CCNA

Networking Basics
Table of Contents:
Chapter 1: Introduction to Networking
Chapter 2: Networking Fundamentals
Chapter 3: Networking Media
Chapter 4: Cable Testing
Chapter 5: Cabling LAN’s & WAN’s
Chapter 6: Ethernet Fundamentals
Chapter 7: Ethernet Technologies
Chapter 8: Ethernet Switching
Chapter 9: TCP and IP addressing
Chapter 10: Routing Fundamentals Subnets
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTIO TO
NETWORKING
OBJECTIVES:
Network physical connection
Basic computer components
Network math and IP address concept
Connecting to the Internet
Requirements for Internet Connection
Connection to the Internet can be broken down into the following:
– Physical connection:
used to transfer signals between PCs within the local network and to
remote devices on the Internet
– Logical connection:
uses standards called protocols. A protocol is a formal description of a
set of rules and conventions that govern how devices on a network
communicate.
– The application:
interprets the data and displays the information in an understandable
form.
Information flow
Case Study: Boot process
Network Interface Cards
A network interface card (NIC) is a printed circuit board that provides
network communication capabilities to and from a personal computer

When you select a network card, consider the

following three factors:
– Type of network
– Type of media
– Type of system bus
Modem
A modem, or modulator demodulator is a device that provides the
computer with connectivity to a telephone line.
The modem converts (modulates) the data from a digital signal to an
analog signal that is compatible with a standard phone line.
NIC and Modem Installation

Connectivity to the Internet requires

an adapter card, which may be a modem or NIC. Notebook computers
may have a built-in interface or use a PCMCIA card. Desktop systems
may use an internal or external NIC.
High-Speed and Dialup Connectivity
By the 1990s modems were running at 9600 bps and reached the
current standard of 56 kbps (56,000 bps) by1998.
High-speed services used in the corporate environment,such as Digital
Subscriber Line (DSL) and cable modem access, moved to the
consumer market.
These services no longer required expensive equipment or a second
phone line. These are "always on" services that provide instant access
and do not require a connection to be established for each session.
TCP/IP Description and Configuration
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
is a set of protocols or rules developed to allow cooperating
computers to share resources across a network.
To enable TCP/IP on the workstation, it must be configured
using the operating system tools.
Testing Connectivity with Ping
Ping is a program that is useful for verifying a successful TCP/IP
installation.
It works by sending multiple packets to a specified destination
requesting for replies.
Ping Command
ping 127.0.0.1 - This ping is unique and is called an internal loopback
test. It verifies the operation of the TCP/IP stack and NIC
transmit/receive function.
ping IP address - A ping to a host PC verifies the TCP/IP address
configuration for the local host and connectivity to the host.
Web Browser and Plug-Ins
Web browsers acts on behalf of a user by
– Contacting a web server
– Requesting information
– Receiving information
– Displaying the results on ascreen
Plug-ins is to view special, or proprietary, file types that standard web
browsers are not able to display
– Flash/Shockwave, QuickTime, Real Audio
Network math and IP address
Binary presentation of data
Computers operate with electronic switches that are either "on" or
"off", corresponding to 1 or 0.

Computers
have to translate in order to use decimal numbering.
Number Systems
Knowing what base someone refers to
– Decimal uses 10 digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
– Binary uses 2 digits: 0 and 1.
Base conventions
– 101 in base 2 is spoken as one zero one.
Working with exponents
– 103 = 10 X 10 X 10 = 1000
– 24 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 16
Binary numbers
– Use principle of place value just as decimal numbers do
ASCII
The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) is the
most commonly used code for representing alpha-numeric data in a
computer.
Bits and Bytes
Bits are binary digits. They are either 0s or 1s. In a computer, they are
represented by On/Off switches or the presence or absence of electrical
charges, light pulses, or radio waves.
Base 10 Numbers
Base 2 (Binary) Numbers
Converting Decimal to Binary
Hexadecimal
The base 16, or hexadecimal (hex), number system is used frequently when
working with computers, because it can be used to represent binary numbers
in a more readable form.
Converting Binary to Hexadecimal

Remember that hexadecimal is sometimes abbreviated 0x so hex 5D might be

written as "0x5D".
Four-Octet Dotted-decimal Representation of 32-
Bit Binary Numbers
Currently, Internet Protocol (IP) addresses assigned to computers on
the Internet are 32-bit binary numbers
The 32-bit binary addresses used on the Internet are referred to as
Internet Protocol (IP) addresses.
IP Addresses and Network Masks
The IP address of a computer usually consists of a network, and a host
part that represents a particular computer on a particular network.
Subnetwork mask a second 32-bit number to identify how many of the
IP address bits are used to identify the network of the computer.
SubnetMask
A subnet mask will always be all 1s until the network address is
identified and then be all 0s from there to the right most bit of the
mask.
SubnetMask Example
Converting the IP address 10.34.23.134 to binary would result in:
00001010.00100010.00010111.10000110

