CONTENTS

RECOMMENDATION I
CERTIFICATE II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT III

Chapter Page No

1 Introduction 01

2 Literature review 09

3 Circuit Description/ System Model 12

Introduction

An induction is an ac electric motor in which the electric current in the rotor needed to

produce torque is induced by electromagnetic induction from the magnetic field of

the stator winding. An induction motor therefore does not require mechanical

commutation, separate-excitation or self-excitation for all or part of the energy

transferred from stator to rotor, as in universal, DC and large synchronous motors. An

induction motor's rotor can be either wound type/slip ring type or squirrel-cage type.

Squirrel cage induction motor

Squirrel cage induction motors are simple and rugged in construction, are relatively

cheap and require little maintenance. Hence, squirrel cage induction motors are preferred

in most of the industrial applications such as in

 Lathes

 Drilling machines

 Agricultural and industrial pumps

 Industrial drives.

Slip ring induction motors

Slip ring induction motors when compared to squirrel cage motors have high starting

torque, smooth acceleration under heavy loads, adjustable speed and good running

characteristics.
They are used in

 Lifts

 Cranes

 Conveyors , etc.,

Principle of Operation

In both induction and synchronous motors, the AC power supplied to the

motor's stator creates a magnetic field that rotates in time with the AC oscillations.

Whereas a synchronous motor's rotor turns at the same rate as the stator field, an

induction motor's rotor rotates at a slower speed than the stator field. The induction motor

stator's magnetic field is therefore changing or rotating relative to the rotor. This induces

an opposing current in the induction motor's rotor, in effect the motor's secondary

winding, when the latter is short-circuited or closed through an external impedance. The

rotating magnetic flux induces currents in the windings of the rotor; in a manner similar

to currents induced in a transformer's secondary winding(s). The currents in the rotor

windings in turn create magnetic fields in the rotor that react against the stator field. Due

to Lenz's Law, the direction of the magnetic field created will be such as to oppose the

change in current through the rotor windings. The cause of induced current in the rotor

windings is the rotating stator magnetic field, so to oppose the change in rotor-winding

currents the rotor will start to rotate in the direction of the rotating stator magnetic field.

The rotor accelerates until the magnitude of induced rotor current and torque balances the

applied load. Since rotation at synchronous speed would result in no induced rotor

current, an induction motor always operates slower than synchronous speed. The
difference, or "slip," between actual and synchronous speed varies from about 0.5 to 5%

for standard Design B torque curve induction motors. The induction machine's essential

character is that it is created solely by induction instead of being separately excited as in

synchronous or DC machines or being self-magnetized as in permanent magnet motors.

For rotor currents to be induced, the speed of the physical rotor must be lower than that of

the stator's rotating magnetic field ( ); otherwise the magnetic field would not be

moving relative to the rotor conductors and no currents would be induced. As the speed

of the rotor drops below synchronous speed, the rotation rate of the magnetic field in the

rotor increases, inducing more current in the windings and creating more torque. The

ratio between the rotation rate of the magnetic field induced in the rotor and the rotation

rate of the stator's rotating field is called slip. Under load, the speed drops and the slip

increases enough to create sufficient torque to turn the load. For this reason, induction

motors are sometimes referred to as asynchronous motors. An induction motor can be

used as an induction generator, or it can be unrolled to form a linear induction

motor which can directly generate linear motion.

Induction motor basics

The AC induction motor, also called the squirrel cage motor, comprises a simple cage-

like rotor and a stator containing three windings. The changing field produced by the AC

line current in the stator induces a current in the rotor, which interacts with the field and

causes the motor to rotate.

The base speed of the AC motor is determined by the number of poles built into the stator

windings and the frequency of the AC input voltage. A load on the motor causes the

motor to slip in proportion to the load.

Necessity of starters for 3 phase induction motor

When a 3- phase motor of higher rating is switched on directly from the mains it draws a

starting current of about 4 -7 times the full load (depending upon on the design) current.

This will cause a drop in the voltage affecting the performance of other loads connected

to the mains. Hence starters are used to limit the initial current drawn by the 3 phase

induction motors.

The starting current is limited by applying reduced voltage in case of squirrel cage type

induction motor and by increasing the impedance of the motor circuit in case of slip ring

type induction motor. This can be achieved by the following methods.

 Star –delta starter

 Auto transformer starter

 Soft starter

Star delta starter

The star delta starter is used for squirrel cage induction motor whose stator winding is

delta connected during normal running conditions. The two ends of each phase of the

stator winding are drawn out and connected to the starter terminals as shown in the

following figure.
During staring the starter switch is thrown on to the STAR - START. In this position the

stator winding is connected in star fashion and the voltage per phase is 1/√3 of the supply

voltage. This will limit the current at starting to 1/3 of the value drawn during direct

switching. When the motor accelerates the starter switch is thrown on to the DELTA -

RUN side. In this position the stator winding gets connected in the Δ fashion and the

motor draws the normal rated current.

