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Article
Design Optimization of an Automotive Turbocharger
Thrust Bearing Using a CFD-Based THD
Computational Approach †
Anastassios G. Charitopoulos 1 , Roel Visser 2 , Rob Eling 2 and Christos I. Papadopoulos 1, *
1 School of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Zografos,
157 80 Athina, Greece; ancharitopoulos@gmail.com
2 Mitsubishi Turbocharger and Engine Europe B.V., 1332 EC Almere, The Netherlands;
RVisser@MTEE.EU (R.V.); REling@MTEE.EU (R.E.)
* Correspondence: chpap@central.ntua.gr; Tel.: +30-210-772-3988
† This paper is an extended version of a paper published in 16th EDF-PPRIME workshop on Behavior of
journal and thrust bearings under transient and mixed lubrication regime Futuroscope, France, 5–6
October 2017.

Received: 24 December 2017; Accepted: 13 February 2018; Published: 22 February 2018

Abstract: In a quest to reduce fuel consumption and emissions of automotive combustion engines,
friction losses from many different sources need to be minimized. For modern designs of
turbochargers commonly used in the automotive industry, reduction of friction losses results in
better efficiency and also contributes to a faster transient response. The thrust bearing is one of the
main contributors to the mechanical losses of a turbocharger. Therefore, it is crucial to optimize
the design of the thrust bearing so that it has minimum friction losses while keeping sufficient
thrust carrying capacity. One of the main challenges of turbocharger thrust bearing design, is that
rotation speed is not fixed: the turbocharger may have a rotation speed which varies between 0 to
as much as 250 kRPM. Moreover, the thrust bearing generates considerable heat, which changes
the temperature of the oil film and its surroundings. In the present work, the design of the thrust
bearing of an automotive turbocharger has been optimized. A CFD-based Thermohydrodynamic
(THD) computational approach has been developed, taking into consideration heat dissipation,
conjugate heat transfer throughout the bearing domain including the surrounding parts, as well
as shear thinning and cavitation in the lubricant domain. An optimizer has been coupled to the
CFD solver, with the aim of identifying bearing designs with reduced friction losses. Two bearing
concepts have been evaluated: a taper-land design—which is a commonly applied thrust bearing
concept—as well as a pocket bearing design. The resulting optimum pocket designs exhibit improved
performance, in comparison to the optimum taper-land design. The present results indicate that
(a) the pocket design concept can substantially contribute to further reducing the friction losses
of a turbocharger, and (b) optimal design parameters of pocket bearings depend on the specific
application (size, operating conditions), therefore detailed calculations should be performed to verify
optimum performance.

Keywords: THD; thrust bearing; turbocharger; cavitation; shear thinning; optimization; CFD

1. Introduction
Turbochargers have enabled combustion engines to become smaller and more efficient while
remaining equally powerful. The amount of turbocharged gasoline passenger vehicles has grown
considerably the past decades. Moreover, almost all diesel engines for passenger vehicles are nowadays
equipped with turbochargers [1]. A turbocharger is basically a rotor that features a turbine on one

Lubricants 2018, 6, 21; doi:10.3390/lubricants6010021 www.mdpi.com/journal/lubricants


Lubricants 2018, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 21

on one side and a compressor on the other side (Figure 1). The turbine scavenges energy from the
exhaust gas flow and delivers it to the compressor, which compresses ambient air and feeds it to the
engine. As the density of the air is increased by compression, more air can be admitted at each
combustion stroke and hence more power can be made [2].
Lubricants 2018, 6, 21 2 of 21
Turbochargers operate at high rotational speeds, with maxima typically well over 200 kRPM. To
support the rotor at these rotation speeds, either ball bearings or fluid film bearings are used.
Although fluid film bearings have, in general, higher friction losses than ball bearings, their low-cost
side and a price
compressor on the other side (Figure 1). The turbine scavenges energy from the exhaust gas
(when produced in large volumes) and their lower sensitivity for out of balance induced
flow and delivers it to the compressor,
vibrations and consequent whiningwhich compresses
noise render them the ambient airofand
bearing type feeds
choice it vast
for the to the engine. As the
majority
density of the air is increased by compression, more air can be admitted at each combustion stroke and
of passenger vehicle turbochargers [2–4]. The fluid film bearing system of a turbocharger commonly
hence more consists
power of can
semi-be
ormade
full floating
[2]. ring bearings for radial support as well as a tapered-land thrust
bearing for support in axial direction [5].

Figure 1. Turbocharger rotor-bearing system, featuring the compressor wheel, the turbine wheel, a
Figure 1. Turbocharger rotor-bearing system, featuring the compressor wheel, the turbine wheel,
thrust bearing and two floating ring bearings.
a thrust bearing and two floating ring bearings.
The thrust bearing carries the following two thrust loads [2]:

Turbochargers
● operate
the static pressuresatacting
highonrotational
the compressorspeeds,
wheel with
and themaxima typically well over 200 kRPM.
turbine wheel.
● the change of momentum of the air flowing from axial
To support the rotor at these rotation speeds, either ball bearings or fluid direction to radial film
direction in the are used.
bearings
compressor and vice versa for the turbine.
Although fluid film bearings have, in general, higher friction losses than ball bearings, their low-cost
Depending on the operating condition of the turbocharger, the static thrust load is either directed
price (when produced in large volumes) and their lower sensitivity for out of balance induced
towards the turbine or towards the compressor. Therefore, the thrust bearing is two-sided: it contains
vibrations aand
taper-land profile atwhining
consequent both sidesnoise renderFurthermore,
of the bearing. them the bearing type gas
as the exhaust of choice
flow of afor the vast majority
combustion
of passenger
engine is mostly a pulsating flow, consequently the thrust load has a relatively high dynamiccommonly
vehicle turbochargers [2–4]. The fluid film bearing system of a turbocharger
consists ofcomponent [6]. floating ring bearings for radial support as well as a tapered-land thrust bearing
semi- or full
Minimization of friction losses is generally pursued to increase turbocharger efficiency and to
for support in axial direction [5].
decrease transient response times. Particularly at low engine speeds, turbocharger friction losses play
The thrust bearing
a significant rolecarries the following
[7], contributing two thrustturbo
to the well-known loadslag[2]:
[8]. Depending on the operating
conditions and the design of the bearing system, the thrust bearing may be responsible for roughly
• the static pressures acting on the compressor wheel and the turbine wheel.
half of the total friction losses of the bearing system [7,9]. Therefore, the friction losses of turbocharger
• the change of momentum
thrust bearings have alreadyof beenthe air flowing
studied extensivelyfrom
[7–14].axial direction to radial direction in the
compressor Oneand vice
of the waysversa for the
to reduce turbine.
the friction losses in a turbocharger thrust bearing is by application
of surface texture features. Recent research has been carried out to investigate the effect of periodic
Depending on the
irregularities operating
of various condition
shapes of the
(rectangular, turbocharger,
trapezoidal, theorstatic
cylindrical thrust
spherical), load isoneither
imprinted part directed
of the stator of fixed inclination thrust bearings on bearing performance. The reported
towards the turbine or towards the compressor. Therefore, the thrust bearing is two-sided: it contains numerical [15–
22] and experimental studies [23–25], demonstrated potential for improving bearing performance. As
a taper-land profile at both sides of the bearing. Furthermore, as the exhaust gas flow of a combustion
current technology has enabled the accurate manufacturing of such micro-scale patterns,
engine is contemporary
mostly a pulsating
research onflow, consequently
the performance the bearings
of textured thrust isload hasmore
growing a relatively high
intense, with the dynamic
component [6].
optimization of texture geometry and placement being attempted by several researchers [5–8]. Apart
from research
Minimization of aiming
frictionat losses
identifying the potential
is generally of surfaceto
pursued texturing
increase to fixed pad thrust bearings,
turbocharger efficiency and to
relevant studies on pivoted-pad thrust bearings have also been reported [26–30], showcasing
decrease transient response times. Particularly at low engine speeds, turbocharger friction losses
substantial performance improvements in terms of increased load carrying capacity and reduced
play a significant role [7], contributing to the well-known turbo lag [8]. Depending on the operating
conditions and the design of the bearing system, the thrust bearing may be responsible for roughly
half of the total friction losses of the bearing system [7,9]. Therefore, the friction losses of turbocharger
thrust bearings have already been studied extensively [7–14].
One of the ways to reduce the friction losses in a turbocharger thrust bearing is by application
of surface texture features. Recent research has been carried out to investigate the effect of periodic
irregularities of various shapes (rectangular, trapezoidal, cylindrical or spherical), imprinted on
part of the stator of fixed inclination thrust bearings on bearing performance. The reported
numerical [15–22] and experimental studies [23–25], demonstrated potential for improving bearing
performance. As current technology has enabled the accurate manufacturing of such micro-scale
patterns, contemporary research on the performance of textured bearings is growing more intense,
with the optimization of texture geometry and placement being attempted by several researchers [5–8].
Apart from research aiming at identifying the potential of surface texturing to fixed pad thrust
bearings, relevant studies on pivoted-pad thrust bearings have also been reported [26–30], showcasing
Lubricants 2018, 6, 21 3 of 21