Performing a Boolean AND of the IP address 10.34.23.134 and the

subnet mask 255.240.0.0 produces the network address of this host:
00001010.00100010.00010111.10000110 ?? 10.34.23.134 (IP address)

11111111.11110000.00000000.00000000 ?? 255.240.0.0 (subnetmask)

00001010.00100000.00000000.00000000 ?? 10.32.0.0 (subnetwork address)
Address Example
IP address 10.34.23.134
Subnetmask 255.0.0.0
IP address:
00001010.00100010.00010111.10000110 = 10.34.23.134
Network address:
00001010.00000000.00000000.00000000 = 10.0.0.0
Broadcast address:
00001010.11111111. 11111111. 11111111=10.255.255.255
View computer address
ipconfig : brief IP configuration
ipconfig /all : detail IP configuration
ipconfig /renew : renew IP address with DHCP

Practise IP and subnetmask

Summary
The physical connection that has to take place for a computer to
connect to the Internet
Network interface cards and/or modems
Web browser selection and configuration
The Base 2 number system
Binary number conversion to decimal
Representasion of IP addresses and network masks
 Chapter 2
Networking Fundamentals
Objectives
Networking terminology
Some network architectures
The importance of bandwidth
Networking models: OSI vs TCP/IP
Networking Terminology
Relative size of network
Networking Devices
Equipment that connects directly to a network segment is referred to as
a device.

There are
2 type of devices: end-user devices and network devices.
Network Devices

Repeater: regenerate a signal.

Hub: concentrate connections and may regenerate
a signal.
Bridge: convert network transmission data formats
as well as perform basic data transmission
management.
Switch: add more intelligence to data
transfer management.
Router: routing and other services
Network Topology
The physical topology, which is the actual layout of the wire or media.
The logical topology, which defines how the media is accessed by the
hosts for sending data.
Physical Topology
 Logical
Topology
 Logical Topology:
Broadcast

Each host sends its data to all other hosts onthe network medium.
First-come, first-serve.
Eg: Ethernet
Logical Topology: Token Passing

Access to media is controlled by an electronictoken.

Possession of the token gives the host the right to pass data to its
destination.
Eg: Token-Ring, FDDI
Network Protocols
Protocol suites are collections of protocols that enable network
communication from one host through the network to another host.
A protocol is a formal description of a set of rules and conventions that
govern a particular aspect of how devices on a network communicate.

Functions of Protocols
Protocols control all aspects of data communication, which include the
following:
– How the physical network is built
– How computers connect to the network
– How the data is formatted for transmission
– How that data is sent
– How to deal with errors
LANs
Operate within a limited geographic area
Allow many users to access high-bandwidth media
Provide full-time connectivity to local services
Connect physically adjacent devices
LAN Devices and Technology

Some common LAN technologies are:

– Ethernet
– Token Ring
– FDDI
WANs
Operate over a large geographically separated areas
Provide full-time remote resources connected to local services
WAN Technologies Include

Some common WAN technologies are:

– Analog modems
– Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
– Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
– Frame Relay
– Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
– T (US) and E (Europe) carrier series: T1, E1, T3, E3
– Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)
Metropolitan-Area Networks (MANs)
A MAN is a network that spans a metropolitan area such as a city or
suburban area.
A MAN usually consists of two or more LANs in a common
geographic area.
Storage-Area Networks (SANs)
A SAN is a dedicated, high-performance network used to move data between
servers and storage resources.
Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)
A VPN is a private network that is constructed within a public network
infrastructure such as the global Internet .
VPN is the most costeffective method of establishing secured
connection
VPN Types
There are three main types of VPNs:
Access VPNs
Intranet VPNs
Extranet VPNs
Bandwidth
Importance of Bandwidth
Digital Bandwidth
Bandwidth is the measure of how much information, or bits, can flow
from one place to another in a given amount of time, or seconds
Bandwidth Limitations (LAN)
 Bandwidth
Limitations (WAN)
Throughput
Throughput refers to actual measured bandwidth, at a specific time of
day, using specific Internet routes, and while a specific set of data is
transmitted on the network.
Factors that determine throughput:
– Internetworking devices
– Type of data being transferred
– Network topology
– Number of users on the network
– User computer
– Server computer
– Power conditions
Data Transfer Calculation
Calculate an estimate of network performance
Networking Models
Analyzing network in layer
Communication characteristics
Addresses
– What are the source and the destination of a
communication process?
Media
– Where does the communication take place?
Protocols
– How to make the communication process effectively?
Data Communication

Address
– Source address, Destination address
Media
– Cable, Fiber, Atmosphere
Protocol
– Format
– Procedure
Evolution of networking standards
OSI Model
The OSI model: a framework within which networking standards can be
developed. – It provided vendors with a set of standards that ensured greater
compatibility and interoperability between the various types of network
technologies that were produced by the many companies around the world.

