The technical term electricity is the property of certain particles to possess a force field which is neither

gravitational nor nuclear. To understand what this means, we need to start simply. Everything, from
water and air to rocks, plants and animals, is made up of minute particles called atoms. They are too
small to see, even with the most powerful microscope. Atoms consist of even smaller particles called
protons, neutrons and electrons. The nucleus of the atom contains protons, which have a positive
charge, and neutrons, which have no charge. Electrons have a negative charge and orbit around the
nucleus. An atom can be compared to a solar system, with the nucleus being the sun and the electrons
being planets in orbit.

Electrons can be freed from their orbit by applying an external force, such as movement through a
magnetic field, heat, friction, or a chemical reaction. A free electron leaves a void, which can be filled by
an electron forced out of its orbit from another atom. As free electrons move from one atom to another,
an electron flow is produced. This electron flow is the basis of electricity. The cliché, “opposites attract,”
is certainly true when dealing with electrical charges. Charged bodies have an invisible electrical field
around them. When two likecharged bodies are brought close together, they repel each other. When
two unlike charged bodies are brought closer together, their electrical fields work to attract. When we
look at the flow of electricity, we need to look at its characteristics. There are three main characteristics
of electricity:

· Current (symbol I)

· Voltage (symbol E or V)

· Resistance (symbol R)

Current

The flow of free electrons in the same general direction from atom to atom is referred to as current and
it is measured in amperes (“amps” or “A”). The number of electrons that flow through a conductor’s
cross-section in one second determines amps. Current can be expressed in a number of different ways,
such as:
When discussing current, the direction of current flow needs to be considered. There are two different
theories about this:

· Conventional Flow

· Electron Flow

Conventional Flow: This theory states that electrons flow from positive to negative. Benjamin Franklin
theorized this when very little was known about electricity. It states that an invisible fluid known as
electricity tended to flow through a wire from the positive to the negative. Ben’s theory became the
convention (hence the term “conventional current”) in electrical theory, mathematics, textbooks and
electrical equipment for the next hundred years.

Electron Flow: This theory states that electrons flow from negative to positive. When more was known
about the behavior of electrons, scientists discovered that electrons actually flow from negative to
positive. Since electrons are negatively charged, it follows that they are attracted by positively charged
bodies and repelled by negatively charged bodies.

Despite the fact that it has been positively determined that electron flow is the correct theory, the
conventional flow theory still dominates the industry. Either theory can be used as long as the
orientations are correct. Conventional flow will be used from this point on in these training modules
unless otherwise stated.
Voltage

Voltage is the force that is applied to a conductor to free electrons, which causes electrical current to
flow. It is measured in volts or “V”. Current will flow in a conductor as long as voltage, the electrical
pressure, is applied to the conductor. Voltage is expressed in a number of ways:

There are two methods that voltage forces current to flow:

· Direct Current

· Alternating Current

Direct current: With this method, the voltage forces the electrons to flow continuously in one direction
through a closed circuit. This type of voltage is called Direct Current (DC) voltage. Batteries and DC
generators produce DC voltage.

Alternating current: With this method, voltage forces electrons to flow first in one direction, then in the
opposite direction, alternating very quickly. This type of voltage is called Alternating Current (AC)
voltage. A generator is used to produce AC voltage. The voltage generated by utility companies for our
home, factories and offices is AC voltage.
Resistance

This is the third characteristic of electricity. The restriction to the flow of electrons through a conductor
is called resistance and it is measured in ohms and abbreviated “W”, the Greek symbol Omega.
Resistance is expressed in a number of ways:

In general, there are four factors that affect the amount of resistance in a conductor:

· Material

· Length

· Cross-Sectional Area
· Temperature

Material: We know that the amount of electron flow depends upon how readily particular atoms give up
their electrons and accept new electrons.

Materials that permit this are called conductors. Copper, silver and aluminum are considered good
conductors. Materials that don’t readily give up electrons, which restricts the flow, are called insulators.
Rubber, glass and porcelain are considered good insulators.

Conductors and insulators perform a very important team function. An electrical cord to a lamp, for
example, has a copper wire conductor on the inside with a rubber-coating insulator around the outside.
Free electrons flow along the copper wire to light the lamp while the rubber coating keeps the free
electrons inside to prevent shock and other problems.