substantial performance improvements in terms of increased load carrying capacity and reduced
power losses.
Detailed modeling is required for accurate representation and study of thrust bearings. In general,
the use of the Reynolds equation gives satisfactory results for problems of hydrodynamic lubrication
of interacting surfaces with simple geometry and low values of rotation speed. However, for more
complex geometries (such as textured geometries) and high values of rotational speed, additional
phenomena need to be taken into consideration. The applicability of the Reynolds equation for
textured, infinite-width sliders has been investigated in [31], where it was shown that its validity
cannot be decided by the Reynolds number alone, as the geometric parameters of surface texturing
(in particular the texture length-to-depth ratio) may have an equally important influence. Generally,
the use of Navier-Stokes equation solvers has lately become increasingly popular for accurate flow
analysis of fluid bearings. In particular, detailed CFD numerical analyses can be advantageous since
(a) they provide increased calculation accuracy in cases with relatively high values of Reynolds number,
especially for highly loaded thrust bearings and high values of rotational speed, (b) heat dissipation in
the lubricant domain and heat transfer through the bearing and rotor solid can be efficiently simulated,
and (c) flow phenomena in the bearing groove region can be accurately calculated by simulating the
mixing of hot oil at the pad outlet with cold oil fed to the groove region (i.e., by detailed simulation
of the hot-oil-carry-over phenomenon) [32]. Further, lubricant behaviour at extreme conditions,
in particular dependence of oil viscosity on temperature and pressure [33], cavitation [34–36] and shear
thinning can be simulated in detail, adding to the complexity of the built models and to the required
computational time. In the literature, several optimization techniques have been suggested for refining
bearing design, either in terms of macroscopic geometric design parameters, [37–39], or by introducing
artificial surface texturing [21,22].
In the present work, a design optimization study of two different configurations of automotive
turbocharger thrust bearings is performed. In particular, the two different configurations studied are a
conventional taper-land bearing and a curved pocket bearing design. For both bearing configurations,
a parametric CFD-based THD model is generated, capable of accounting for heat dissipation, conjugate
heat transfer throughout the bearing domain including the surrounding parts, as well as shear thinning
and cavitation in the lubricant domain. A design optimization problem is stated, seeking sets of design
(geometric) variables that optimize the frictional behaviour of the bearing. Finally, the optimization
results are evaluated for determination of bearing designs that exhibit low friction losses, while
maintaining reliable operational characteristics.

2. Problem Setup
In the present work, a thermohydrodynamic (THD) approach is utilized for the study of a
low-load, high-speed turbocharger thrust bearing. The present approach is based on CFD instead of
the conventional Reynolds equation. Turbocharger thrust bearings are characterized by high values of
rotational speed and oil temperature. Therefore, fluid inertia may play a role [8], which is conveniently
included by utilising the Navier-Stokes equations. In the present study two different thrust bearing
designs are analysed, in particular (a) a tapered-land thrust bearing and (b) a pocket thrust bearing.
For the optimization process, reference bearing designs have been selected based on parametric
analyses utilising the Reynolds equation. Further, parametric CFD-based THD models have been
generated, and optimization simulations have been carried out utilizing an in-house optimizer based
on genetic algorithms.

2.1. Bearing Geometries


The thrust bearing configurations investigated in the present study consists of four sector pads.
The bearings main geometric parameters are given in Table 1. Regarding the tapered-land bearing
geometry, a wedge-shaped geometry of the lubricating film is generated between the tapered part of
the pad and the rotor, which leads to pressure buildup. The remaining part of the bearing is parallel
Lubricants 2018, 6, 21 4 of 21

to the rotor surface. Circumferentially, at the outer part of the pad, a lip is present in order to reduce
side leakage and pressure drop at the high-pressure region of the bearing (Figure 2). The shape
and dimensions of the tapered-land bearing was such that an automatic mesh procedure was not
feasible.Lubricants
It is noted
2018, 6, xthat an automated
FOR PEER REVIEW meshing procedure is essential for performing 4unattended of 21
design optimization. To overcome this issue, an equivalent slider geometry has been generated, with
dimensions of the tapered-land bearing was such that an automatic mesh procedure was not feasible.
main dimensions identical to those of a single bearing pad (Figure 3). In order to better approach the
It is noted2018,that an automated meshing procedure is essential for performing unattended4 of design
ofLubricants
physicsoptimization.
Lubricants 2018, 6, x6,FOR
the bearing x FOR PEERREVIEW
geometry,
PEER
To overcome
REVIEW
thisthe velocity
issue, of the slider
an equivalent fluid geometry
in the fluid-rotor interfacewith
has been generated,
21of 21
has4main
been set as
proportional
dimensions to theidentical
dimensions radial coordinate,
to those ofbearing a to accommodate
single wasbearing the velocity
pad automatic
(Figure variation
3). In order that
to better isfeasible.
observed
approach the in the
dimensions ofof
thethe tapered-land
tapered-land bearing was such that
such thatan an automaticmesh meshprocedure
procedure was
wasnot
not feasible.
thrust bearing
physics geometry.
of
It is noted thethat
bearing However,
geometry,meshing
an automated the
the total
velocity area of
of the
procedure the
fluid
is generated
in
essentialthefor
It is noted that an automated meshing procedure is essential for performing unattended design
slider
fluid-rotor
performing cannot
interface be
has
unattended equal
been set to
design as that of
the referenceoptimization.
proportionalbearing, Tothus,
to the overcome this issue,to
radialdifferences
coordinate, anaccommodate
in equivalent slider
performance geometry
theare
velocity has been
variation
expected. To generated,
that
this isend, with
observed
for main
in the
performance
optimization. To overcome this issue, an equivalent slider geometry has been generated, with main
dimensions
thrust bearing identical
geometry. to However,
those of a the single bearing
total area ofpad the(Figure
generated3). Inslider
ordercannot
to betterbe approach the of
equal to that
comparisons,
dimensions a reference
identical to slider
thosebearing
of a single has been
bearing assumed;
pad (Figure 3). all Inoptimal
order totapered-land
better approachdesigns the are
physics of the bearing geometry, the velocity of the fluid in the fluid-rotor
the reference bearing, thus, differences in performance are expected. To this end, for performance interface has been set as
presentedphysics
in of the
comparison bearing
proportionalatoreference to geometry,
the
the radialslider the
reference
coordinate, velocity
slider of the
design.
to accommodate fluid in the
the velocity fluid-rotor interface
variationtapered-land has
that is observed been set
in theareas
comparisons, bearing has been assumed; all optimal designs
proportional
Thepresented
curved to the
pocket
thrust bearing radial coordinate,
bearing
geometry. geometry to total
accommodate
(Figure 4)the the velocityslider
corresponds variation
to acannot that
simple be is observed
plain thatinofthebearing
toparallel
in comparison toHowever,
the the
reference sliderarea of
design. generated equal
thrust
the bearing geometry.
reference bearing, However,
thus, the total
differences in area of theare
performance generated
expected. slider
To cannot
this end, be equal
for to that of
performance
geometry, featuring
The curved a pocket
pocket bearinggeometry with(Figure
geometry circular 4) circumferential
corresponds to a simple edges,plain a straight
parallelradial
bearingaft edge
thecomparisons,
reference bearing, thus,slider
a reference differences
bearinginhas performance
been assumed; are expected.
all optimal Totapered-land
this end, fordesigns
performance
are
geometry,
and a circular featuring
radial fore aedge.
pocket The geometry
curved withpocket
circularbearing
circumferential
features edges,
an aoil
straight
inlet radial
groove aft in
edgethe inner
comparisons,
presented inacomparison
reference to slider bearing slider
the reference has been assumed; all optimal tapered-land designs are
design.
and
surface of a circular
the bearing radial fore
inpocket
orderto edge.
tothe The curved
bereference
able to have pocket bearing
adesign.
large features
inflow oftofresh an oil inlet
lowplain groove
temperature in the inner
oil, and avoid
presented Theincurved
comparison bearing geometry slider
(Figure 4) corresponds a simple parallel bearing
surface of the bearing in order to be able to have a large inflow of fresh low temperature oil, and
cavitatinggeometry,
conditions
The curved at
featuring thea oil
pocket pocketinlet
bearing regionwith
geometry
geometry due to starvation.
(Figure
circular4)circumferential
corresponds toedges, a simple plainradial
a straight parallel bearing
aft edge
avoid cavitating conditions at the oil inlet region due to starvation.
and a circular
geometry, radial
featuring fore edge.
a pocket The curved
geometry with pocket
circularbearing features an
circumferential oil inlet
edges, groove radial
a straight in the inner
aft edge
andsurface of theradial
a circular bearing
foreinedge.
orderThe
to becurved
able topocket
have abearing
large inflow of fresh
features low
an oil temperature
inlet groove inoil,
theand
inner
avoidof
surface cavitating conditions
the bearing at the
in order to oil
be inlet
able region due
to have to starvation.
a large inflow of fresh low temperature oil, and
avoid cavitating conditions at the oil inlet region due to starvation.