Proprietary vs. Open

 Why a layered model
Reduces complexity.
Standardizes interfaces.
Facilitates modular engineering.
Ensures technology compatibility.
Accelerates evolution.
Simplifies teaching and learning.
 7 layers of
the OSI reference model
 7
layers of the OSI reference model
 7 layers
of the OSI reference model
7 layers of the OSI reference model
 7 layers of
the OSI reference model
 7 layers
of the OSI reference model
 7 layers
of the OSI reference model
 7 layers
of the OSI reference model
7 layers of the OSI reference model
Peer-to-Peer Communication
The protocols of each layer exchange information, called protocol data units
(PDUs), between peer layers.
Encapsulation

The lower
layers use encapsulation to put the protocol data unit (PDU) from the upper
layer into its data field and to add headers and trailers that the layer can use to
perform its function.
De-Encapsulation
When the data link layer receives the frame, it does the following:
– It reads the physical address and other control
information provided by the directly connected peer data link
layer.
– It strips the control information from the frame, thereby
creating datagram.
– It passes the datagram up to the next layer, following
the instructions that appeared in the control portion of the frame.
 Encapsulation
example: E-mail
 Layer-to-layer
communications
TCP/IP model development
The late-60s The Defense Advance Research Projects Agency
(DARPA) originally developed Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol (TCP/IP) to interconnect various defense department computer
networks.
The Internet, an International Wide Area Network, uses TCP/IP to
connect networks across the world.
 The TCP/IP
Reference Model
TCP/IP Protocol Stack
 OSI Model and
TCP/IP Model
 Focus of
the CCNA Curriculum
Summary
Networking devices
Some of the common network types
Intranet and extranet
Bandwidth and throughput
The layered communication model
OSI reference model
TCP/IP networking model
 Chapter 3
Networking Media
Objectives
Copper media and electronic signal
Optical media and light signal
Wireless media and wave
Copper Media
Electricity Basics
The basic unit of all matter is an atom.
– Protons – particles that have positive charge
– Neutrons – particles that have no charge (neutral)
– Electrons – particles that have negative charge and
orbit the nucleus
Static electricity
Electrons have been loosened from the atom and stay in one place,
without moving. • Electrostatic discharge (ESD).
– ESD, though usually harmless to people, can create serious problems for
sensitive electronic equipment.
Measuring electricity: Current
The flow of charges that is created when electrons move.
Symbol: I.
Ampere (A).
Electrical definitions: AC and DC
Alternating Current (AC):
– Electrical current flows in both directions; positive and
negative terminals continuously trade places (polarity).
Direct Current (DC):
– Electrical current flows in one direction; negative to
positive.
Measuring electricity: Resistance

Resistance: property of a material that opposes the electrical flow.

Resistance consume electrical energy and cause attenuation.
Symbol: R.
Ohm (Ω).
Impedance: total opposition to the current.
Symbol: Z.
Ohm (Ω).
Measuring electricity: Voltage

Force or pressure caused by

the separation of electrons and protons.
Symbol: U.
Volt (V).
 Basic Circuit
Source
Complete path
Load
 Oscilloscope

Graphs voltage over time

X-axis represents T, Y-axis represents V
Electrical definitions: Ground
Ground can refer to the place on the earth.

Ground can also mean the

reference point, or the 0 volts level, when making electrical
measurements.
Cable Specifications
What speeds for data transmission can be achieved using a particular
type of cable?
What type of transmission is being considered? Will the transmissions
be digital or will they be analog-based?
How far can a signal travel through a particular type of cable before
attenuation of that signal becomes a concern?
 Ethernet Specifications
10BASE-T
10BASE5
10Base2
 Coaxial
Cable

If not properly grounded, shielding is very poor.

Speed of transmission:10-100Mpbs
Longer cable runs than UTP & STP.
Maximum cable length :
– Thin cable : 185 m.
– Thick cable : 500 m.
Impedance: 50Ω.
Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable

Protection from all types of external interference, include EMI and RFI.
– Cancellation: twisting of wires.
– Shielding.
Moderately expensive, quite difficult to install.
Speed of transmission:10Mpbs-1Gbps
Maximum cable length 100m.
Screened Twisted-Pair Cable
Cancellation
Unshielded Twisted-Pair Cable

More prone to EMI/RFI interference than any other cable types.