Length: The longer the conductor, the more resistance in the conductor. Resistance is increased or
decreased in proportion to the conductor’s length. For example, a 2-foot long conductor would have
twice the resistance of a one-foot long conductor.

Cross-Sectional Area: As the cross-sectional area of a conductor increases, the resistance decreases, and
vice versa. For example, if the area of a conductor is doubled, the resistance is cut in half.
Temperature: Usually when the temperature of a conductor increases, the resistance increases. The
temperature factor is not as predictable as the other factors, but it must be considered when dealing
with electricity.

OHM’S LAW

There is a definite relationship between the three primary electrical characteristics: current, voltage and
resistance. A German mathematician, George Simon Ohm, formulated this relationship in the 19th
century. His law (Ohm’s Law) stated that current is directly proportional to voltage and inversely
proportional to resistance. The following formula was derived from that law:

Ohm’s Law is the basic formula used in all AC and DC electrical circuits. So if you know two of the three
characteristics, your can calculate the third one. Electrical designers use it to determine how much
voltage is required for a certain load, like a motor, a computer, or even a house full of appliances. We
can use a simple DC circuit here to demonstrate Ohm’s Law. Before we do any calculations, however,
let’s briefly discuss the symbols that will be used in our circuit diagrams.

Voltage Symbol: The terminals of a battery are symbolically indicated on an electrical drawing by one or
more pairs of lines. The longer line represents the positive terminal, and the shorter line the negative
terminal.

Resistance Symbol: Resistance is represented in one of two ways: either an open rectangle or a zigzag
line. Resistance in a circuit can take the form of many different components from light bulbs to motors.
Most of these components have their own unique symbols. For now, we will use the zigzag line symbol
to represent the loads.
Series Circuits

Using the simple circuit shown, assume that the voltage supplied is 12 volts, and the resistor provides six
ohms of resistance. To determine the current, use the following formula.
The simple circuits above are called series circuits, which means all loads are connected one after
another in a series. If a conductor or a load is broken, it opens the circuit. This condition does not allow
the current to complete the circuit and makes the entire circuit dead. A good example of this is the old
design for holiday lights. If one bulb was burned out, the entire string would not light.

Take a look at the next series circuit. The voltage is unknown, but can be calculated using Ohm’s Law, E =
IR. The current (I) is four amps as shown, but the resistance has to be calculated. In a series circuit, when
more than one resistance is in the circuit, the resistances are added together to get the total resistance
(RT). The RT is 12 ohms. Given these two values and Ohm’s Law, the voltage is 48 volts.
Now is a good time to talk about how current and voltage behaves in a series circuit. The current value is
the same in every part of the circuit. An ammeter can verify this. Voltage, on the other hand, does not
remain constant throughout the circuit. Voltage values can be measured across each resistor or load.
This is called the voltage drop. The total voltage (VT) is equal to the sum of all the voltage drops in that
circuit. A voltmeter can verify this. The formula is:

(VT) = V1 + V2 + V3 …

Parallel Circuits

In parallel circuits, the loads are connected across the power line to form branches. The loads operate
independently of each other, and therefore a break in any one branch does not prevent the line voltage
from being applied to the remaining branches. The result is that one path (branch) can be open with the
load not receiving current without the other loads being affected, as in the newer strings of holiday
lights. Current has a number of paths to follow. If all paths are available, the current divides itself
between the branches back to the source. If a path is open, the current divides between the remaining
available paths and goes back to the source. Parallel circuits are used in the majority of industrial,
commercial and residential applications of electricity. The next two circuit illustrations show three
resistors in parallel. The only difference between the two circuits is the resistor values. To use Ohm’s
Law to solve the equations, you need to know how resistance, current and voltage behave in parallel
circuits.
The total resistance (RT) of a parallel circuit decreases as more branches are added. The total resistance
of a parallel circuit is always less than the resistance of any of its branches and is therefore less than the
value of the lowest resistance in the circuit. To determine total resistance (RT) two different formulas
are used:

· Resistors with equal values

· Resistors with unequal values

Resistors with Equal Values: This RT is determined by dividing the value of one of the resistors by the
total number of resistors in the circuit. Using this formula, the total resistance for the first circuit is
calculated to be four ohms.
Resistors with Unequal Values: Calculating RT is more complicated and is shown below:
To determine current, you need to find the total current, which is the sum of all currents in all the
branches. The following simple formula represents the total current (IT), while the illustration offers a
demonstration.