Figure 2. Reference tapered-land bearing geometry (sketch and ANSYS CFX model).
Figure 2. Reference tapered-land bearing geometry (sketch and ANSYS CFX model).
Figure 2. Reference tapered-land bearing geometry (sketch and ANSYS CFX model).

Figure 2. Reference tapered-land bearing geometry (sketch and ANSYS CFX model).

Figure 3. Model of a slider characterized by geometric properties equivalent to that of the tapered-
land bearing.
Figure 3. Model of a slider characterized by geometric properties equivalent to that of the tapered-
Model
Figure 3. land bearing.of a slider characterized by geometric properties equivalent to that of the
tapered-land bearing.
Figure 3. Model of a slider characterized by geometric properties equivalent to that of the tapered-
land bearing.

(a)
(a)
(b)
(b)
Figure 4. (a)
Figure Computational
4. (a) Computationaldomains
domainsof
of the
the thrust bearingmodel;
thrust bearing model;(b)
(b)Geometry
Geometryofof
thethe curved
curved pocket
pocket
introduced on the bearing pad geometry.
introduced on the bearing pad geometry.
(a) (b)
Figure 4. (a) Computational domains of the thrust bearing model; (b) Geometry of the curved pocket
Figure 4. (a) Computational domains of the thrust bearing model; (b) Geometry of the curved pocket
introduced on the bearing pad geometry.
introduced on the bearing pad geometry.
Lubricants 2018, 6, 21 5 of 21

Table 1. Thrust bearing geometry parameters.

Geometric Inner Outer Pad Rotor


Pad Area
Parameter Diameter Diameter Thickness Thickness
Value 7.5 mm 10.5 mm 9.79 mm2 2.73 mm 2 mm

2.2. Numerical Model


The conservation equations, solved with the CFD code ANSYS CFX for steady, incompressible
flow, with zero gravitational and external body forces, are:
Mass conservation equation:
∇·V = 0 (1)

Momentum equations:
ρ(V ·∇)V = −∇p + ∇·(µ·∇V) (2)

Energy equation, fluid domain:

ρcpf V ·∇T = ∇·(λf ·∇T) − τ:∇V (3)

Energy equation, solid domains:


∇·(λs ·∇T) = 0 (4)

where, V is the fluid velocity vector (m/s), p is the fluid pressure (Pa), T is the fluid/solid temperature
(K), τ is the viscous stress tensor (Pa), ρ is the oil density (kg/m3 ), µ is the oil dynamic viscosity
(kg/(m·s)), cpf is the oil specific heat capacity (J/(kg·K)), λf is the oil thermal conductivity (W/(m·K)),
and λs corresponds to the thermal conductivity of the pad and the rotor (W/(m·K)).
In the present work, the utilized values of thermophysical properties for the lubricant are given in
Table 2. In particular, a 5W30 lubricant is assumed, characterized by a density value of 855 kg/m3 ,
whereas the rheological properties of the lubricant are described using the Vogel equation for the
dependence of viscosity on temperature T and the Cross equation to describe the shear-rate influence
on viscosity, according to the following relation [10]:
. .
µ ( T, γ) = AeB/(T +C) (r1 + (1 − r1 )/(1 + (K γ)m )) (5)
.
where γ is the strain rate of the lubricant, c the specific heat capacity and k the thermal conductivity.
Parameters A, B, C, r, m and K characterizing the rheological behaviour of the present lubricant are
also given in Table 2 [10]. The thermophysical properties of the solid components of the bearing
(rotor/stator) are presented in Table 3.

Table 2. Lubricating oil parameters.

Oil Parameters
Symbol Value Units Comments
ρ 855 Kg·m3 Oil density
c 2.1 kJ/(kg·K) Heat capacity
k 0.145 W/(m·K) Thermal conductivity
A 0.44 mPa·s Temperature coefficient.
B 633 ◦C Temperature coefficient
C 88.6 ◦C Temperature coefficient
rl 0.5 - Shear rate coefficient
m 0.8 - Shear rate coefficient
K 7.2 × 10−7 s Shear rate coefficient
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2018, 6, 6 of 21

Table 3. Thermophysical properties of the pad and rotor materials.


Table 3. Thermophysical properties of the pad and rotor materials.
Property Pad Material Collar Material
Property Specific Heat Capacity
Pad434 [J·kg−1·K−1] 434 [J·kg−1·KCollar
Material −1]
Material
Thermal Conductivity122
Specific Heat Capacity 434 (J·kg− [W·m
1 ·K−1 )·K ]50 [W·m ·K
−1 −1
434] (J·kg−1 ·K−1 )
−1 −1

Thermal ConductivityMolar Mass 122 (W − 1


61·m[kg·kmol − 1
·K ) ] 55 [kg·kmol
−1 50−1](W·m−1 ·K−1 )
Molar Mass 61 (kg ·kmol − 1 −3] (kg·kmol
) −3] 7854 [kg·m55 −1 )
Density 8470 [kg·m
Density 8470 (kg·m ) − 3 −
7854 (kg·m 3 )
Regarding cavitation, the Rayleigh-Plesset model is utilized [13]; vapour pressure is calculated
following the Antoine
Regarding equation
cavitation, (Equation (6)) [13].
the Rayleigh-Plesset model is utilized [13]; vapour pressure is calculated
following the Antoine equation (Equation (6)) [13].
logp = Aa − Ba/(Ca + Tf) (6)
logp = Aa − Ba /(Ca + Tf ) (6)
where Aa = 10.6751275622054, Ba = 2764.82814496125 and Ca = 24.0334359061956.
where TheAaReynolds
= 10.6751275622054, Ba = 2764.82814496125
number is defined based on the rotorand C a = 24.0334359061956.
velocity and the minimum film thickness,
Hmin. The
For Reynolds
the thrustnumber
bearing,isthe
defined
rotor based on the rotor
circumferential velocity
velocity U =and
ωDthe
m/2 minimum
is taken asfilm the thickness,
reference
H min . Forwhere
velocity, the thrust
Dm is bearing, the rotor
the bearing mean circumferential
diameter. As velocity U = ωD
fluid viscosity m /2 is taken
decreases dueastothe reference
heating and
velocity, where D
shear thinning, a local
m is the bearing mean diameter. As fluid viscosity decreases due
value of the Reynolds number can also be considered; in the present study, a to heating and
shear thinning,
maximum valueaoflocal
aboutvalue
340,of the Reynolds
accounting number
for 250 kRPM,can hasalso beobtained,
been considered; in the the
therefore present
flow study,
in the
a maximum
lubricant valueisoflaminar
domain about 340,
for accounting
all studied for 250 kRPM, has been obtained, therefore the flow in the
cases.
lubricant domain is laminar for all studied cases.
2.2.1. Mesh Characteristics
2.2.1. Mesh Characteristics
Appropriate unstructured meshes of the fluid and the solid domains of the systems have been
Appropriate
generated, unstructured
involving meshes
approximately 4 × of
10the fluid
5 and 7 × and the solid
105 cells, domains In
respectively. of the
the fluid
systemsfilmhave been
region of
generated, involving approximately 4 × 10 5 and 7 × 105 cells, respectively. In the fluid film region of
the tapered-land bearing, a minimum of 20 cell layers in the cross-flow direction (along film
the tapered-land
thickness) bearing,
has been used,awhereas
minimum inof 20pocket
the cell layers in themodel,
bearing cross-flow directionof(along
a minimum 40 cellfilm thickness)
layers in the
cross flow direction has been used (20 layers have been used in the pocket region). In Figures 5flow
has been used, whereas in the pocket bearing model, a minimum of 40 cell layers in the cross and
direction
6, has been
the meshes can used (20 layers for
be visualized have been
both used ingeometries.
studied the pocket region).
A meshIndependence
Figures 5 andstudy6, the meshes
has been
can be visualized for both studied geometries. A mesh dependence study has been conducted.
conducted.

