Digital Control System BEKC4683

Chapter 2
Discrete Time System Analysis
Tools

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Digital Control System BEKC4683

2.1 Introduction
● This chapter introduces the tools used to analyze digital control systems

2.2 The ℤ-transform

● The ℤ-transform performs a similar role in digital control systems as the
transform does in continuous control systems
● If a continuous-time signal ( ) is sampled in a periodic manner, the sampled
version of the continuous-time signal ( ) is denoted as ∗ ( ).

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Digital Control System BEKC4683

● Sampled signal ∗( ) is given as

∗ = − ⋯ ⋯ 2.1

● The transform of ∗ , is given as:

ℒ ∗ ⟹ ∗ = ⋯ ⋯ 2.2

● Define a transformation

= ⋯ ⋯ 2.3

● Equation (2.3) gives

1
= ln ⋯ ⋯ 2.4

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Digital Control System BEKC4683

● Where T is the sampling period that must be at least 2 time faster than the period of
signal to be sampled – recall Sampling Theorem in Chapter 1.

● Then, equation (2.2) becomes

∗
1
ln ⟹ = ⋯ ⋯ 2.5

● F(z) is defined as the ℤ-transform of a continuous-time signal f(t), that is

= or = ∗( )|

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Digital Control System BEKC4683

● Example 2.1 – Find the ℤ-transform of unit step function ( ).

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Table of Laplace and Z-transforms
X(s) x(t) x(kT) or x(k) X(z)
Kronecker delta δ0(k)
1. – – 1 k=0 1
0 k≠0
δ0(n-k)
2. – – 1 n=k z-k
0 n≠k
1 1
3. 1(t) 1(k)
s 1 − z −1
1 1
4. e-at e-akT
s+a 1 − e − aT z −1
1 Tz −1
5.
s2
t kT
(1 − z ) −1 2

2 T z (1 + z )
2 −1 −1

t2 (kT)2
(1 − z )
6. −1 3
s3
6 T z (1 + 4 z + z )
3 −1 −1 −2

t3 (kT)3
(1 − z )
7. −1 4
s4
a
1 – e-at 1 – e-akT
(1 − e )z − aT −1

8.
s (s + a ) (1 − z )(1 − e z )
−1 − aT −1

b−a (e − e )z− aT − bT −1

9.
(s + a )(s + b ) e-at – e-bt e-akT – e-bkT
(1 − e z )(1 − e z )
− aT −1 −bT −1

1 Te − aT z −1
te-at kTe-akT
(1 − e )
10.
(s + a ) 2 − aT
z −1
2

s 1 − (1 + aT )e − aT z −1
(1 – at)e-at (1 – akT)e-akT
(1 − e z )
11.
(s + a )2 − aT −1 2

2 T e (1 + e z )z
2 − aT − aT −1 −1

t2e-at (kT)2e-akT
(1 − e z )
12.
(s + a ) 3 − aT −1 3

a2
at – 1 + e-at akT – 1 + e-akT
[(aT − 1 + e )+ (1 − e − aTe )z ]z
− aT − aT − aT −1 −1

s (s + a ) (1 − z ) (1 − e z )
13. 2 −1 2 − aT −1

ω z −1 sin ωT
14. sin ωt sin ωkT
s +ω 2
2
1 − 2 z −1 cos ωT + z − 2
s 1 − z −1 cos ωT
15. cos ωt cos ωkT
s +ω 2
2
1 − 2 z −1 cos ωT + z − 2
ω e − aT z −1 sin ωT
16. e-at sin ωt e-akT sin ωkT
(s + a ) 2
+ω 2
1 − 2e − aT z −1 cos ωT + e − 2 aT z − 2
s+a 1 − e − aT z −1 cos ωT
17. e-at cos ωt e-akT cos ωkT
(s + a ) 2
+ω 2
1 − 2e z −1 cos ωT + e − 2 aT z − 2
− aT

1
18. – – ak
1 − az −1
ak-1 z −1
19. – –
k = 1, 2, 3, … 1 − az −1
z −1
kak-1
(1 − az )
20. – – −1 2

z (1 + az )
−1 −1

k2ak-1
(1 − az )
21. – – −1 3

(
z −1 1 + 4az −1 + a 2 z −2 )
k3ak-1
(1 − az )
22. – – −1 4

k4ak-1
(
z −1 1 + 11az −1 + 11a 2 z −2 + a 3 z −3 )
(1 − az )
23. – – −1 5

1
24. – – ak cos kπ
1 + az −1

x(t) = 0 for t < 0

x(kT) = x(k) = 0 for k < 0
Unless otherwise noted, k = 0, 1, 2, 3, …
Definition of the Z-transform