Starters for 3-phase squirrel-cage induction motors often use star-to-delta converters. The

stator coils of the motor are connected in star configuration at the time of power-on and

switched to delta configuration when the motor reaches 3/4th of its full speed, after the

stator coils have developed sufficient back electromagnetic force (emf).

The starter circuit presented here offers two main advantages: single-phase prevention

and automatic star-to-delta conversion. It can be used only with those motors which are

rated for connection in delta configuration at the given line voltage and which have both

ends of each of the three stator windings available individually.

At start, the line voltage is applied to one end of each of the three windings, with the

other ends bridged together, effectively connecting the windings in star configuration.

Under this connection, the voltage across the windings is 1/√3 of line-to-line supply

voltage and so the current flowing through each winding is also reduced by this factor.

Compared to delta connection, the resultant current flowing from the supply, as also the

torque, is reduced by a factor of 1/3 in star configuration. The relevant equations for star

and delta connections are given in the box.

As soon as the moment of inertia is overcome, and sufficient back emf is induced in the
stator windings, the star connection is opened and the ends of the windings are connected

to the 3-phase supply in a fashion to create a delta connection.

List of Components Used

Circuit description

Fig. 1 shows the circuit of the automatic star-to-delta converter comprising a single-phase

preventer and a timer.

Three single-phase transformers are used to step-down the 3-phase supply separately.

Phases R, Y and B are stepped down by transformers X1, X2 and X3 to deliver the

secondary output of 12V at 300 mA. The transformer output is rectified by a full-wave

rectifier and filtered by a capacitor.

The three 12V DC supplies drive relays RL1, RL2 and RL3, respectively. When all the

three phases are present, the 12V DC supply derived from the R phase is fed to the coil of

relay RL3 and the timer circuit through the contacts of relays RL1 and RL2. As a result,

relay RL3 energises.

Simultaneously, timer NE555 (IC1), which is configured as a monostable multivibrator, is

also triggered. Its time period is determined by capacitor C4, resistor R1 and preset VR1.

Preset VR1 is used to set the time period required to reach 3/4th of the full speed of the

motor. The negative triggering pulse for IC1 is provided by the combination of resistor

VR1, R1 and capacitor C4. The timer output at pin 3 is connected to the base of transistor

T2 via resistor R2. As a result, transistor T2 is driven to saturation and relay RL4

energises (indicated by glowing of LED2). Thus at power-on, relay RL3, as also RL4,

energises (if all three phases are present) to connect the stator windings in star

configuration. On tracing the connections you will observe that R phase is connected to

R1 end of R windings, Y phase is connected to Y1 end of Y windings and B phase is

connected to B1 terminal of B stator windings. The other ends of all the stator windings

(i.e., R2, Y2 and B2) get bridged together to form star connection.
After the specified delay, which is provided for the speed of the motor to 3/4th of its full

speed value, the monostable output goes low to cut off transistor T2 and de-energise relay

RL4. The motor stator coils now switch to delta configuration. Now you will observe

that R phase gets connected to the junction of R1 and B2 terminals, Y phase is connected

to Y1 and R2 terminals and B phase is connected to B1 and Y2 terminals of the stator

winding. This connection conforms to delta configuration. Since the output of IC1 is low

in this state, pnp transistor T1 is forward biased to light up LED1 and indicate delta

configuration.

Relay ratings. RL1 and RL2 are normal control relays, which are used to energise relay

RL3. PCB-mounted OEN Type 57 relays rated for 12 volts (or equivalent) may be used

for the purpose. RL3 and RL4 are required to support the complete line current during

star as well as delta configurations.

555 Timer

A simplified "block diagram" representing the internal circuitry of the 555 timer is given

below with a brief explanation of each of its connecting pins to help provide a clearer

understanding of how it works.

Pin Configuration

Pin 1: Grounded Terminal: All the voltages are measured with respect to this terminal.

Pin 2: Trigger Terminal: This pin is an inverting input to a comparator that is

responsible for transition offlip-flop from set to reset. The output of the timer depends on

the amplitude of the external trigger pulse applied to this pin.

Pin 3: Output Terminal: Output of the timer is available at this pin. There are two ways

in which a load can be connected to the output terminal either between pin 3 and ground

pin (pin 1) or between pin 3 and supply pin (pin 8). The load connected between pin 3

and ground supply pin is called the normally on loadand that connected between pin 3

and ground pin is called the normally off load.