Least expensive of all media
– small diameter of cable (~ .43cm),
– easy to install.
Speed of transmission:10Mpbs-1Gbps
Maximum cable length 100m.
 Straight-through cable
Station to hub/switch
Router to hub/switch
 Crossover cable
Switch/hub to switch/hub
Router/station to Router/station
 Connecting devices

Connecting devices of the same group: cross-over

Connecting devices of different group: straight-through
100Base-TX
Rollover cable

PC requires an RJ45-to-DB9 or RJ45-to-DB25 adapter

This provide out-of-band console access
Note: only straigh-through and cross-over cable are used in making
network while rollover cable is used in making control connection
Optical Media
Electromagnetic Spectrum

Electromagnetic Energy
– Radio
– Microwaves
– Radar
– Visible light
– X-rays
– Gamma rays
If all the types of electromagnetic waves are arranged in order from the
longest wavelength down to the shortest wavelength, a continuum
called the electromagnetic spectrum is created.
Reflection and refraction of light
Total Internal Reflection

A light ray that is being turned on and off to send data (1s and 0s) into
an optical fiber must stay inside the fiber until it reaches the far end.
Laws of Total Reflection

The following two conditions must be met for the light rays in a fiber to
be reflected back into the fiber with out any loss due to refraction:
– The core of the optical fiber has to have a larger index
of refraction than the material that surrounds it (the cladding).
– The angle of incidence of the light ray is greater than
the critical angle for the core and its cladding.
 Single-Mode
Fiber and Multimode Fiber
Other Optical Components

A transmitter is needed to convert the electricity to light and at the

receiver convert the pulse of light at the proper wavelength back to
electricity.
Optical Connector

The type of connector most commonly used with multimode fiber is the
Subscriber Connector (SC connector). On single-mode fiber, the
Straight Tip (ST) connector is frequently used.
Advantages of optical signal
Fiber-optic cable is not affected by the sources of external noise like
EMI
Transmission of light on one fiber in a cable does not generate
interference that disturbs transmission on any other fiber
High speed, high security and long cable length
Signals and Noise in Optical Fibers
The farther a light signal travels through a fiber, the more the signal
loses strength. This attenuation is due to several factors involving the
nature of fiber itself.
– Scattering of light in a fiber is caused by microscopic
non-uniformity (distortions) in the fiber that reflects and scatters
some of the light energy.
– Absorption makes the light signal a little dimmer.
– Another factor that causes attenuation of the light
signal is manufacturing irregularities or roughness in the core-to-
cladding boundary.
 Installation of Optical
Fiber

If the fiber is stretched or curved too tightly, it can cause tiny cracks in
the core that will scatter the light rays.
Bending the fiber in too tight a curve can change the incident angle of
light rays striking the core-tocladding boundary.
When the fiber has been pulled, the ends of the fiber must be cleaved
(cut) and properly polished to ensure that the ends are smooth.
Testing of Optical Fiber
When a fiber-optic link is being planned, the amount of signal power
loss that can be tolerated must be calculated. This is referred to as the
optical link loss budget.

Two of the most important testing instruments are Optical Loss Meters
and Optical Time Domain Reflectometers (OTDRs).
Wireless Media
IEEE 802 Committees
802.0 SEC
802.1 High Level Interface (HILI)
802.2 Logical Link Control (LLC)
802.3 CSMA/CD Working Group
802.4 Token Bus
802.5 Token Ring
802.6 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
802.7 BroadBand Technical Adv. Group (BBTAG)
802.8 Fiber Optics Technical Adv. Group (FOTAG)
802.9 Integrated Services LAN (ISLAN)
802.10 Standard for Interoperable LAN Security
(SILS)
801.11 Wireless LAN (WLAN)
802.12 Demand Priority
802.14 Cable-TV Based Broadband Communication
Network
802.15 Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN)
802.16 Broadband Wireless Access (BBWA)
RPRSG Resilient Packet Ring Study Group (RPRSG)
IEEE 802.11
IEEE 802.11a
IEEE 802.11b WiFi
IEEE 802.11g
IEEE 802.15.1 Bluetooth
IEEE 802.11e
IEEE 802.11f
IEEE 802.11h
IEEE 802.11i Security 2004
IEEE 802.15 TG2
IEEE 802.15 TG3
IEEE 802.15 TG4
WLAN Organizations and Standards
Wireless Devices and Topologies
A wireless network may consist of as few as two devices.
Devices in WLAN are peers
An access point (AP) is commonly installed to act as a central hub for
the WLAN
How WLANs Communicate
After establishing connectivity to the WLAN, a node will pass frames
similarly to any other 802 network.

WLANs use CSMA/CA

The receiving node returns a positive ACK, causing a consumption of

50% of the available bandwidth, actual throughput may reduce to 5 –
5.5 Mbps
Adaptive Rate Selection (ARS) is used to set proper speed for network
nodes.
Adaptive Rate Selection

Performance of the network will also be affected by signal strength and

degradation in signal quality due to distance or interference.
As the signal becomes weaker, Adaptive Rate Selection (ARS) may
beinvoked.
Authentication and Association
IEEE 802.11 lists two types of authentication processes.
– Open system – only the SSID must match
– Shared key – requires Wireless Equivalency Protocol
(WEP)