(a)

Figure 5. Cont.
Lubricants 2018, 6, 21 7 of 21
Lubricants 2018, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 21
Lubricants 2018, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 21

(b)
(b)
Figure 5. Mesh details of (a) the tapered-land slider model (b) the curved pocket bearing model.
Figure 5. Mesh details of (a) the tapered-land slider model (b) the curved pocket bearing model.
Figure 5. Mesh details of (a) the tapered-land slider model (b) the curved pocket bearing model.
2.2.2. Boundary Conditions
2.2.2. Boundary Conditions
2.2.2. Boundary Conditions
All walls are considered impermeable, and the no-slip condition is applied. The bearing rotor of
All
All walls
walls are
are considered
considered impermeable,
impermeable, and
and the no-slip
no-slip condition
thevelocity, condition is applied.
applied. The The bearing rotor
rotor of
the thrust bearing is rotating at a constant angular ω, giving is a circumferential bearing
local velocity of
the thrust
the= thrust bearing
bearing is rotating
is rotating at a constant
at a constant angular
angular velocity, ω, giving a circumferential local velocity
U ω·r, where r is the local radius; rotational speed velocity, ω, giving
of the bearings variesa circumferential
from 50 kRPM to local
250velocity
kRPM.
UU =
= ω·r,where
ω·r, where rrisisthethelocal
localradius;
radius;rotational
rotational speed
speed ofofthe
thebearings
bearings varies
varies from
from 50 50 kRPM
kRPM to to 250
250kRPM.
kRPM.
The inner fluid surface of the fluid domain (see Figure 6), is considered to be an opening, allowing
The
The inner
inner fluid
fluid surface
surfaceofofthe thefluid
fluid domain
domain (see Figure
(see Figure6), 6),
is considered
is considered to betoanbeopening,
an allowing
opening, flow
flow in both directions. For the inner surface of the lubricant, a boundary pressure of allowing
4 bar is
in both directions.
flow in bothThere, For
directions. the inner
For the surface of the lubricant, a boundary pressure of 4 bar is considered.
considered. the feeding oil inner surfaceisofassumed
temperature the lubricant, a boundary
to be constant at 150 pressure
°C, being of a4typical
bar is
There, the feeding
considered. There, oil temperature
the feeding oil is assumedistoassumed
temperature be constant to be 150 ◦ C, at
atconstant being
150 a typical
°C, being value
a typicalof
value of temperature of a highly loaded automotive engine. The outer fluid surface is considered as
temperature of a highly ofaloaded automotive engine. The outer The fluidouter
surface is considered as a pressure
avalue of temperature
pressure outlet, with a constant
highly loaded
value automotive
of 0.0 MPa engine.
relative to atmospheric; fluid surface is considered
a Neumann boundary as
outlet,
a with
pressure a constant
outlet, with value
a of
constant 0.0 MPa
value relative
of 0.0 to
MPa atmospheric;
relative to a Neumann
atmospheric; boundary
a Neumann condition
boundary is
condition is considered for the velocity and temperature, while no inflow is permitted. Rotational
considered for the
condition isisconsidered velocity and temperature, while no inflow is permitted. Rotational periodicity is
periodicity consideredfor for the
the velocity and temperature,
inflow-outflow sides of thewhile fluid andno inflow is permitted.
solid domains. Rotational
This boundary,
considered
periodicity for the inflow-outflow
is considered for accounts sides of the fluid
the inflow-outflow sidesand ofsolid domains.
the fluid Thisdomains.
andconsecutive
solid boundary,This applied at the
applied at the fluid domain for hot-oil-carry-over between pads. Atboundary,
the fluid-
fluid domain accounts for hot-oil-carry-over between consecutive pads. At the fluid-solid interfaces,
solid interfaces, continuity of temperature and heat flux is implemented. In Table 4, allthe
applied at the fluid domain accounts for hot-oil-carry-over between consecutive pads. At fluid-
thermal
continuity
solid of temperature
interfaces, continuity andof heat flux is implemented.
temperature and heat In Table
flux is 4, all thermal In
implemented. boundary
Table 4,conditions
all thermal of
boundary conditions of the model surfaces are identified. Operating conditions of the reference
the model surfaces
boundary conditions are identified.
of the aremodel Operating
surfaces conditions of
are identified. the reference tapered-land bearing
Operating conditions of the reference design
tapered-land bearing design presented in Table 5.
are presented bearing
tapered-land in Tabledesign
5. are presented in Table 5.

Figure 6. Cont.
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Figure 6. Boundary condition surfaces identification.


Figure 6. Boundary condition surfaces identification.

Table 4. Thermal boundary conditions of the computational model.

Collar Table 4. Thermal boundary conditions of the computational model.


Top surface Heat transfer coeff: kair/(15·r)·Re2/3·Pr1/3 Tamb = 100 °C
Collar
Outer surface Heat transfer coeff: kair/(15·r)·Re2/3·Pr1/3,Tamb = 100 °C
2/3 ·Pr1/3 , T ◦
Top surface
Bottom Fluid-SolidHeat transfer
interface: Continuity of ·heat
coeff: kair /(15 r)·Reflux amb = 100 C
and temperature
Outer surface 2/3
Heat transfer coeff: k /(15·r)·Re ·Pr , T 1/3 ◦
= 100 C
Inner surface Heat transfer coeff: 1000 W/(mair2·K),Tamb = 100 °C amb
Bottom Fluid-Solid interface: Continuity of heat flux and temperature
InnerSides
surface Periodic Conditions
Heat transfer coeff: 1000 W/(m2 ·K),Tamb = 100 ◦ C
SidesPad Periodic Conditions
Pad Top Fluid-Solid interface: Continuity of heat flux and temperature
Top Bottom/Inner surface Heat transfer coeff: 100
Fluid-Solid W/(m2·K),
interface: T = 50 °C
Continuity of heat flux and temperature
Bottom/Inner surface
Outer surface Heat transfer coeff:
Heat 300 coeff:
transfer W/(m1002·K), Tamb2=·K),
W/(m 100 °C = 50 ◦ C
Tamb
OuterSides
surface Heat transfer coeff: 300 W/(m ·K), Tamb = 100 ◦ C
Periodic Conditions
2

Sides Periodic Conditions


Fluid Domain
Fluid Domain
Inlet Rotational periodicity (hot-oil carry-over taken into account)
Inlet
Outer surface Outlet: zeroRotational periodicity (hot-oil carry-over taken into account)
relative pressure
Outer surface Outlet: zero relative pressure
SidesSides Periodic Conditions
Periodic Conditions
Nomenclature: r: Rotor
Nomenclature: r: Rotor radius;
radius; Re:value
Re: Local Local value ofnumber;
of Reynolds Reynolds number;
Pr: Local value Pr: Localnumber,
of Prandtl value of
kair :Prandtl
Specific
number, kair:ofSpecific
heat capacity air. heat capacity of air.

Table 5. Operating conditions of the reference tapered-land


Table tapered-land bearing.
bearing.

Operating
OperatingConditions (Extreme)
Conditions (Extreme)
Lubricating oil
Lubricating oil 5W30 5W30
Oil feed temperature 150 °C
Oil feed temperature 150 ◦ C
Ambient temperature
Ambient temperature 100 °C 100 ◦ C
Oil feed pressure 4 bar
Oil feed pressure 4 bar
Rotational speed 200 kRPM
Rotational speed 200 kRPM

2.3. Optimization Procedure


2.3. Optimization Procedure
The principal performance indices of a thrust bearing are load carrying capacity and friction
The principal performance indices of a thrust bearing are load carrying capacity and friction
coefficient. To optimize the performance of a thrust bearing, maximization of load carrying capacity
coefficient. To optimize the performance of a thrust bearing, maximization of load carrying capacity
will lead to larger film thickness for a given load (therefore less bearing wear and better performance
will lead to larger film thickness for a given load (therefore less bearing wear and better performance
in transient loads/impact loads), or to smaller bearing dimensions for a given value of minimum
in transient loads/impact loads), or to smaller bearing dimensions for a given value of minimum film
film thickness, which results in reduced friction power losses. Furthermore, minimization of the
thickness, which results in reduced friction power losses. Furthermore, minimization of the friction
friction coefficient will contribute to reduced power losses. In the present study, two multi-objective
coefficient will contribute to reduced power losses. In the present study, two multi-objective
optimization problems have been formulated:
optimization problems have been formulated:
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Optimization Problem 1:
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Optimization Problem 2: 9 of 21
Objective functions: Objective functions:
(a) maximization
Optimization ofProblem
load capacity
1: (a) maximization
Optimization of minimum
Problem 2: film thickness
(b) minimization of friction coefficient
Objective functions: (b) minimization
Objective of friction coefficient
functions:
Minimum film thickness
(a) maximization ofisload
considered
capacityconstant. Thrust load is considered
(a) maximization constant.
of minimum film thickness
(b) minimization of friction coefficient (b) minimization of friction coefficient
Minimum film
3. Tapered-Land thicknessOptimization
Geometry is considered constant. Thrust load is considered constant.

