convergence scheme and
iterative technique built into the program. The hyperbolic convergence routine
proposed by Hohmann and Lockhart (1972) is recommended.
83
Example 3-4
Calculate the lb-moles of vapor and liquid for the following conditions:
Compound Moles E K.= v/x
Methane 5 19.0
Ethane 5 4.0
Propane 20 1.5
Isobutane 35 0.70
nButane 35 0.55
-
100
(1) Draw a sectional view showing the interior construction of a typical oil-gas
separator.
( 2 ) In two-stage separation, what effect does the increasing of pressure of
high-stage separator have on the gasoline content obtained from (a) a low-stage
separator, and (b) a high-stage separator. Explain.
(3) Outline steps in determining the optimum pressure of the high-stage sep-
ara tor in two-stage separation.
(4) Describe the physical principles involved in the design and operation of
float-controlled separators.
(5) Define stage separation.
(6) A lube oil is treated with liquid propane in the proportions of 8.00 moles of
propane to 2.00 moles of oil. The mixture is flashed at 90 psig and 120°F. Under
these conditions the equilibrium ratio ( K = y / x ) for propane is ? (find it) and for
the lube is 0.00. For 400.0 moles of the original mixture, calculate the numbers of
moles and mole% of lube oil and propane in the equilibrium liquid phase.
(7) (a) A liquid was subjected to an equilibrium-flash vaporization at 90 psia. At
equilibrium, the analysis of the vapors on a mole% basis was as follows: propane
(C,), 30; isobutane (iC4), 35; n-butane (nC,), 25; isopentane (iC5), 10. Estimate the
temperature and the composition of the equilibrium liquid.
(b) Estimate the maximum temperature at which the equilibrium vapors could be
condensed practically completely at 90 psia.
(8) The liquid (mixture of heptane and octane) is heated in a closed container at
212°F. The composition of the vapor produced is 70%by volume of heptane and
30% by volume of octane. The vapor pressures at 212°F are 18.42 psia for the
heptane and 8.32 psia for the octane. The molecular weights are 100.2 for the
heptane and 114.2 for the octane. The specific gravities of liquids at 212°F are 0.684
for the heptane and 0.704 for the octane. Compute the composition of liquid in
volume per cent. [xl = (1 - K 2 ) / ( K 1- K 2 ) . ]
(9) In determining the optimum pressure for the first stage of gas-oil separation
when the second stage is atmospheric, certain graphs may be drawn. With the
pressure of the high-stage separator as the horizontal axis, give illustrative curves of:
(a) gas/oil ratio for low-stage and high-stage; also cumulative;
(b) gasoline content of separator gas for low-stage and high-stage; and
(c) total gasoline lost in two-stage separation.
(10) For a wellstream having the following composition, determine the optimum
second-stage pressure for a three-stage separation, if p1 = 600 psia.
Component Mole Fraction Mol. Wt.
0.30 16.01
0.30 30.07
0.10 44.09
0.15 58.12
0.05 72.15
0.05 86.17
0.05 115.22
85
One can use Raoult's law in calculations involving normal paraffin hydrocarbons
if the pressure is below 60 psi. According to Raoult's law, at any particular constant
temperature, the partial pressure of one component of a mixture is equal to the mole
fraction of that component multiplied by its vapor pressure in the pure state at the
temperature of the liquid:
p! = PfXn (3.1-1)
where p! = partial pressure of a component in the liquid phase, p," = vapor pressure
of the component in the pure state, and x, = mole fraction of a component in the
liquid phase.
If a mixture is below its bubble-point temperature, the total pressure = p i + p i +
p ; + . . . +p,.1
Dalton's law states that the partial pressure of an individual component in a
gaseous mixture is equal to the product of the total pressure, n, and the mole
fraction of that individual component, y,,:
where p,' = partial pressure of a component in the vapor phase, 7~ = total pressure of
the system, and y, = mole fraction of the component in the vapor phase.
Raoult's law and Dalton's law can be combined, because at equilibrium the
partial pressure of a component in the vapor is equal to the partial vapor pressure of
the component in the liquid or p! = p:; consequently:
This equation expresses the equilibrium between the vapor and the liquid of an ideal
solution at any temperature and pressure. Example 3.1-1 shows calculations involv-
ing Henry's law.
86
The P;/m ratio is not a constant, however, and is altered by the total pressure
and to some extent by the kind of materials associated with it in the mixture.
Consequently, the y / x ratio must be determined experimentally (equilibrium ratio
K =y / x ) .