To determine the individual branch currents, it is necessary to know whether or not all the resistors
have the same value.

Current with Equal Resistor Values: The current divides equally. Divide the total current by the total
number of branch resistors to determine the current flowing through each branch. The following
illustration and calculation demonstrate this procedure.
Current with Unequal Resistor Values: The current is greater through the branch with the least
resistance.

Parallel circuit voltage is easy to determine because it is the same across each resistor and/or load. The
illustration shows a parallel circuit with voltmeters indicating the voltage across each resistor to be the
same as the source battery.

Ohms Law
The most fundamental law in electricity is Ohm’s law or V=IR. The V is for voltage, which means the
potential difference between two charges. In other words, it is a measurement of the work required to move a
unit charge between two points. When we see a value such as 10 Volts, it is a measurement of the potential
difference between two reference points. Normally the two points will be +10V and 0V (also known as
ground), but it can also be the difference between +5V and -5V, +20V and +10V, etc. In the field, you might
hear the term “common grounds” which refers to each device in a system using the same zero-point reference
(or ground) to ensure the same potential difference ( or voltage) is applied throughout the system. The next
component of Ohm’s law is current, the units of which are Amperes; in the formula, current is represented by
the very logical choice of the letter I. As mentioned previously, current is the measurement of the flow of
charge in a circuit. This leaves us with the letter R which represents Resistance. Electrical resistance, measured
in Ohms, is the measure of the amount of current repulsion in a circuit. Simply, resistance resists current flow.
When electrons flow against the opposition offered by resistance in the circuit, friction occurs and heat is
produced. The most common application for resistance in a circuit is the light bulb. The light bulb introduces
enough resistance in a circuit to heat up the filament inside, causing light to be emitted. Resistance in a circuit
can also be helpful when needing to alter voltage levels, current paths, etc. Resistors are self-contained
packages of resistance that can be added to a circuit and are commonly used to divide voltage levels.

We saw in the Resistors tutorial that a single equivalent resistance, ( RT ) can

be found when two or more resistors are connected together in either series,
parallel or combinations of both, and that these circuits obey Ohm’s Law.
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However, sometimes in complex circuits such as bridge or T networks, we can

not simply use Ohm’s Law alone to find the voltages or currents circulating
within the circuit. For these types of calculations we need certain rules which
allow us to obtain the circuit equations and for this we can use Kirchhoffs
Circuit Law.
In 1845, a German physicist, Gustav Kirchhoff developed a pair or set of
rules or laws which deal with the conservation of current and energy within
electrical circuits. These two rules are commonly known as: Kirchhoffs Circuit
Laws with one of Kirchhoffs laws dealing with the current flowing around a
closed circuit, Kirchhoffs Current Law, (KCL) while the other law deals with
the voltage sources present in a closed circuit, Kirchhoffs Voltage Law,
(KVL).

Kirchhoffs First Law – The Current Law, (KCL)

Kirchhoffs Current Law or KCL, states that the “total current or charge
entering a junction or node is exactly equal to the charge leaving the node as
it has no other place to go except to leave, as no charge is lost within the
node“. In other words the algebraic sum of ALL the currents entering and
leaving a node must be equal to zero, I(exiting) + I(entering) = 0. This idea by Kirchhoff
is commonly known as the Conservation of Charge.

Kirchhoffs Current Law

Here, the three currents entering the node, I1, I2, I3 are all positive in value and
the two currents leaving the node, I4 and I5 are negative in value. Then this
means we can also rewrite the equation as;
I1 + I2 + I3 – I4 – I5 = 0
The term Node in an electrical circuit generally refers to a connection or
junction of two or more current carrying paths or elements such as cables and
components. Also for current to flow either in or out of a node a closed circuit
path must exist. We can use Kirchhoff’s current law when analysing parallel
circuits.

Kirchhoffs Second Law – The Voltage Law, (KVL)

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law or KVL, states that “in any closed loop network, the
total voltage around the loop is equal to the sum of all the voltage drops within
the same loop” which is also equal to zero. In other words the algebraic sum
of all voltages within the loop must be equal to zero. This idea by Kirchhoff is
known as the Conservation of Energy.