∞
Z{x(k)} = X ( z ) = ∑ x(k ) z − k
k =0

Important properties and theorems of the Z-transform

x(t) or x(k) Z{x(t)} or Z {x(k)}

1. ax(t ) aX (z )

2. ax1( t ) + bx2 ( t ) aX 1 ( z ) + bX 2 ( z )

3. x( t + T ) or x( k + 1 ) zX ( z ) − zx( 0 )
4. x( t + 2T ) z X ( z ) − z 2 x( 0 ) − zx( T )
2

5. x( k + 2 ) z 2 X ( z ) − z 2 x( 0 ) − zx( 1 )
6. x( t + kT ) z k X ( z ) − z k x( 0 ) − z k −1 x( T ) − K − zx( kT − T )
7. x( t − kT ) z −k X ( z )
8. x( n + k ) z k X ( z ) − z k x( 0 ) − z k −1 x( 1 ) − K − zx( k1 − 1 )
9. x( n − k ) z −k X ( z )
d
10. tx( t ) − Tz X( z )
dz
d
11. kx( k ) −z X( z )
dz
12. e − at x( t ) X ( zeaT )
13. e − ak x( k ) X ( ze a )
⎛z⎞
14. a k x( k ) X⎜ ⎟
⎝a⎠
d ⎛z⎞
15. ka k x( k ) −z X⎜ ⎟
dz ⎝ a ⎠

16. x( 0 ) lim X ( z ) if the limit exists

z →∞

17. x( ∞ ) [( ) ] ( )
lim 1 − z −1 X ( z ) if 1 − z −1 X ( z ) is analytic on and outside the unit circle
z →1

18. ∇x( k ) = x( k ) − x( k − 1 ) (1 − z )X ( z )
−1

19. ∆x( k ) = x( k + 1 ) − x( k ) (z − 1)X ( z ) − zx( 0 )

n

∑ x( k )
1
20. X( z )
k =0 1 − z −1
∂ ∂
21. x( t , a ) X ( z,a )
∂a ∂a
m
⎛ d ⎞
22. k m x( k ) ⎜− z ⎟ X( z )
⎝ dz ⎠
n
23. ∑ x( kT ) y( nT − kT )
k =0
X ( z )Y ( z )

∞
24. ∑ x( k )
k =0
X (1)
Digital Control System BEKC4683

● Example 2.2 – Find the ℤ-transform of a function = .

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Digital Control System BEKC4683

2.3 Properties of ℤ-transform

● Linearity
+ ( ) = + ( )

● Time shift
( − ) = ( )

( + ) = − ( )

where is positive integer

● Final value Theorem

lim = lim −1 ( )
→ →

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Digital Control System BEKC4683

( )
● Example 2.3 – Find the transfer function for difference equation
( )

u =2 −1 + −2 + ( )

then find ( ) if is a unit step function.

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Digital Control System BEKC4683

( )
● Example 2.4 – Find the discrete transfer function for system in diagram below:
( )

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Digital Control System BEKC4683

2.4 Inverse ℤ-transform

● Now, we have a discrete transfer function where we can apply input signals and
combine other ℤ-domain functions.
● But at some point, we will want to carry out an inverse transform to get back to the
time domain.
● There many ways to carry out an inverse transform – (1) Partial fraction method, (2)
computational technique, (3) long division method and (4) inversion formula method.

2.4.1 Inverse ℤ-transform using Partial Fraction method

● Example 2.5 – Find the sampled signal ( ) for:

Ex 2.5.1: =
.

Ex 2.5.2: =
. .

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Digital Control System BEKC4683

● Example 2.6 – Find the sampled signal ( ) for functions below, then sketch and find
the sequence ( )

Ex 2.6.1: =

Ex 2.6.2: =
. .

Ex 2.6.3: = (Quiz#1)
.

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Digital Control System BEKC4683

2.4.2 Inverse ℤ-transform using Direct-division method

● Direct division method can be used to find the inverse Z-transform of a polynomial or a
function.
● Direct division method obtain the inverse Z-transform by expanding ( ) into an
infinite power series in .
● Useful when it is difficult to obtain the closed-form expression for the inverse Z-
transform or it is desired to find only the first several term of ( ).

Example 2.7 – Find y( ) for polynomial =

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Digital Control System BEKC4683

2.5 Pulse Transfer Function

2.5.1 Transfer Function of ZOH

● Recall the purpose of ZOH in Chapter 1.