Association permits a client to use the services of the AP to transfer

data.
Carrier Signal and Modulation

In a transmitter, the electrical (data) signals from a computer or a LAN

are not sent directly into the antenna of the transmitter. Rather, these
data signals are used to alter a second, strong signal called the carrier
signal.
Signals and Noise on a WLAN
The most obvious source of a signal problem is the transmitting station
and antenna type.
Leakage from a microwave of as little as one watt into the RF spectrum
can cause major network disruption. Wireless phones operating in the
2.4GHZ spectrum can also cause network disorder.
Fog or high moisture conditions can affect wireless networks.
Lightning can also charge the atmosphere and alter the path of a
transmitted signal.
Wireless Security
VPN
EAP-MD5 Challenge
LEAP (Cisco)
User authentication
Encryption
Data authentication
Summary
Electronic parameters
Ethernet cable type
Light and optical fiber
Optical fiber installation
WLAN communication and authentication
Signal modulation and WLAN security
 Chapter 4
Cable Testing
Objectives
Basic definitions regarding cable testing
Issues relating to the testing of media
Background for Studying Frequency-Based Cable
Testing
Waves
A wave is energy traveling from one place to another.

Networking professionals are

specifically interested in voltage waves on copper media, light waves in
optical fiber, and alternating electric and magnetic fields called
electromagnetic waves
 Analog signals
Continuous voltage
Voltage varies as time progresses
Typical of things in nature
Many encodings possible
 Digital signals
Discreet, not continuous
Can only have one or two voltage states
Voltage jumps between 2 levels
Made up of particular sine waves
Decibels
The decibel (dB) is a measurement unit important in describing
networking signals.
There are two formulas for calculating decibels:
– dB = 10 log10 (Pfinal / Pref)
– dB = 20 log10 (Vfinal / Vreference)
dB measures the loss or gain of the power of a wave.
Typically, light waves on optical fiber and radio waves in the air are
measured using the power formula. Electromagnetic waves on copper
cables are measured using the voltage formula.
Viewing signals in time and frequency
Analyzing signals using an oscilloscope is called time-domain analysis
Graphs voltage over time
X-axis represents T, Y-axis represents V, may observe and compare 2
waves at once
Fourier synthesis
Noise
Nearby cable carrying electric Signal

Radio frequency
interference (RFI), which is noise from other signals being transmitted
nearby
Electromagnetic interference (EMI), which is noise from nearby
sources such as motors and lights
Laser noise at the transmitter or receiver of an optical signal
 Narrowband Interference and white
noise
Noise that affects all transmission frequencies equally is called white
noise.

Noise that only affects small ranges of

frequencies is called narrowband interference
Bandwidth
Bandwidth is an extremely important concept in communications
systems. Two ways of considering bandwidth that are important for the
study of LANs are analog bandwidth and digital bandwidth.
Analog bandwidth typically refers to the frequency range of an analog
electronic system.
Digital bandwidth measures how much information can flow from one
place to another in a given amount of time.
Signals and Noise
Signaling over copper and fiber optic cabling
On copper cable, data signals are represented by voltage levels that
represent binary ones and zeros.
The voltage levels are measured with respect to a reference level of
ground volt at both the transmitter and the receiver.
Fiber optic cable is used to transmit data signals by increasing and
decreasing the intensity of light to represent binary ones and zeros.
In order for the LAN to operate properly, the receiving device must be
able to accurately interpret the binary ones and zeros transmitted as
signal levels.
Attenuation loss on copper media
Attenuation is the decrease in signal amplitude over the length of a link.
– Long cable lengths and high signal frequencies
contribute to greater signal attenuation.
– The resistance of the copper cable converts some of the
electrical energy of the signal to heat.
– Signal energy is also lost when it leaks through the
insulation of the cable and by impedance caused by defective
connectors.
Impedance Discontinuity
If a connector is improperly installed on Cat5, it will have a different
impedance value than the cable. This is called an impedance
discontinuity or an impedance mismatch.
Impedance mismatch cause attenuation and jitter as a portion of signal
will be reflected back to the transmitting device.
The combination of the effects of signal attenuation andimpedance
discontinuities is called insertion loss.
Cable testing standards
Wire map
Insertion loss
Near-end crosstalk (NEXT)
Power sum near-end crosstalk (PSNEXT)
Equal-level far-end crosstalk (ELFEXT)
Power sum equal-level far-end crosstalk (PSELFEXT)
Return loss
Propagation delay
Cable length
Delay skew
Cable Testing Standard
Wiring Fault
 Other
test parameters
Testing optical fiber

Fiber links are subject to the

optical equivalent of UTP impedance discontinuities.
The main concern with a fiber link is the strength of the light signal that
arrives at the receiver.
A new standard
On June 20, 2002, the Category 6 (or Cat 6) addition to the TIA-568
standard was published, called ANSI/TIA/EIA-568-B.2-1.
This new standard specifies the original set of performance parameters
that need to be tested for Ethernet cabling as well as the passing scores
for each of these tests.
Lab Companion
3.1.9 UTP Cable Construction
4.2.1 Fluke 620 Cable Tester
Summary
Sine waves and square waves
Analog bandwidth and digital bandwidth
Signals over copper and fiber optic
Attenuation loss, impedance discontinuity, crosstalk
Wiring faults
Cable testing standards
 Chapter 5
Cabling LANs and WANs
Objectives
Identify characteristics of Ethernet networks.
Describe the function of network devices
Describe and cabling the LANs
Decribe WAN connections and cabling the WANs
Cabling the LANs
LAN Physical Layer