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law

Starting at any point in the loop continue in the same direction noting the
direction of all the voltage drops, either positive or negative, and returning
back to the same starting point. It is important to maintain the same direction
either clockwise or anti-clockwise or the final voltage sum will not be equal to
zero. We can use Kirchhoff’s voltage law when analysing series circuits.
When analysing either DC circuits or AC circuits using Kirchhoffs Circuit
Laws a number of definitions and terminologies are used to describe the parts
of the circuit being analysed such as: node, paths, branches, loops and
meshes. These terms are used frequently in circuit analysis so it is important
to understand them.

Mesh Current Analysis

Mesh Current Analysis is a technique used to find the currents circulating around a loop
or mesh with in any closed path of a circuit.
Mesh Current Analysis Circuit

One simple method of reducing the amount of math’s involved is to analyse

the circuit using Kirchhoff’s Current Law equations to determine the
currents, I1 and I2 flowing in the two resistors. Then there is no need to
calculate the current I3 as its just the sum of I1 and I2. So Kirchhoff’s second
voltage law simply becomes:
 Equation No 1 : 10 = 50I1 + 40I2
 Equation No 2 : 20 = 40I1 + 60I2
therefore, one line of math’s calculation have been saved.

Mesh Current Analysis

An easier method of solving the above circuit is by using Mesh Current
Analysis or Loop Analysis which is also sometimes called Maxwell´s
Circulating Currents method. Instead of labelling the branch currents we
need to label each “closed loop” with a circulating current.
As a general rule of thumb, only label inside loops in a clockwise direction with
circulating currents as the aim is to cover all the elements of the circuit at least
once. Any required branch current may be found from the appropriate loop or
mesh currents as before using Kirchhoff´s method.
For example: : i1 = I1 , i2 = -I2 and I3 = I1 – I2
We now write Kirchhoff’s voltage law equation in the same way as before to
solve them but the advantage of this method is that it ensures that the
information obtained from the circuit equations is the minimum required to
solve the circuit as the information is more general and can easily be put into
a matrix form.
Nodal Voltage Analysis complements the previous mesh analysis in that it is
equally powerful and based on the same concepts of matrix analysis. As its
name implies, Nodal Voltage Analysis uses the “Nodal” equations of
Kirchhoff’s first law to find the voltage potentials around the circuit.
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So by adding together all these nodal voltages the net result will be equal to
zero. Then, if there are “n” nodes in the circuit there will be “n-1” independent
nodal equations and these alone are sufficient to describe and hence solve
the circuit.
At each node point write down Kirchhoff’s first law equation, that is: “the
currents entering a node are exactly equal in value to the currents leaving the
node” then express each current in terms of the voltage across the branch.
For “n” nodes, one node will be used as the reference node and all the other
voltages will be referenced or measured with respect to this common node.
For example, consider the circuit from the previous section.

Nodal Voltage Analysis Circuit

In the above circuit, node D is chosen as the reference node and the other
three nodes are assumed to have voltages, Va, Vb and Vc with respect to
node D. For example;

As Va = 10v and Vc = 20v , Vb can be easily found by:

again is the same value of 0.286 amps, we found using Kirchhoff’s Circuit
Law in the previous tutorial.
From both Mesh and Nodal Analysis methods we have looked at so far, this is
the simplest method of solving this particular circuit. Generally, nodal voltage
analysis is more appropriate when there are a larger number of current
sources around. The network is then defined as: [ I ] = [ Y ] [ V ] where [ I ] are
the driving current sources, [ V ] are the nodal voltages to be found and [ Y ] is
the admittance matrix of the network which operates on [ V ] to give [ I ].

Thevenin’s Theorem
Thevenin theorem is an analytical method used to change a complex circuit into a
simple equivalent circuit consisting of a single resistance in series with a source voltage

Thevenin’s Theorem states that “Any linear circuit containing several

voltages and resistances can be replaced by just one single voltage in series
with a single resistance connected across the load“. In other words, it is
possible to simplify any electrical circuit, no matter how complex, to an
equivalent two-terminal circuit with just a single constant voltage source in
series with a resistance (or impedance) connected to a load as shown below.
Thevenin’s Theorem is especially useful in the circuit analysis of power or
battery systems and other interconnected resistive circuits where it will have
an effect on the adjoining part of the circuit.
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

As far as the load resistor RL is concerned, any complex “one-port” network

consisting of multiple resistive circuit elements and energy sources can be
replaced by one single equivalent resistance Rs and one single equivalent
voltage Vs. Rs is the source resistance value looking back into the circuit
and Vs is the open circuit voltage at the terminals.
For example, consider the circuit from the previous tutorials.