Example 3. I-I
A liquid consists of 42.5% butane and 57.5% pentane by volume at 60°F.If the
liquid is heated to 180°F at 100 psia, what will be the composition of the vapor that
is produced? (Assume that Raoult’s law holds.)
Vapor pressure of C4H,, at 180°F is 152 psi; vapor pressure of CSHI2at 180°F
is 56 psi; and sp.gr. at 60°F is 0.585 and 0.631 for C4H,, and C5H12, respectively.
Solution:
Compo- Vol. in Sp.gr. Wt. in Mol. Gram- Mole S Vapor Raoult’s Mole S
nent liquid at 60°F liquid wt. moles in pressure law in
at 60°F (g) in liquid (psi) partial vapor
(cc) liquid pressure
(psia) .
C,H,, 42.5 0.585 24.9 , 58.1 0.428 46.0 152 69.9 69.R
CSH,, 57.5 0.631 36.3 72.1 0.504 54.0 56 30.3 30.2
- -
0.9321oo.o 100.2 100.0
If this problem were solved on the basis of 100 ft3, one would multiply 42.5 and
57.5 by 62.4 lb/ft3; and if on the basis of 100 gal, by 8.33 lb/gal. In each case, one
should continue with the steps shown in the above table.
The reader is also referred to an excellent treatment of the subject by Nelson
(1958,pp. 434-464).
APPENDIX 3-II-ILLUSTRATION, ACCESSORIES, GAS CAPACITIES, SETTLING VOLUMES,
AND SPECIFICATIONS FOR: (1) VERTICAL LOW-PRESSURE SEPARATORS; (2) VERTICAL
HIGH-PRESSURE SEPARATORS; (3) HORIZONTAL LOW-PRESSURE SEPARATORS; (4)
HORIZONTAL HIGH-PRESSURE SEPARATORS; A N D (5) SPHERICAL SEPARATORS
(COURTESY OF HTI-SUPERIOR, INC., A BERRY INDUSTRIES COMPANY).
GAS OUTLE
MIST EXTRACTOR
I\
5- STANDARD ACCESSORIES
Standard accessories furnished with two-phase (oilgas)
CONTROL
separators.
1 . Low pressure, diaphragm operated dump valve.
1 . Float operated level control
1 . ASME safetv relief valve
lF'1i I 1 . Pressure gage with isolating valve
1 .Stainless steel wire mesh mist extractor
1 . Inlet diverter
FlrTE 1 . Drain connection
1 .Outside ladder on 10' high separators and higher
1 . Quieting baffle over settling section
Companion flanges bolted on gas inlet and outlet
(threaded or slipon)
OUTLET
1 .Tubular gage glass with safety cocks 8 draln valve
OPTIONAL ACCESSORIES
Thermometer
Safety Head
DRA,N Heating Coil
Additional Connections
Skid Mounting
Three Phase Operation
88
GAS CAPAC:ITIES
wx20
W'XlS
WXl0
4W'xlS
49x10
36"xlO
WXT.W,
M"Xl0
WXS
24"xT-9
24"xS
SPECIFICATIONS
STANDARD AND ASME CODE CONSTRUCTION
Nominal inlet 8 Oil Standard Valves Settling Gas Oil Shippin(
Model Size W.P. Gas Outlet Outlet Oil Gas Volume Capacity Capacity Weight
No. Dia.x HI. psi Conn. Conn. Veive Valve bbl MMSCFD bbllday Ib
V.245 24" x 5' 125 2" Thd 2'Thd 2' 2' 0.65 1.9 860 950
V-247 2 4 ' x 7v2, 125 2'Thd 2'Thd 2" 2" 1.01 3.1 1290 1150
V.3010 30" x 1 0 125 3" Thd 3'Thd 2' 2' 2.06 5.7 2700 2000
36" x 5' 125 4'Thd 2'Thd 2" 2" 1.61 4.3 1960 2wM
36" x 71h' 125 4"Thd 3'Thd 2, 2' 2.43 7.1 2940 2350
V-3610 3 6 ' x 10' 125 4" Thd 4" Thd 2' 2' 3.04 8.3 3920 2700
V.4810 48" x 1 0 125 6' Fig 4" Thd 3" 2" 5.67 14.6 8980 3400
V-4815 48" x 15' 125 6" F.g 4" Thd 4" 2" 7.86 17.3 10460 4500
V-M)lO W'X10 125 6' Fig 4" Thd 4" 3" 9.23 23.1 10900 5200
V43015 60" x 15' 6 ' Flg 4" Thd 4" 3' 12.65 27.0 16400 6400
-
125
80' x 2 0 125 6" Flg 4" Th,d 4" 3" 15.51 32.9 21800 7600
la. I
PRESSURE
GAGE STANDARD ACCESSORIES
Standard accessories furnished with twc-phase
(oii.gas) separators,
THERMOMETER
1 . High pressure, screwed, angle type, diaphragm
motor valve
1 . Pneumatic level control
1 . ASME safety relief valve
1 . Pressure gauge with isolating valve
FLOAT PROTECTOR
I
GAS CAPACITIES
SETTLING VOLUMES
SIZE VOLUME SIZE VOLUME
O.D. x Ht. bbl. O.D. x Ht. bbl.