Each media has advantages and

disadvantages. Some of the advantage or disadvantage comparisons
concern the following:
– Cable length
– Cost
– Ease of installation
– Susceptibility to interference
Ethernet Family
Ethernet Standard
Ethernet is the most widely used LAN technology.
Ethernet was first implemented by the Digital, Intel, and Xerox group,
referred to as DIX.
DIX Ethernet was used as the basis for the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 802.3 specification, released in 1980.
Later, the IEEE extended 802.3 to three new committees known as
802.3u (Fast Ethernet), 802.3z (Gigabit Ethernet over Fiber), and
802.3ab (Gigabit Ethernet over UTP).
Ethernet Cable and Connector
UTP Implementation

EIA/TIA specifies an RJ-

45 connector for unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable. The letters RJ stand for
registered jack, and the number 45 refers to a specific wiring sequence.
Attach the RJ-45
 Repeater: Layer 1
Repeater regenerate and retime network signals at the bit level to allow them
to travel a longer distance on the media.
4 repeater rule

5.4.3.2.1 Rule
5 sections of the network.
4 repeaters or hubs.
3 sections for hosts.
2 sections for link purposes.
1 large collision domain.

This rule states that no more than four repeaters can be used between
hosts on a LAN.
This rule is used to limit latency added to frame travel by each repeater.
Too much latency on the LAN increases the number of late collisions
and makes the LAN less efficient.
Hubs: Layer 1
Multiport repeater
The physical topology for using a hub star.
Sometimes called concentrator
There are 3 types of hub: active, passive and intelligent

Every device
connected to the same network segment is said to be a member of a
collision domain.
Network Segmentation
When the number of network node is big, reducing network
performance, it is necessary to break up a large LAN into smaller, more
easily managed segments.
Bridge Functions
Switches and bridges operate at the Data Link layer of the OSI model.
The function of the bridge is to make intelligent decisions about
whether or not to pass signals on to the next segment of a network.
Bridge Functions

The function of the bridge is to make intelligent decisions about

whether or not to pass signals on to the next segment of a network.

They makes these decisions based upon the layer 2 physical address
(MAC).
A switch therefore has two main functions:
– switch data frames
– build and maintain tables
LAN Switch
Switches operate at much higher speeds than bridges and can support
new functionality, such as virtual LANs.

Switches can easily replace hubs

Cisco Catalyst
Switch: Micro-segmentation
An Ethernet switch allows many users to communicate in parallel in a
virtually collisionfree environment.
Ethernet switches have such benefits:
– reduces network congestion
– maximizes bandwidth
– reduces collision domain size
Host Connectivity – NIC

The NIC is also referred to as a

network adapter and is considered Layer 2 devices because each NIC
carries a unique code called a MAC address. When selecting a NIC,
consider the following:
– Network architecture
– Operating system
– Media type
– Data transfer speed
– Available bus types
Type of network
Peer-to-peer versus Client/Server
Cabling the WANs
WAN physical layer

The physical layer implementations vary depending on:

– distance of the equipment from the services
– speed
– type of service itself
 WAN Serial
Connections

If the connection is made directly to a service provider, or a device that

provides signal clocking such as a channel/data service unit
(CSU/DSU), the router will be a data terminal equipment (DTE) and
use a DTE serial cable
 Routers
and Serial Connections

Determine whether DTE or DCE connectors are required. The DTE is

the endpoint of the user’s device on the WAN link.
The DCE is the point where responsibility for delivering data passes
into the hands of the service provider.
Fixed and modular port
Interfaces on routers with fixed serial ports are labeled for port type and
port number (eg S1). Ethernet AUI port need transceiver to convert
from DB-15 to RJ45
Interfaces on routers with modular serial ports are labeled for port type,
slot, and port number (eg: S0/1).
Routers and DSL Connections
The Cisco 827 ADSL router has one Asymmetric Digital Subscriber
Line (ADSL) interface.
To connect an ADSL line to the ADSL port on a router, do the
following:

– Connect the
phone cable to the ADSL port on the router.
– Connect the other end of the phone cable to the phone
jack.
DSL works over standard telephone lines using pins 3 and 4 on a
standard RJ-11 connector.
Routers and Cable Connections
The Cisco uBR905 cable access router provides highspeed network
access on the cable television system to residential and small office,
home office (SOHO) subscribers.
Setting Up Console Connections
The console port allows monitoring and configuration of a Cisco hub,
switch, or router.
The AUX port allows remote monitoring and configuration of devices
over modem connection.
To set up a connection between the terminal and the Cisco console port,
perform two steps.
– Connect the devices using a rollover cable from the
console port, on the router, to the serial port, on the terminal
(workstation).
–