3. Tapered-Land
3.1. Optimization Geometry
Problem Setup Optimization
The geometric Problem
3.1. Optimization parameters
Setup used for the optimization of the tapered-land bearing are (a) the
extent of The
the tapered part of the bearing as percentage of the length, and (b) the maximum taper
geometric parameters used for the optimization of the tapered-land bearing are (a) the
depthextent
in microns.
of the tapered part of thethe
Here, only results
bearing of the first
as percentage optimization
of the problem
length, and (b) are presented,
the maximum taper depthsince
the second optimization
in microns. Here, only problem
the resultsdid notfirst
of the demonstrate
optimizationany significant
problem improvements
are presented, since the in terms of
second
bearing performance.
optimization problem did not demonstrate any significant improvements in terms of bearing
performance.
3.2. Optimization Results
3.2. Optimization Results
The present optimization of the tapered-land bearing geometry, aimed at minimization of power
The present optimization
loss and maximization of the tapered-land
of load carrying capacity,bearing geometry,
for constant aimed at film
minimum minimization
thickness,of power
rotational
loss and maximization of load carrying capacity, for◦constant minimum film thickness,
speed of 200 kRPM and oil inflow temperature of 150 C. In Figure 7a, the Pareto front of the present rotational
speed of 200 kRPM and oil inflow temperature of 150 °C. In Figure 7a, the Pareto front of the present
optimization is presented. In terms of power loss, there has been a mild improvement in the optimized
optimization is presented. In terms of power loss, there has been a mild improvement in the
geometries in relation to the reference case. Two optimal points on the Pareto front have been selected.
optimized geometries in relation to the reference case. Two optimal points on the Pareto front have
Both been
designs exhibit
selected. values
Both designs of exhibit
load carrying
values ofcapacity slightly
load carrying higher
capacity than higher
slightly that ofthan
the reference
that of the case,
followed by a reduction in friction power losses, ranging between 5% and 6%.
reference case, followed by a reduction in friction power losses, ranging between 5% and In Figure 7b, the
6%. friction
In
coefficient
Figure 7b, the friction coefficient of the selected optimal designs can be visualised in the 250
of the selected optimal designs can be visualised in the range between 50 and kRPM,
range
in comparison
between 50 toandthat
250 of the in
kRPM, reference
comparisoncase. Further,
to that in Figurecase.
of the reference 8, additional bearing
Further, in Figure performance
8, additional
bearing
indices (powerperformance indices (power
loss, maximum loss, maximum
temperature, maximum temperature,
pressure)maximum pressure)
of the selected of the selected
optimal designs are
presented over the same RPM range. Based on the present results, power loss is shown loss
optimal designs are presented over the same RPM range. Based on the present results, power is
to exhibit
shown to exhibit a substantial reduction, being higher than 10% at values of rotational speed less that
a substantial reduction, being higher than 10% at values of rotational speed less that 100 kRPM.
100 kRPM. Pressure and temperature distributions (depicted in Figure 9) present similar
Pressure and temperature distributions (depicted in Figure 9) present similar characteristics, due to
characteristics, due to the same principal geometric properties of the lubrication domain. In Table 6,
the same principal geometric properties of the lubrication domain. In Table 6, a comparison between
a comparison between the performance indices of the two optimal tapered-land designs is shown for
the performance indices
operation at 200 kRPM. of the two optimal tapered-land designs is shown for operation at 200 kRPM.

(a)

Figure 7. Cont.
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(b)
Figure 7. (a) Pareto front of the optimization of tapered-land bearing performance. Load capacity and
Figure 7. (a) Pareto front of the optimization of (b) tapered-land bearing performance. Load capacity
power loss are presented as difference from the corresponding values of the reference design; (b)
and power loss are presented as difference from the corresponding values of the reference design;
Comparison
Figure 7. (a)of friction
Pareto coefficient
front between optimal
of the optimization tapered-landbearing
of tapered-land designs performance.
and the reference
Loadbearing design.
capacity and
(b) Comparison of friction coefficient between optimal tapered-land designs and the reference
power loss are presented as difference from the corresponding values of the reference design; (b)
bearing design.
Comparison of friction coefficient between optimal tapered-land designs and the reference bearing design.

(a) (b)

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 8. Comparison of performance between optimal tapered-land bearing designs and the
reference design, over a(c) (d)
range of rotational speeds, for constant value of minimum film thickness. (a)
Reduction of bearing power loss; (b) Increase in bearing load capacity; (c) Reduction
Figure 8. Comparison of performance between optimal tapered-land bearing designs of maximum oil
and the
Figure 8. Comparison
temperature; of performance
(d) Decrease of maximum between
bearingoptimal tapered-land bearing designs and the reference
pressure.
reference design, over a range of rotational speeds, for constant value of minimum film thickness. (a)
design, over a range of rotational speeds, for constant value of minimum film thickness. (a) Reduction
Reduction of bearing power loss; (b) Increase in bearing load capacity; (c) Reduction of maximum oil
of bearing power (d)
temperature; loss; (b) Increase
Decrease in bearing
of maximum loadpressure.
bearing capacity; (c) Reduction of maximum oil temperature;
(d) Decrease of maximum bearing pressure.
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Figure 9.
Figure 9. Colour-coded
Colour-coded contour
contour plots
plots of
of pressure, temperature and
pressure, temperature and oil
oil mass
mass fraction
fraction in
in the
the oil
oil film
film of
of
optimal tapered-land
optimal tapered-land sliders.
sliders. Corresponding
Corresponding flow
flow streamlines
streamlines colour-coded
colour-coded with
with temperature.
temperature.

Table 6. Operating conditions and performance indices of the optimal tapered-land designs, in
Table 6. Operating conditions and performance indices of the optimal tapered-land designs,
comparison with the reference design, for constant value of minimum film thickness.
in comparison with the reference design, for constant value of minimum film thickness.
Optimal Tapered-Land Design 1 Optimal Tapered-Land Design 2
Rotational Speed [kRPM] Optimal Tapered-Land
200 Design 1 Optimal Tapered-Land
200 Design 2
Thrust Load difference [%] +1.2 +1
Rotational Speed (kRPM) 200 200
Power
Thrust Load Loss difference
difference (%)[%] −7.35
+1.2 −7.63+1
Maximum Temperature difference
Power Loss difference (%) [K] −10.47
−7.35 −10.51
−7.63
Maximum Pressure
Maximum Temperature [%] (K)
difference −0.6
−10.47 −0.3
−10.51
Maximum Pressure (%) −0.6 −0.3
4. Curved Pocket Geometry Optimization
4. Curved Pocket Geometry Optimization
4.1. Optimization Problem Setup
4.1. Optimization
Regarding theProblem
pocketSetup
geometry optimization, two optimization problems have been formulated
and solved:
Regarding the pocket geometry optimization, two optimization problems have been formulated
and
● solved:
Maximization of load capacity and minimization of power loss for given operating conditions
(constant minimum film thickness, rotational speed of 200 kRPM, oil inflow temperature of 150
°C)
Lubricants 2018, 6, 21 12 of 21

• Maximization of load capacity and minimization of power loss for given operating conditions
(constant minimum film thickness, rotational speed of 200 kRPM, oil inflow temperature of
150 ◦ C)
• Maximization of minimum film thickness and minimization of power loss for given12operating
Lubricants 2018, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 21
conditions (thrust load, rotational speed of 200 kRPM, oil inflow temperature of 150 ◦ C). Thrust
loadMaximization
● is set to the value obtained
of minimum bythickness
film the reference tapered-land
and minimization of design.
power loss for given operating
conditions (thrust load, rotational speed of 200 kRPM, oil inflow temperature of 150 °C). Thrust
4.2. Optimization Results
load is set to the value obtained by the reference tapered-land design.