Firstly, to analyse the circuit we have to remove the centre 40Ω load resistor
connected across the terminals A-B, and remove any internal resistance
associated with the voltage source(s). This is done by shorting out all the
voltage sources connected to the circuit, that is v = 0, or open circuit any
connected current sources making i = 0. The reason for this is that we want to
have an ideal voltage source or an ideal current source for the circuit analysis.
The value of the equivalent resistance, Rs is found by calculating the total
resistance looking back from the terminals A and B with all the voltage
sources shorted. We then get the following circuit.
Find the Equivalent Resistance (Rs)

The voltage Vs is defined as the total voltage across the

terminals A and B when there is an open circuit between them. That is without
the load resistor RL connected.

Find the Equivalent Voltage (Vs)

We now need to reconnect the two voltages back into the circuit, and
as VS = VAB the current flowing around the loop is calculated as:
This current of 0.33 amperes (330mA) is common to both resistors so the
voltage drop across the 20Ω resistor or the 10Ω resistor can be calculated as:

VAB = 20 – (20Ω x 0.33amps) = 13.33 volts.

or
VAB = 10 + (10Ω x 0.33amps) = 13.33 volts, the same.

Then the Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit would consist or a series resistance

of 6.67Ω and a voltage source of 13.33v. With the 40Ω resistor connected
back into the circuit we get:

and from this the current flowing around the circuit is given as:

which again, is the same value of 0.286 amps, we found using Kirchhoff’s
circuit law in the previous circuit analysis tutorial.
Thevenin’s theorem can be used as another type of circuit analysis method
and is particularly useful in the analysis of complicated circuits consisting of
one or more voltage or current source and resistors that are arranged in the
usual parallel and series connections.
While Thevenin’s circuit theorem can be described mathematically in terms of
current and voltage, it is not as powerful as Mesh Current Analysis or Nodal
Voltage Analysis in larger networks because the use of Mesh or Nodal
analysis is usually necessary in any Thevenin exercise, so it might as well be
used from the start. However, Thevenin’s equivalent circuits of Transistors,
Voltage Sources such as batteries etc, are very useful in circuit design.

Nortons Theorem
Nortons theorem is an analytical method used to change a complex circuit into a simple
equivalent circuit consisting of a single resistance in parallel with a current source

Nortons Theorem states that “Any linear circuit containing several energy
sources and resistances can be replaced by a single Constant Current
generator in parallel with a Single Resistor“.
As far as the load resistance, RL is concerned this single resistance, RS is the
value of the resistance looking back into the network with all the current
sources open circuited and IS is the short circuit current at the output terminals
as shown below.

Nortons equivalent circuit

The value of this “constant current” is one which would flow if the two output
terminals where shorted together while the source resistance would be
measured looking back into the terminals, (the same as Thevenin).
For example, consider our now familiar circuit from the previous section.
To find the Nortons equivalent of the above circuit we firstly have to remove
the centre 40Ω load resistor and short out the terminals A and B to give us the
following circuit.

When the terminals A and B are shorted together the two resistors are
connected in parallel across their two respective voltage sources and the
currents flowing through each resistor as well as the total short circuit current
can now be calculated as:

with A-B Shorted Out

If we short-out the two voltage sources and open circuit terminals A and B, the
two resistors are now effectively connected together in parallel. The value of
the internal resistor Rs is found by calculating the total resistance at the
terminals A and B giving us the following circuit.

Find the Equivalent Resistance (Rs)

Having found both the short circuit current, Is and equivalent internal
resistance, Rs this then gives us the following Nortons equivalent circuit.

Nortons equivalent circuit

Ok, so far so good, but we now have to solve with the original 40Ω load
resistor connected across terminals A and B as shown below.
Again, the two resistors are connected in parallel across the
terminals A and B which gives us a total resistance of:

The voltage across the terminals A and B with the load resistor connected is
given as:

Then the current flowing in the 40Ω load resistor can be found as:

Once again and using Nortons theorem, the value of current for I3 is still
calculated as 0.286 amps, which we found using Kirchhoff´s circuit law in
the previous tutorials.