Configure the terminal emulation application with the following

common equipment (COM) port settings: 9600 bps, 8 data bits,
no parity, 1 stop bit, and no flow control.
Lab Companion
5.1.5 RJ-45 Jack Punch Down
5.1.12 Building a Peer-to-Peer Network
5.1.13 Building a LAN Network
5.2.3 Interconnecting network devices
5.2.7 Establishing a Console Connection to a Router or Switch
Summary
LAN physical layer
Ethernet standards
5-4-3 rule
Functions of network devices
Peer-to-peer versus client/server network
WAN physical layer
WAN connections
WAN technologies
 Chapter 6
Ethernet Fundamentals
Objectives
Ethernet fundamentals
Ethernet operation
Ethernet Fundamentals
Introduction to Ethernet
The success of Ethernet is due to the following factors:
– Simplicity and ease of maintenance
– Ability to incorporate new technologies
– Reliability
– Low cost of installation and upgrade
– Bandwidth can be increased without changing
underlying technology
 IEEE
802 Committees
Ethernet Standards
Ethernet Specifications
Ethernet and the OSI model

Divided OSI Layer 2 into two sublayers

– Media Access Control (MAC) – Traditional L2
features
Transitions down to media
– Logical link control (LLC) – New L2 features
Transitions up to the network layer
 LLC
sublayer

LLC PDU includes:

– DSAP: Destination service access point
– SSAP: Source service access point
Supports connection control methods specified by upper protocols
MAC sublayer

Naming.
Framing.
Media access control rules
MAC address
MAC addresses are burned into read-only memory (ROM) and are
copied into random-access memory (RAM) when the NIC initializes.
Presentation formats: 0000.0c12.3456 or 00-00-0c-12-34-56.
Broadcast address: FFFF.FFFF.FFFF
Layer 2 Framing
Framing helps obtain essential information that could not, otherwise, be
obtained with coded bit streams alone. Examples of such information
are:
– Which computers are communicating with one
another?
– When communication between individual computers
begins and when it terminates
– Provides a method for detection of errors that occurred
during the communication

–
Whose turn it is to "talk" in a computer "conversation“
Generic Frame Format

Framing is the Layer 2 encapsulation process. A frame is the Layer 2

protocol data unit
Ethernet Frame Format

At the data link layer the frame structure is nearly identical for all
speeds of Ethernet from 10 Mbps to 10,000 Mbps.
Ethernet requires that the frame be not less than 46 octets or more than
1518 octets
 IEEE
802.3 Ethernet
Ethernet II
Ethernet Operation
Media Access Control (MAC)
MAC refers to protocols that determine which computer on a shared-
medium environment, or collision domain, is allowed to transmit the
data.
There are two broad categories of Media Access Control, deterministic
(taking turns) and non-deterministic (first come, first served).
Media Access Control (MAC) Protocols
Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)
– Logical bus topology
– Physical star or extended star
– Nondeterministic
First-come, first-served
Token Ring (IEEE 802.5)
– Logical ring

– Physical star
topology
– Deterministic
Token controls traffic
– Older declining technology
FDDI (IEEE 802.5)
– Logical ring topology
– Physical dual-ring topology
– Deterministic
Token controls traffic
– Near-end-of-life technology
CSMA/CD Process
Ethernet Transmission Mode
Full duplex :
– send and receive simultaneously
– no collisions occur.
Half duplex:
– only send or receive at a specific moment
– transmit 64 bits of timing synchronization information
that is known as the preamble to make sure collision do not
occur.
Ethernet Timing
For CSMA/CD Ethernet to operate, collision must be sensed before
completing transmission of a minimum-sized frame.
At 100 Mbps the system timing is barely able to accommodate 100
meter cables. For this reason half duplex is not permitted in 10-Gigabit
Ethernet.
Slot time
Ethernet standard specifications limit

– maximum segment
length
– maximum number of stations per segment
– maximum number of repeaters between segments
Slot time >= round trip delay
Interframe Spacing
The minimum time space between two non-colliding frames is also
called the interframe spacing.
After a frame has been sent, all stations on a 10-Mbps Ethernet are
required to wait a minimum of 96 bit-times (9.6 microseconds) before
any station may legally transmit the next frame.
Error Handling
Collisions are to resole contention for network access which results in
network bandwidth loss.
When collision occurs, the devices with data to transmit return to a
listen-before-transmit mode and no device have priority to transmit
data.
Types of Collisions

The results of collisions, collision fragments, are partial or corrupted

frames that are less than 64 octets and have an invalid FCS. Three types
of collisions are:
– Local
– Remote
– Late
Local Collision
Local collision is detected on the local segment when a station detects a
signal on the RX pair at the same time it is sending on the TX pair.
Local collision is sensed as over-voltage condition on the local cable
area when two signal from different stations collide.
Remote Collison
The characteristics of a remote collision are a frame that is less than the
minimum length, has an invalid FCS checksum.
This sort of collision usually results from collisions occurring on the far
side of a repeated connection.
Late Collision
Collisions occurring after the first 64 octets are called late collisions.
Difference between late collisions and other collisions is that the
Ethernet NIC will not automatically retransmit a frame that was
collided late.
 FCS
and Beyond