The design variables of the pocket geometry optimization problems are the pocket extent, width,
4.2. Optimization Results
depth and curvature, as well as the oil inlet pocket extent and depth. As presented in Figures 10 and 11,
The design variables of the pocket geometry optimization problems are the pocket extent, width,
two Pareto fronts have been generated, one for each optimization problem.
depth and curvature, as well as the oil inlet pocket extent and depth. As presented in Figures 10 and
Regarding the Pareto front of Figure 10: A substantial improvement of load carrying capacity is
11, two Pareto fronts have been generated, one for each optimization problem.
noticed. In terms of power loss, a minor increase is observed for the majority of the optimal designs.
Regarding the Pareto front of Figure 10: A substantial improvement of load carrying capacity is
It should be In
noticed. noted
termsthat load carrying
of power capacity
loss, a minor increaseimprovement
is observed forfor thea majority
given minimum filmdesigns.
of the optimal thickness is
equivalent to an increased minimum film thickness for a given working load,
It should be noted that load carrying capacity improvement for a given minimum film thickness is or to the possibility of
the reduction of the thrust bearing external diameter, which can effectively reduce
equivalent to an increased minimum film thickness for a given working load, or to the possibility of the power losses of
the reduction
the bearing. of the thrust
Two optimal bearing
designs external
of this Paretodiameter, which
front have can selected
been effectively reduce
for theprocessing,
further power losseswhich
of the
exhibit loadbearing.
carrying Two optimal designs
capacities of this Pareto
substantially higherfront
thanhave
that been
of theselected for further
reference design processing,
(of the order of
which exhibit load carrying capacities substantially
60%) and slightly increased power loss (in the range of 4% to 6%). higher than that of the reference design (of the
order of 60%) and slightly increased power loss (in the range of 4% to 6%).
Regarding the Pareto front of Figure 11: All optimal designs have shown a significant
Regarding the Pareto front of Figure 11: All optimal designs have shown a significant
improvement in both minimum film thickness and power loss. One optimized design has been
improvement in both minimum film thickness and power loss. One optimized design has been
selected for further
selected for furtherprocessing.
processing.
In Figure 12, bearing
In Figure 12, bearing performance
performance indices (power loss,
indices (power loss,maximum
maximum temperature,
temperature, maximum
maximum
pressure) of the selected optimal designs are presented in the range between
pressure) of the selected optimal designs are presented in the range between 50 and 250 kRPM, in 50 and 250 kRPM,
in comparison
comparison to to those
those ofof the
the reference tapered-landbearing
reference tapered-land bearingdesign.
design. Pressure
Pressure and and temperature
temperature
distribution
distribution of theofoptimal
the optimal
pocketpocket
bearingbearing
designsdesigns (depicted
(depicted in Figure in 13)
Figure 13) similar
present present distributions,
similar
distributions, due to the same principal geometric properties of the lubrication
due to the same principal geometric properties of the lubrication domain. Maximum pressure is domain. Maximum
pressure
observed is observed
at the pocket end at the pocketwhereas
region, end region,thewhereas
smootherthe temperature
smoother temperature distribution
distribution in the oilin the
domain
oil domain leads to larger areas of low viscosity oil, which substantially aids in enhancing pressure
leads to larger areas of low viscosity oil, which substantially aids in enhancing pressure build-up.
build-up.
In Table 6, the geometric parameters of the selected optimal designs are presented, followed by
In Table 6, the geometric parameters of the selected optimal designs are presented, followed by
the comparison
the comparison of operating
of operatingandand
performance
performance indices
indicesbetween
betweenthe the two
two optimal pocketdesigns
optimal pocket designsandand the
reference tapered-land design in Table
the reference tapered-land design in Table 7. 7.

Figure
Figure 10. Optimization
10. Optimization of of pocketbearing
pocket bearingperformance:
performance: Pareto
Paretofront of of
front problem 1. Load
problem capacity
1. Load and and
capacity
power loss are presented as percentage difference from the corresponding values of the reference
power loss are presented as percentage difference from the corresponding values of the reference design.
design.
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Figure 11. Optimization of pocket bearing performance: Pareto front of problem 2. Load capacity and
Figure
Figure 11.Optimization
11.
power Optimization
loss
of
ofpocket
are presentedpocket bearing performance:Pareto
bearing performance:
as percentage difference from
Paretofront
frontofofproblem
the corresponding
problem 2. 2.
values
Load
Load capacity
capacity
of the andand
reference
power loss are presented as percentage difference from the corresponding values of the reference
power loss are presented as percentage difference from the corresponding values of the reference design.
design.
design.

(a)

(a)

(b) (c)

(b) (c)

Figure 12. Cont.


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Lubricants 2018, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 21

(d) (e)
(d)of performance between optimal pocket bearing designs
Figure 12. Comparisons (e) and the reference
Figure 12. Comparisons of performance between optimal pocket bearing designs and the reference
tapered-land design. (a) Reduction
Figure 12. Comparisons of bearing
of performance friction
between coefficient
optimal pocketreduction; (b) Reduction
bearing designs and theofreference
bearing
tapered-land design. (a) Reduction of bearing friction coefficient reduction; (b) Reduction of bearing
power loss; (c) Increase
tapered-land (a) in bearing load capacity; (d) coefficient
Reductionreduction;
of maximum oil temperature; (e)
power loss; (c)design.
Increase Reduction
in bearingofload
bearing friction
capacity; (d) Reduction (b) Reduction
of maximum of bearing
oil temperature;
Decrease of maximum
power loss; bearing
(c) Increase pressure.
in bearing load capacity; (d) Reduction of maximum oil temperature; (e)
(e) Decrease of maximum bearing pressure.
Decrease of maximum bearing pressure.
Reference Tapered-land Design Optimal Pocket Design 1
Reference Tapered-land Design Optimal Pocket Design 1

Figure 13. Cont.


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Optimal Pocket Design 2 Optimal Pocket Design 3


Optimal Pocket Design 2 Optimal Pocket Design 3

Figure 13. Colour-coded contour plots of pressure and temperature in the oil film of optimal pocket
Figure 13. Colour-coded contour plots of pressure and temperature in the oil film of optimal
bearing designs. Corresponding oil volume fraction and flow streamlines colour-coded with
pocket
Figure bearing
13. designs. contour
Colour-coded
temperature. Corresponding oil volume
plots of pressure and fraction and in
temperature flow
thestreamlines colour-coded
oil film of optimal pocket
with temperature.
bearing designs. Corresponding oil volume fraction and flow streamlines colour-coded with
temperature.

(a) (b)

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(c) (d)

Figure 14. Cont.


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(e) (f)
Figure 14. Effect of shear thinning on bearing performance: Comparison of principal bearing
Figure 14. Effect of shear thinning on bearing performance: Comparison of principal bearing
performance indices over a range of rotational speeds. (a) Thrust load; (b) Friction torque; (c)
performance indices over a range of rotational speeds. (a) Thrust load; (b) Friction torque; (c) Maximum
Maximum pressure; (d) Power loss; (e) Maximum temperature; (f) Friction coefficient.
pressure; (d) Power loss; (e) Maximum temperature; (f) Friction coefficient.