16' x 5' 0.27 42" x 7%' 3.53
16' x 7H' 0.41 42" h 1 0 4.29
16' x 10 0.51 42" x 15' 5.80
10' x 4' 0.44 48" x Vh' 4.81
20" x 7%' 0.65 48" x 1 0 5.80
20' x 10 0.82 48" x 1 s 7.79
24' x 5' 0.66 54" x 7 H ' 6.33
24" x 7%' 0.97 54" x 1 0 7.80
24" x 10 1.21 54" x 15' 10.12
30' x 5' 1.13 60'x 7'h' 8.08
30" X 1%' 1.64 60' x I 0 9.63
30" x 10 2.02 60" x 15' 12.73
36" x 7%' 2.47 60" x 2 0 15.31
38" x 10 3.02
36" x 1s 4.13
-t
V5547-2 54"x74/2' 230 6' FIa 2" 21.1 esoo4800
VS-5410-2 54"xlO 6' FIQ 2" 24.6 8850 5700
VS-54152 54"x15 6' Flg 2, 30.7 13Ooo 7800
VsBo7.2 0O"x7'h'! 230 6 ' Flg 2" 26.1 8 0 5 0 5 8 0 0
vs6010-2 00"xlO 6 ' FIg 2" 30.5 10700 7100
VS60152 00"x15 6' FIg 2" 38.1 16100 8800
VS60202 8O'XZo' 6,Flg 2" 43.4 21400 12300
'451055 16"x5' 500 2" Thd 1" 1.0 380 1000
VS-107.5 lWx71h' 2 ' Thd 1" 2.7 540 1150
VS-1010-5 16'Xlo' 2" Thd 1" 3.1 720 1300
VS-2055 Zo"X5 500 3" FIg 1" 2.8 580 1300
v5207.5 2O'x7M" 3" FIg 1" 4.3 870 1500
VS-20105 2O'XlO 3" FIg 1" 5.0 1150 1700
VS.245-5 24"x5 500 3" Flg 1" 3.7 820 2100
V5247-5 24"x79h' 3" FIg 1" 0.1 1230 2500
VS-2410-5 2r)"XlO 3" FI@ 1" 7.1 1040 2900
vs305-5 W'XS 500 4" FIg 1" 5.7 1280 2700
VS-307-5 30" x 74/21 4" Fla 1" 9.3 lee0 k3M
__..
VS-3010.5 W'X10' 4" FI; 1" 10.9 2520 3800
VS-387-5 W'x7M' 500 4" FIa 1" 13.3 2700 4700
VS-36105 W'XlO 4" FIO 1" 15.5 38005300
VS-30155 W'x15' 4" Flp 1" 19.4 5400 8500
VS-427-5 42"x7%' 500 6" FIg 2" 18.4 3750 5200
V5-42105 42.~10' 6' FIg 2, 21.4 5Ooo 8200
VS-42155 42"x15 6 FIg 2, 28.8 7500 8200
v5487.5 4WX7M' 500 6'FIg 2" 24.3 5 O o o 5 8 0 0
V5481Q5 48"XlO' 6'FIg 2" 28.4 8800 7540
V548155 W'X15' 8" FIg 2' 35.4 ssqo loso0
92
STANDARD ACCESSORIES
Standard accessories furnished with two.phase (oil.gas) separators.
1 . Low pressure, diaphragm operated dump valve.