● The transfer function of ZOH is :

= ⋯ ⋯ 2.6

● Consider an open-loop system in Figure 2.1(a),

∗( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )

ZOH

( )
Figure 2.1(a): Digital system combining ZOH function with a continuous system ( )

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Digital Control System BEKC4683

● Consider an open-loop system in Figure 2.1(a), is the plant transfer function.

is the product of the plant transfer function and the ZOH transfer function, that is

1−
= ⟹ = ⋯ ⋯ (2.7)

● Equation (2.7) in z-domain:

1−
=

= 1−

= − ⋯⋯( . )

Discussion:
● We know the Laplace transform of the ZOH can be written as = . So, if
we wish to transform a system from the s-domain to the z-domain we must first
combine the ZOH with the system (Figure 2.1(a)).
● Equation (2.8) is very important and will be used extensively when converting
continuous time systems to discrete systems.
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Digital Control System BEKC4683

Exercise 1:
Given the system shown in figure below, the plant = with input ( ) a unit step
function. Determine the output function ( ).

∗( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )

Figure Ex2: Sampled-data system

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Digital Control System BEKC4683

2.5.2 Pulse Transfer Function – definition.

∗( ) ∗(
( ) ( ) )
( )
1 2

Figure 2.2: Sampled-data system

● Sampler is synchronized with the sampler . Hence, the sampled output:

∗ = ( ) ∗( ) ∗ ⟹ ∗ = ∗ ∗ ⋯ ⋯ (2.9)

which is equivalent to:

= ⋯ ⋯ (2.10)

● Equation (2.10) can be written as

( )
= ⋯ ⋯ (2.11)
( )

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Digital Control System BEKC4683

● Equation (2.10) can be written as

( )
= ⋯ ⋯ (2.11)
( )

Discussion:
● ( ) in equation (2.11) is called Pulse Transfer Function of the discrete-time system.
● Definition1: Pulse transfer function is the ratio of the pulse output ( ) and the pulse
input ( ).
● Definition2: Pulse transfer function is equal to the ℤ-transform of a discrete output
value ∗ ( ) divided by the ℤ-transform of the sampled input value ∗ ( ).

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Digital Control System BEKC4683

2.5.3 Some rules for discretizing continuous systems.

● A digital system with cascaded elements

∗( )
∗( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

Figure 2.4: A digital system with cascaded elements

The pulse transfer function:

( )
=
( )
= ( ) ( ) ⋯ ⋯ (2.15)

Lump s-domain blocks first before

we transform to the z-domain
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Digital Control System BEKC4683

● A digital system with cascaded elements with sampler in between

∗( ∗( )
( ) ∗( ) ( ) )
( ) ( )

Figure 2.5: A digital system with cascaded elements with a sampler in between

The pulse transfer function:

( )
= ( ) ⋯ ⋯ (2.16)
( )

Each individual block must be transformed

into z-domain before lumped together

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Digital Control System BEKC4683

● A digital system with cascaded elements with continuous-time input

∗( ∗( )
( ) ( ) )
( ) ( )

Figure 2.6: A digital system with cascaded elements with continuous-time input

The output in z-domain :

= ⋯ ⋯ (2.17)

The pulse transfer function of the digital system in Figure 2.6 cannot be written
since ( ) cannot be factor out from .

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Digital Control System BEKC4683

2.5.4 Typical Configurations for Closed-Loop Discrete-time Control Systems

( )
( )=
1+ ( )

( )
( )=
1+ ( ) ( )

( )
( )=
1+ ( )

( )
( )=
1+ ( )

( )
( )=
1+ ( )

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Digital Control System BEKC4683

2.6 Laplace to Z-transform

● Previously, we looked at converting the -function of the plant to the -plane
including a ; we did this directly using the z-transform tables.

● Now, we are going to consider the situation where an existing analogue controller
( ) is in place (Figure 2.9), and how we convert this to the -plane? In other
words, what can we replace with in term of to transform between planes?

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
+
−

Figure 2.9

● There are many methods to transform ( ) from to the -plane:

- Backwards difference method.
- Bilinear transformation method.
- Pole-zero mapping.

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Digital Control System BEKC4683

Backwards Difference Transformation:

−
= ⋯ ⋯ ( . )

Bilinear Transformation:

−
= ⋯ ⋯ ( . )
+

Pole-zero Mapping:
−
= ⋯ ⋯ ( . )
+

( ) = ( ) ⋯ ⋯ ( . )
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Digital Control System BEKC4683

● Example 2.7 – Find the z-transform for = using

- Backwards Difference Transformation

- Bilinear Transformation

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