Pin 4: Reset Terminal: To disable or reset the timer a negative pulse is applied to this

pin due to which it is referred to as reset terminal. When this pin is not to be used for

reset purpose, it should be connected to + VCCto avoid any possibility of false triggering.
Pin 5: Control Voltage Terminal: The function of this terminal is to control the

threshold and trigger levels. Thus either the external voltage or a pot connected to this pin

determines the pulse width of the output waveform. The external voltage applied to this

pin can also be used to modulate the output waveform. When this pin is not used, it

should be connected to ground through a 0.01 micro Farad to avoid any noise problem.

Pin 6: Threshold Terminal: This is the non-inverting input terminal of comparator 1,

which compares the voltage applied to the terminal with a reference voltage of 2/3 V CC.

The amplitude of voltage applied to this terminal is responsible for the set state of flip-

flop.

Pin 7 : Discharge Terminal: This pin is connected internally to the collector of transistor

and mostly a capacitor is connected between this terminal and ground. It is called

discharge terminal because when transistor saturates, capacitor discharges through the

transistor. When the transistor is cut-off, the capacitor charges at a rate determined by the

external resistor and capacitor.

Pin 8: Supply Terminal: A supply voltage of + 5 V to + 18 V is applied to this terminal

with respect to ground (pin 1).

The 555 Timers name comes from the fact that there are three 5kΩ resistors connected

together internally producing a voltage divider network between the supply voltage at pin
8 and ground at pin 1. The voltage across this series resistive network holds the positive

input of comparator two at 2/3Vcc and the positive input to comparator one at 1/3Vcc.

The two comparators produce an output voltage dependant upon the voltage difference at

their inputs which is determined by the charging and discharging action of the externally

connected RC network. The outputs from both comparators are connected to the two

inputs of the flip-flop which inturn produces either a "HIGH" or "LOW" level output

at Q based on the states of its inputs. The output from the flip-flop is used to control a

high current output switching stage to drive the connected load producing either a

"HIGH" or "LOW" voltage level at the output pin.

The Monostable 555 Timer

The operation and output of the 555 Monostable is exactly the same as that for the

transistorised one we look at previously in the Monostable Multivibrators tutorial. The

difference this time is that the two transistors have been replaced by the 555 timer device.

Consider the 555 Monostable circuit below.

Monostable 555 Timer circuit diagram

When a negative ( 0V ) pulse is applied to the trigger input (pin 2) of the Monostable

configured 555 Timer oscillator, the internal comparator, (comparator No1) detects this

input and "sets" the state of the flip-flop, changing the output from a "LOW" state to a

"HIGH" state. This action inturn turns "OFF" the discharge transistor connected to pin 7,

thereby removing the short circuit across the external timing capacitor, C1.

This action allows the timing capacitor to start to charge up through resistor, R1 until the

voltage across the capacitor reaches the threshold (pin 6) voltage of 2/3Vcc set up by the

internal voltage divider network. At this point the comparators output goes "HIGH" and

"resets" the flip-flop back to its original state which inturn turns "ON" the transistor and

discharges the capacitor to ground through pin 7. This causes the output to change its

state back to the original stable "LOW" value awaiting another trigger pulse to start the
timing process over again. Then as before, the Monostable Multivibrator has only "ONE"

stable state.

The Monostable 555 Timer circuit triggers on a negative-going pulse applied to pin 2 and

this trigger pulse must be much shorter than the output pulse width allowing time for the

timing capacitor to charge and then discharge fully. Once triggered, the 555 Monostable

will remain in this "HIGH" unstable output state until the time period set up by the R1 x

C1 network has elapsed. The amount of time that the output voltage remains "HIGH" or at

a logic "1" level, is given by the following time constant equation.

Where, t is in seconds, R is in Ω's and C in Farads.

Example No1

A Monostable 555 Timer is required to produce a time delay within a circuit. If a 10uF

timing capacitor is used calculate the value of the resistor required to produce an output

time delay of 500ms.

500ms is the same as saying 0.5s so by rearranging the formula above, we get the

calculated value for the resistor, R as:

The calculated value for the timing resistor required to produce the required time constant

of 500ms is45.5KΩ's which does not exist as a standard value resistor, so we would need

to select the nearest preferred value resistor of 47kΩ's which is available in all the

standard ranges of tolerance from the E12 (10%) to the E96 (1%), giving us a new

recalculated time delay of 517ms.

If this time difference of 17ms (500 - 517ms) is unacceptable a second lower preferred

value timing resistor can be selected and connected in series with the first trimming

resistor to adjust the pulse width to the exact desired value.