1 . Float operated level control
1 . ASME safety relief valve
1 . Pressure gage with isolating valve
1 .Stainless steel wire mesh mist extractor
1 . Inlet diverter
1 . Drain connection
1 - Quieting baffle
Companion flanges bolted on gas inlet and outlef (threaded or slipon)
1 -Tubular gage glass with safety cocks & drain valve
OPTIONAL ACCESSORIES
Thermometer
Safety Head
Heating Coil
Additional Connections
Skid Mounting
Three Phase Operation
95
60 x20
60'r15
60 '"10
4W'xlS
48"x10
36x15
36 " 1 0
30x10
30'XT.6'
30' x s
24 X10
24 x 7 . 6
24.35
SAFETY VALVE
THERMOMETER
INLET
RESSURE GAGE
MIST EXTRACTOR
NLET DIVERTER
LIQUID
LEVEL
CONTROL
DUMP VALVE
LIQUID
OUTLET
STANDARD ACCESSORIES
Standard accessories furnished with two-phase (oil.gas) separators
1 . High pressure screwed, angle type, diaphragm motor valve
1 . Pneumatic level control
1 . ASME safety relief valve
1 . Pressure gage with isolating valve
1 . Control gas regulator set with fittings
1 . Stainless steel wire mesh mist extractor
1 . Inlet diverter
1 Drain connection
1 . Outside ladder on 10' high separators and higher
1 . Quieting baffle
Companion flanges bolted on gas inlet and outlet (threaded or slipon)
1 Reflex gage glass with steel cocks 8 drain valve
Additional accessories furnished with three-phase (oil-gaswater) separators
1 . High pressure, screwed, angle type, diaphragm motor valve
1 . Pneumatic level control
1 Transparent gage glass with steel safety cocks & drain valve
OPTIONAL ACCESSORIES
Thermometer
Safety Head
Heating Coil
Additional Connections
Skid Mounting
StlOlVtlVd3S 3tlflSS3tld H U H WlNOZltlOH A 0 S31113VdV3
L6
98
I HS-42102
HS-4215.2
H.s-4220-2
42"xlO'
42.~15'
42"xX)'
8" Flg
8" Fla
8" FIg
2
2"
2'
24.5
29.5
33.0
11700
17800
23500
3900
5200
8800
HS-487-2 W'x7H' 230 8" Flg 2" 28.5 11500 4200
I HS4810-2
HS-48152
HS-4820-2
48"XlO'
W'x15'
48"W
8" FIQ
8" Fla
8" FIg
2"
2"
2"
33.3
38.9
44.5
15400
23000
32000
5100
7000
eooo
HS-547-2 54"x7M9 230 8" Fla 2" 36.0 14800 5500
I HS-5410-2
HS-54152
HS-542&2
54"XlO
54"xlB
W'X20'
8" FIE
8" FIa
8" Fig
2,
2"
2"
40.5
49.0
56.9
19400
29200
38800
8800
Baoo
11000
HS807-2 BO"x7H' 230 8" Fig 2" 44.8 18Ooo 8800
I HS8010-2
HS80152
HS802G2
60"XlO
W'XlS
60"x20"
8" Fig
8" Flg
8" Fig
2'
2"
2"
50.2
60.7
70.5
24wo
38ooo
48OOO
85M)
11200
14000
' HS125-5 12~x5' 500 2" Thd 1" 2.5 500 800
nsi27.5 12W"x7H' 2" Thd 2, 2.8 750 1000
HS-12165 12rk"xlO 2" Thd 2" 3.2 1000 1100
HS-1655 Wx5' 500 2 fhd 2" 4.0 800 1400
HS-187-5 lV'x7M' 2,Thd 2" 4.5 1200 1500
HS-1810-5 l6'XlO' 2" Thd 2" 5.1 1800 1800