Table 7. Operating conditions and performance indices of optimal pocket bearing designs, in
comparison with the reference tapered-land bearing.
Table 7. Operating conditions and performance indices of optimal pocket bearing designs, in
comparison with the reference tapered-land
Optimal bearing.
Designs (200 kRPM, Constant Load ± 2%)
Compared parameters Optimal Design 1 Optimal Design 2 Optimal Design 3
Difference in Minimum Film Thickness
Optimal [%] (200 kRPM,
Designs +39.3%Constant Load+35%
± 2%) +37%
Difference in Power Loss [%] −10.63% −10.62% −10.24%
Compared
Difference parameters
in Maximum Temperature [K] Optimal Design 1
−17.35 Optimal
−15.80Design 2 Optimal
−15.92 Design 3
Difference
Difference in Maximum
in Minimum Pressure [%]
Film Thickness [%] −31.15%
+39.3% −22.91%
+35% −24.26%
+37%
Difference in Power Loss [%] −10.63% −10.62% −10.24%
4.3.Difference in Maximum
Effect of Shear Temperature
Thinning [K]
on Bearing −17.35
Performance −15.80 −15.92
Difference in Maximum Pressure [%] −31.15% −22.91% −24.26%
In the present CFD simulations, the Cross equation has been used to describe the shear-rate
influence
4.3. Effect on lubricant
of Shear viscosity
Thinning (see Section
on Bearing 2.2). Here, additional simulations have been performed
Performance
for quantifying the effect of shear thinning on the principal performance indices of the bearing. In
In thein
particular, present
Figure CFD simulations,
14, bearing the Cross
performance equation
indices (thrusthas been
load, usedtorque,
friction to describe the shear-rate
maximum pressure
influence on lubricant viscosity (see Section 2.2). Here, additional simulations
and power loss) are plotted against rotational speed for the pocket bearing design OPD 1 (Optimal have been performed
for quantifying
Pocket Design 1).the Theeffect
blue of shearcurves
dotted thinning on the principal
correspond performance
to calculations utilizing indices of equation
the Cross the bearing.
for
In particular, in Figure 14, bearing performance indices (thrust load, friction torque,
shear-rate influence on viscosity, whereas the red dotted curves correspond to calculations without maximum pressure
and power loss)
considering are plotted
the Cross against
equation. Therotational speed for thethat
results demonstrate pocket
shearbearing
thinningdesign OPD 1 (Optimal
substantially affects
bearing performance, mostly at high values of rotational speed. The overestimation ofequation
Pocket Design 1). The blue dotted curves correspond to calculations utilizing the Cross for
thrust load
shear-rate
and frictioninfluence
torque whenon viscosity, whereasisthe
shear thinning notred dotted curves
considered may be correspond
above 40%toatcalculations without
values of rotational
considering the Cross equation. The results demonstrate that shear thinning
speed of 250 kRPM. Therefore, detailed numerical simulations for predicting bearing performance, substantially affects
taking into consideration shear thinning of the lubricant, are imperative in the design stage and
bearing performance, mostly at high values of rotational speed. The overestimation of thrust load for
friction torque when
obtaining accurate results.shear thinning is not considered may be above 40% at values of rotational speed
of 250 kRPM. Therefore, detailed numerical simulations for predicting bearing performance, taking
intoEffect
4.4. consideration
of Cavitationshear thinning
on Bearing of the lubricant, are imperative in the design stage for obtaining
Performance
accurate results.
In the present work, the Rayleigh-Plesset model has been used to predict cavitation occurrence
in the lubricant
4.4. Effect domainon(see
of Cavitation details
Bearing in Section 2.2). In Figure 15, contours of oil pressure, temperature
Performance
and oil volume fraction are plotted against rotational speed for the pocket bearing design OPD 1. It
In the present work, the Rayleigh-Plesset model has been used to predict cavitation occurrence in
can be observed that the probability of cavitation occurrence in the interior of the lubricant domain
the lubricant domain (see details in Section 2.2). In Figure 15, contours of oil pressure, temperature and
is very small, throughout the rotational speed of interest. At high values of rotational speed, a small
oil volume fraction are plotted against rotational speed for the pocket bearing design OPD 1. It can be
cavitating region is observed at the outer bearing diameter, in the oil mixing pocket region, due to
observed that the probability of cavitation occurrence in the interior of the lubricant domain is very
high values of lubricant temperature being present. However, the extent of the cavitation region is
small, throughout the rotational speed of interest. At high values of rotational speed, a small cavitating
limited, and its effect on the pressure build-up of the bearing is negligible.
region is observed at the outer bearing diameter, in the oil mixing pocket region, due to high values of
lubricant temperature being present. However, the extent of the cavitation region is limited, and its
effect on the pressure build-up of the bearing is negligible.
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Rotational Speed Pressure Contour Temperature Contour Cavitating Volume Fraction

50 kRPM

100 kRPM

150 kRPM

170 kRPM

200 kRPM

250 kRPM

Figure 15. Colour-coded contour plots of pressure and temperature in the oil film of optimal pocket
Figure 15. Colour-coded contour plots of pressure and temperature in the oil film of optimal pocket
bearing designs. Corresponding flow streamlines colour-coded with temperature.
bearing designs. Corresponding flow streamlines colour-coded with temperature.
4.5. Parametric Study for Optimal Pocket Depth
4.5. Parametric Study for Optimal Pocket Depth
In Figure 16, the effect of pocket depth on bearing load capacity for given value of minimum
In Figure is
film thickness 16,presented.
the effect Two
of pocket depth
different CFD on modeling
bearing load capacity have
approaches for given
beenvalue of minimum
utilized, namely a
film thickness is presented. Two different CFD modeling approaches
thermohydrodynamic approach, accounting for viscosity variations in the lubricant domain, and an have been utilized, namely a
thermohydrodynamic approach, accounting for viscosity variations in the
isothermal approach, where lubricant viscosity is assumed constant. In the latter case, the fixed value lubricant domain, and an
isothermal
of viscosityapproach,
is selectedwhere lubricant viscosity
appropriately, is assumed
so as to yield equal constant.
thrust load, In the latterofcase,
as that the the
THD fixed valueFor
model. of
viscosity is selected appropriately, so as to yield equal thrust load, as that of
both models, a parametric analysis is performed to identify the effect of pocket depth on bearing load the THD model. For both
models, aFor
capacity. parametric analysis
the parametric is performed
analysis, to identify
the geometric the effect
parameters of pocket
of the optimaldepthpocketon bearing
bearing load
design
capacity.
OPD Forbeen
1 have the parametric
utilized. The analysis,
results the geometric
of the parametricparameters
analysis,of the optimal
presented pocket16,
in Figure bearing design
demonstrate
OPD 1 have been utilized. The results of the parametric analysis, presented
that for isothermal conditions, the optimal ratio of pocket depth to minimum film thickness attains a in Figure 16, demonstrate
that for
value ofisothermal
4.17, whereas conditions, the optimaloptimal
the corresponding ratio of pocket
ratio indepth
THD to minimumis film
conditions thickness higher,
substantially attains
a value ofa4.17,
attaining valuewhereas
of 5. Thethe corresponding
observed behaviour optimal
may beratio in THD
explained conditions
based is substantially
on considerations higher,
of optimum
attaining a value of 5. The observed behaviour may be explained based
pocket geometry and of heat storage capacity of the lubricant in THD conditions. In particular, at on considerations of optimum
pocket
isothermalgeometry
conditions,and an of optimum
heat storage capacity
pocket depthof to the lubricant
minimum filminthickness
THD conditions. In particular,
ratio corresponds to the
value where pressure build-up is maximized. The behaviour of the bearing is similar to that ofto
at isothermal conditions, an optimum pocket depth to minimum film thickness ratio corresponds a
the value step
Rayleigh where pressure
bearing. build-up
In THD is maximized.
conditions, lubricant The behaviour
viscosity of the in
decreases bearing
the flow is similar
direction to that
due ofto
a Rayleighshear
lubricant step stress
bearing. andInheat
THDdissipation.
conditions,Alubricant viscosity
smaller pocket willdecreases in the pressure
lead to better flow direction
build-up,due
to lubricant shear stress and heat dissipation. A smaller pocket will lead to
however, the total lubricant mass in the pocket will be less, yielding increased temperature for given better pressure build-up,
however, the
dissipated total
heat. If lubricant
pocket depthmassisinincreased,
the pocketheat will capacity
be less, yielding increasedintemperature
of the lubricant the pocket for given
region is
dissipated heat. If pocket depth is increased, heat capacity of the lubricant
increased, therefore temperature increase is milder, leading to higher values of lubricant viscosity. in the pocket region is
increased, therefore temperature increase is milder, leading to higher
Therefore, optimum pocket depth may be evaluated as an interplay between a geometrically optimal values of lubricant viscosity.
Therefore,
step bearing, optimum pocket depth
and a sufficiently largemay be evaluated
pocket volume as foran interplay
reducing thebetween
effect ofalubricant
geometricallyheating.optimal
step bearing, and a sufficiently large pocket volume for reducing the effect
Further, the present bearing design is characterized by very small-size, high values of rotationalof lubricant heating.
speedFurther,
and very the low
present bearing
values design
of film is characterized
thickness. The larger bypocket
very small-size, high values
depth identified of rotational
in this work, in
speed and very low values of film thickness. The larger pocket depth
comparison to that corresponding to conventional pocket bearing designs can be further attributed: identified in this work, in
comparison to that corresponding to conventional pocket bearing designs
(a) to the presence of substantial centrifugal forces of the present bearing, not considered in the can be further attributed:
Reynolds equation typically used in relevant studies; centrifugal fluid forces increase lubricant
outflow rates at the outer bearing radius, requiring larger bulk amount of lubricant for optimal
Lubricants 2018, 6, 21 18 of 21