nszw 20"X5 500 3" FIg 2" 8.4 1300 1800
HS-207-5 20"X7H' 3" Flg 2, 7.2 1850 2050
HS-2010-5 20"XlW 3" FIg 2" 8.1 2800 2400
HS-265 24"x5' 500 4" FIg 2" 9.2 1850 2100
HS-247-5 24"xIH' 4" FIg 2" 10.3 2750 2800
ns.2410-5 24"xlO' 4" FIg 2" 11.8 3700 3100
H82415.5 24"r15' 4" Fio 2" 14.0 5 5 M m
99
I HS-4210.5
HS-4215-5
HS.42205
42"XlO
42"x15'
42"x20
8" FIO
6" FIR
8" FIO
2"
2"
2,
35.1
42.5
49.4
11200
16800
22400
7800
loo00
12200
H5487.5 48Vx7M' 500 8' FIa 2" 41.3 11100 8OOO
I H548105
HS-4815-5
HS48205
48'xlO
48"x15'
48"x20'
8" FIO
8" Fla
8' Flg
2,
2,
2"
48.5
58.2
85.3
14800
22200
%MI
8800
13500
17200
H5547.5 54"X7'/2 500 8" Fla 2, 52.0 14ooo 9700
I HS-5410-5
HS-54155
HS-54205
54"xlO
54"x15'
54"x20'
8" F l i
8" FIR
8" FlO
2"
2"
2'
58.5
70.8
82.3
lssoo
28000
37200
11800
17000
21200
HS507-5 6O"x71h' 500 8' Flg 2" 85.0 17400 12800
HS.6010-5 6O"xlO 8, FIg 2" 73.0 23200 15100
HSS0155 60"x15' 8" FIg 2" 88.0 34800 20100
HS60205 6O"x2O 8" Flg 2- 102.0 48400 25100
HS-1256 12%"x5' 800 2 , Thd 1" 2.8 500 lo00
HS-127-6 12%"x7H' 2" Thd 1" 3.1 750 1100
H51210.8 12%"x10' 2" Thd 1" 3.5 1000 1200
H51856 18"XS 800 2 , Thd 1" 4.5 800 1500
H51675 16"x71h' 2 , Thd 1" 5.1 1200 1600
HS-1810.8 16'xlO' 2" Thd 1" 5.7 1800 1600
H5-205-8 ZO"x5' 600 3" FIg 1" 7.0 1260 1700
HS207-6 20"x7%' 3 ' FIg 1" 7.8 1800 2150
HS2010.8 2O"Xlo' 3" Flg 1" 8.8 2500 2800
H5245.6 24"xS 600 4" FIg 1" 9.5 1700 2350
H5247-8 24"x71h' 4" FIg 1" 10.8 2550 2700
HS2410-6 24"XlO 4" Flg 1" 12.0 3400 3200
H52415.6 24"x15' 4" Flg 1" 14.5 5100 3700
HS-3058 30"x5' 600 4" Flg 1" 14.9 2700 2700
HS307-8 30"X7H" 4" Flg 1" 18.7 4ooo 3700
HS-30108 W'XlO 4" FIo 1" 18.8 5400 4800
H530156 30"x15' 4" FIO 2' 22.7 8100 6800
HS367-6 Wx7H' 600 6' Fin 2" 25.1 eo00 5100
H53610.8 38"XlO' 6" FIg 2" 26.2 8OOO 8200
H53615-6 W'x15' 8" FIg 2, 34.1 12Ooo 8500
HS-36208 36"x20 8" FIg 2" 39.8 leooo lo800
HS-427-6 42"x7H8 600 6" FIg 2" 34.7 8400 6soO
HS4210.8 42"x 10' 6" Flg 2" 39.0 11200 8300
H54215.6 42"x15' 8" FIg 2" 47.2 lee00 loB00
HS-42206 42"xZO' 6" FIG 2" 54.9 22400 12900
100
SETTLING VOLUMES
Settling Volume, bbl.
Slze
O.D. X LQth. M Full W Full 1/4 Full
-
60' x 1 0 18.93 10.86 7.17
60' x 15' 26.68 15.38 10.21
60' x 20' 34.44 19.90 13.24
104
SPHERICAL SEPARATORS
SPHERICAL SEPARATORS
cn
a
0
3a
e
W
cn
a0
z
W
I
e
cn
&
cn
W
I
k
0
2a
0
cn
W
K
a
(3
3
v)
v)
W
a
n
3
9
107
SPHERICAL SEPARATORS
SPECIFICATIONS
Model Nominal W.P. iniel 8 Std. Liquid Gas Cap. Oil Cap. Approx.
No. Diameter psi Gas Outlet Valve MMCFO bbidday Weight, Lb
88-4212 42' 125 2" 6.2 1900 1000
.
ss-4812 48" 3' 9.0 2500 1300
ss.5412 54' 4" 12.0 4500 1700
55.4225 42" 250 2" 6.4 1900 1100
SS.4625 483 2' 12.0 2500 1400
SS.6025 60, 2" 22.0 5100 3400
55.2450 24" 500 1" 3.6 300 1000
55.3050 30' 1" 6.9 600 1200
SS.3650 36" 1" 10.0 1100 1500
88-4250 42' 2, 12.0 1900 2300
__
SSa850 48' 2' 18.0 2500 3100
558050 60' 2, 31.0 5100 3400
S52480 24' 600 1" 4.0 300 1200
__
ss-3oBo
_... 30'
.. 1" 7.6 600 1300
SS-3660 36' 1" 11.0 1100 1600
SS.4260 42' 2, 14.0 1900 2400
SS-4660 48" 2" 20.0 2500 3200
SS-6060 60, 2' 33.0 5100 3600
SS.24100 24" 1 000 1" 5.1 300 1300
SS-30100 30" 1" 10.0 - 600 1400
5s-36100 36' 1" 15.0 1100 1600
SS-42100 42, 2" 18.0 1900 2600
SS.46100 48" 2" 25.0 2500 3700
SS.66100 60' 2, 45.0 5100 4300
55.24120 24" 1200 1" 5.7 300 1400
85-30120 30" 1" 11.0 600 1500
55.36120 36" 1" 16.0 1100 1900
5542120 421 2" 20.0 1900 2900
SS-48120 48" 2, 28.0 2500 3800
ss.60120 60" 2, 49.0 5100 4700
SS-24144 24, 1440 1" 6.5 300 1500
SS-30144 303 1" 13.0 600 1800
85-36144 36' 1" 19.0 1100 2400
88-42144 423 2' 22.0 1900 3300
88.46144 48" 2" 31.0 2500 4100
ss-80144 60" 2, 54.0 5100 5400
88.24200 24" 2 m 1" 7.4 300 1600
ss.30200 30' 1" 15.0 600 2200
SS-36200 36'. 1" 21.0 1100 2600
ss.42200 42' 2, 26.0 1800 3900
SS24300 24" 3000 1" 6.3 300 2600
S530300 30"' 1" 16.0 600 3200
S536300 36' 1" 23.0 1100 3800
SS.42300 42' 2 q 26.0 ls00 4900
REFERENCES
API, 1960. Specification of Oil and Gas Separators. (Tentative API Study 12J). API, Division of
Production, 1st ed., Dallas, Tex., p. 4.
Campbell, J.M., 1976. Gas Conditioning and Processing. Campbell Petroleum Series, Norman, Okla.
Chilingar, G.V. and Beeson, C.M., 1969. Surface Operations in Petroleum Production. Am. Elsevier, New
York, N.Y., 397 pp.
Craft, B.C., Holden, W.R. and Graves Jr., E.D., 1962.Well Design, Drilling and Production. Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 571 pp.
Deam, J.R. and Maddox, R.N., 1969. How to figure three-phase flash. Hydrocarbon Process., July:
163-164.
Erbar, J.H., 1973. Three-phase equilibrium calculations. N.G.P.A. 52nd Annu. Conv., pp. 62-70.
Hohmann, E.C. and Lockhart, F.J., 1972. Remember the hyperbola. Chemrech, Oct.: 614-619.
Ikoku, Chi U., 1980. Natural Gar Engineering, A Systems Approach. PennWell, Tulsa, Okla., 788 pp.
Lockhart, F.J. and McHenry, R.J., 1958.Figure flash equilibrium easier, quicker this way. Pet. Refiner,
37 (3): 209-212.
Nelson, W.L., 1958. Petroleum Refinery Engineering. McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y., 4th ed., pp.
440-443.
Osborne, A., 1964. How to calculate three-phase flash equilibrium. Chem. Eng., 21: 97-100.
Peng, D. and Robinson, D.R., 1976. Two- and three-phase equilibrium calculations for systems
containing water. Can. J. Chem. Eng., 5412): 595-599.
Perry, R.H. and Chilton, C.H. (Editors), 1973.Chemical Engineers’ Handbook. McGraw-Hill, New York,
N.Y., 5th ed., pp. 2-6.
Sivalls, C.R., 1977. Fundamentals of Oil and Gas Separation. Proc. Gas Conditioning Conf., Univ.
Oklahoma, 17 pp.
Smith, H.V., 1962.Oil and gas separation. In: T.C. Frick (Editor), Petroleum Production Handbook, Vol.
I, Mathematics and Production Equipment, pp. 1-40.
Souders, M. and Brown, G.G., 1934.Design of fractionating columns, I: Entrainment and capacity. Ind
Eng. Chem., 26: 98-103.
Uren, L.C., 1953. Petroleum Production Engineering: Oil Field Exploitation. McGraw-Hill, New York,
N.Y., pp. 558-565.
Whiney, K.F.and Campbell, J.M., 1958.A method of determining optimum second stage pressure in
three stage separation. J. Pet. Tech., lO(4): 53-54.
Wilkins, R.B., 1949. Stage separation of crude oil. Oil Gas J., 48(26): 62.
Worley, M.S. and Laurence, L.L., 1957. Oil and gas separation is a science. J. Per. Tech., 9(4): 11-16.