(a) to the presence of substantial centrifugal forces of the present bearing, not considered in the
Reynolds equation
Lubricants 2018, 6, x FORtypically used in relevant studies; centrifugal fluid forces increase lubricant outflow
PEER REVIEW 18 of 21
rates at the outer bearing radius, requiring larger bulk amount of lubricant for optimal operation, (b) to
operation,
the (b) toofthe
small width thesmall width
bearing pad,ofinthe bearing pad,
comparison in comparison
to length to length
(small width (small
to length width
ratio), to length
which leads
ratio),
to rapidwhich leadsdrop
pressure to rapid
at thepressure
inner anddrop at the
outer inner
radii andpad,
of the outerandradii
(c)of
tothe
thepad,
lackand
of a(c) to the
fluid mixinglack
of a fluid
groove mixing
before each groove
pad ofbefore each pad
the present of the
design, present
which design,
leads to hotwhich
fluid leads
mixing towith
hot fluid
cold mixing with
fluid within
coldpocket
the fluid within
domain.the pocket
Thus, the domain.
optimizer, Thus,
as thethe optimizer, as
optimization the optimization
process process
develops, favors develops,
values of the
favors values
design variables of which
the design variables
compensate forwhich compensate
the above phenomena,for the above phenomena,
concluding with optimal concluding
designs which with
optimal
are designs by
characterized which are characterized
substantially by substantially
larger pocket depth than that larger pocketBased
expected. depthonthan that expected.
the present results,
Based
it can beonconcluded
the presentthat results, it can
detailed be concluded
numerical that detailed
simulations numerical
for predicting simulations
bearing for predicting
performance, taking
bearing
into performance,
consideration taking into consideration
thermohydrodynamic thermohydrodynamic
behaviour of the lubricant and behaviour of the parts,
solid bearing lubricant and
should
solid
be bearing
utilized parts,
in the should
design stagebefor
utilized in the
obtaining design
accurate stage Bearing
results. for obtaining
designaccurate
based onresults. Bearing
the solution of
design based
Reynolds on the
equation, or solution
based on oftheReynolds
assumption equation, or based
of isothermal on the will
conditions assumption of isothermal
yield designs that will
conditions
perform will yield designs
sub-optimally under that will perform
the actual operatingsub-optimally
conditions. under the actual operating conditions.

(a) (b)
Figure 16.
Figure 16. Effect
Effectof
ofpocket
pocketdepth
depthononbearing
bearing performance.
performance. Comparison
Comparison between
between (a) (a) isothermal
isothermal andand
(b)
(b) thermohydrodynamic simulations.
thermohydrodynamic simulations.

5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
The present study was concerned with the design optimization of the thrust bearing of an
The present study was concerned with the design optimization of the thrust bearing of an
automotive turbocharger. The reference design is a small footprint, four-pad, grooveless, tapered-
automotive turbocharger. The reference design is a small footprint, four-pad, grooveless, tapered-land
land thrust bearing design, with a lip at the outer radius of the bearing pad, in order to minimise side
thrust bearing design, with a lip at the outer radius of the bearing pad, in order to minimise side
oil leakage. The goals of the present study were the geometry optimization of (i) a tapered-land
oil leakage. The goals of the present study were the geometry optimization of (i) a tapered-land
bearing design, similar to the reference one, and (ii) a pocket bearing design with the same principal
bearing design, similar to the reference one, and (ii) a pocket bearing design with the same principal
dimensions. Optimization has been carried out for a rotational speed of 200 kRPM. The optimization
dimensions. Optimization has been carried out for a rotational speed of 200 kRPM. The optimization
goals were (a) to minimize power losses and maximize minimum oil film thickness for given load
goals were (a) to minimize power losses and maximize minimum oil film thickness for given load
capacity, and (b) to minimize friction coefficient and maximize load capacity for given minimum oil
capacity, and (b) to minimize friction coefficient and maximize load capacity for given minimum oil
film thickness. Optimization has been performed with an in-house optimizer, which was coupled to
film thickness. Optimization has been performed with an in-house optimizer, which was coupled to
ANSYS CFX code. The Pareto fronts of the optimization problems have been obtained, and different
ANSYS CFX code. The Pareto fronts of the optimization problems have been obtained, and different
optimum designs have been identified. The optimum bearing designs have been further studied by
optimum designs have been identified. The optimum bearing designs have been further studied by
means of a parametric analysis for different values of rotational speed (50 kRPM to 250 kRPM).
means of a parametric analysis for different values of rotational speed (50 kRPM to 250 kRPM).
Regarding the tapered-land bearing, two optimal designs have been selected. Optimal design 1
Regarding the tapered-land bearing, two optimal designs have been selected. Optimal design
exhibits the best performance for operation at 200 kRPM. In particular, for constant value of oil
1 exhibits the best performance for operation at 200 kRPM. In particular, for constant value of oil
minimum film thickness, power loss has shown a decreasing trend by 7.5%, in comparison to the
minimum film thickness, power loss has shown a decreasing trend by 7.5%, in comparison to the
reference design. Maximum pressure has shown to exhibit a moderate decrease (approximately 6%
reference design. Maximum pressure has shown to exhibit a moderate decrease (approximately
at high values of rotational speed), in comparison to the reference design, whereas maximum
6% at high values of rotational speed), in comparison to the reference design, whereas maximum
temperature has exhibited a negligible decrease (approximately 1 °C at high values of rotational
temperature has exhibited a negligible decrease (approximately 1 ◦ C at high values of rotational speed).
speed). The identified optimal taper depths are substantially higher than those of common designs,
The identified optimal taper depths are substantially higher than those of common designs, attributed
attributed to the peculiarities of the present design, characterized by very small-size, high values of
rotational speed and very low values of film thickness, giving rise to high values of operating oil
temperature.
Regarding the pocket bearing, three optimal designs have been identified. Optimal design 1
exhibits the best performance, in operation at 200 kRPM for a constant Load. In particular, minimum
oil film thickness is increased by 40%, whereas power loss is decreased by 12%, in comparison to the
Lubricants 2018, 6, 21 19 of 21

to the peculiarities of the present design, characterized by very small-size, high values of rotational
speed and very low values of film thickness, giving rise to high values of operating oil temperature.
Regarding the pocket bearing, three optimal designs have been identified. Optimal design 1
exhibits the best performance, in operation at 200 kRPM for a constant Load. In particular, minimum
oil film thickness is increased by 40%, whereas power loss is decreased by 12%, in comparison to the
reference geometry design. Maximum pressure exhibits a substantial decrease (approximately 30%
at high values of rotational speed), in comparison to the reference design. Maximum temperature
also exhibits a substantial decrease (reaching approximately 16 ◦ C at high values of rotational speed).
A parametric analysis of the effect of pocket depth on bearing performance reveals that pocket depths
of the order of five times the value of film thickness are required for optimal bearing performance.
Based on the present results, the following conclusions can be drawn:

(a) Properly designed pocket bearings may aid in substantially improving the performance of
turbocharger thrust bearings, by operation at higher oil film thickness and substantially reduced
power losses. In the studied regime, the pocket extent should be approximately 80%, whereas the
pocket depth should be approximately 4–6 times the minimum film thickness. A relatively
deep oil entrance pocket is essential for providing fresh oil and minimizing the effect of
hot-oil-carry-over. In all cases, the pocket curvature should be mild.
(b) Optimal parameters of pocket bearing designs may be different in different applications, being
mostly affected by the bearing size, thrust load and environment conditions. Therefore, detailed
calculations should be performed to verify optimum performance in the design stage.
(c) In thrust bearing applications, high loads, low values of minimum film thickness and high
values of temperature give rise, on one hand to shear thinning, which may affect substantially
lubricant viscosity, and on the other hand to cavitation, which may reduce bearing load capacity,
degrade gradually the lubricating oil properties and increase the wear rate of the system.
Therefore, detailed numerical simulations for predicting bearing performance are imperative in
the design stage.

Acknowledgments: The financial support of Mitsubishi Turbocharger and Engine Europe B.V. is gratefully
acknowledged.
Author Contributions: Anastassios G. Charitopoulos: Contributed to the development of models, to the execution
of simulations, to the analysis of the results and to the preparation of the manuscript. Roel Visser: Contributed to
the problem statement, to the development of models, to the analysis of the results and to the preparation of the
manuscript. Rob Eling: Contributed to the problem statement, to the development of models, to the analysis of
the results and to the preparation of the manuscript. Christos I. Papadopoulos: Contributed to the development
of models, to the analysis of the results and to the preparation of the manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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