A received frame that has a bad frame check sequence, alsoreferred to

as a checksum or CRC error, differs from the original transmission by
at least 1 bit.
High numbers of FCS errors from a single station usually indicates a
faulty NIC and/or faulty or corrupted software drivers, or a bad cable
connecting that station to the network.
If FCS errors are associated with many stations, they are generally
traceable to bad cabling, a faulty version of the NIC driver, a faulty hub
port, or induced noise in the cable system.
Ethernet Autonegotiation
This process defines how two link partners may automatically negotiate
a configuration offering the best common performance level.
It has the additional advantage of only involving the lowest part of the
physical layer
Summary
The basics of Ethernet technology
How Ethernet and the OSI model interact
Ethernet frame field names and purposes
The characteristics and function of CSMA/CD
Ethernet timing
The backoff algorithm and time after a collision
Ethernet errors and collisions
Auto-negotiation in relation to speed and duplex
 Chapter 7
Ethernet Technologies
Objectives
Ethernet relevant issues
10 Mbps and 100 Mbps
1000 Mbps and Gigabit Ethernet
10-Mbps and 100-Mbps
Ethernet
Type of Ethernet
All version of Ethernet have the same:
– MAC addressing
– CSMA/CD
– Frame format
However, other aspect of MAC sublayer, physical layer and medium
have changed.
Parameters for 10Mbps Ethernet
Line Encoding
All 10 Mbps forms of Ethernet take octets received from the MAC
sublayer and perform a process called line encoding.
Line encoding describes how the bits are actually signaled on the wire.
The form of encoding used in 10 Mbps systems is called “Manchester”.
Manchester Encoding
10BASE-T Wiring and Architecture
10BASE-T links generally consist of a connection between the station
and a hub or switch.
The most important aspect to consider for 10BASET architecture is
minimizing the delay between distant stations
100-Mbps Ethernet
100 Mbps Ethernet is also known as Fast Ethernet.
The two technologies that became important are 100BASE-TX, which
is copper UTP based, and 100BASE-FX, which is multimode optical
fiber based.
Three characteristics common to 100BASE-TX and 100BASEFX are:
– timing parameters
– the frame format
– parts of the transmission process .
100Mbps Ethernet Encoding

The higher frequency

signals are more susceptible to noise.
Two encoding steps for 100-Mbps Ethernet.
– 4B/5B
– Actual line encoding specific to copper or fiber.
100BASE-TX
100BASE-TX can be either full-duplex or half-duplex
Ethernet network use separate transmit and receive wire pairs (full-
duplex) and a switched topology prevents collisions on the physical
bus.
100BASE-TX uses 4B/5B encoding, which is then scrambled and
converted to multilevel transmit-3 levels or MLT-3.
100BASE-FX
A fiber version desired for backbone connections as well as those
between floors and buildings where copper is less desirable, and also in
high noise environments
Gigabit Ethernet standards are now the dominant technology for
backbone installations, high-speed cross-connects, and general
infrastructure needs.
 NRZI Encoding
100BASE-FX uses 4B/5B encoding, which is then scrambled and
converted to nonreturn- zero-inverse or NRZI.
Class of Repeater
A Class I repeater may introduce up to 140 bittimes of latency. Any
repeater that changes between one Ethernet implementation and
another is a Class I repeater.
A Class II repeater may only introduce a maximum of 92 bit-times
latency. Because of the reduced latency it is possible to have two Class
II repeaters in series, but only if the cable between them is very short.
Gigabit and 10-Gigabit Ethernet
1000 Mbps Ethernet
The 1000 Mbps Ethernet or Gigabit Ethernet standards represent
transmission using both fiber and copper media.
The 1000BASE-X standard (IEEE 802.3z) specifies a 1-Gbps full
duplex over optical fiber.
The 1000BASE-T standard (IEEE 802.3ab) uses a media of Category
5e or higher UTP.
1000BASE-TX, 1000BASE-SX, and 1000BASE-LX use the same
timing parameters.
Gigabit Ethernet Encoding
The shorter duration bit times require Gigabit Ethernet to use two
separate encoding steps.
At the physical layer, the bit patterns from the MAC layer are
converted into symbols.
Fiber-based Gigabit Ethernet (1000BASE-X) uses 8B/10B, followed by
the simple Non-Return to Zero (NRZ) line encoding of light on optical
fiber.
Actual 1000BaseT Signal Transmission

Cat 5e cable can reliably carry up to 125

Mbps of traffic. 1000BASE-T uses all four pairs of wires.
The circuitry has to divide frames at the transmitter and reassemble
them at the receiver.
For 1000BASE-T 4D-PAM5 line encoding is used on Cat 5e or better
UTP. The actual transmitted signal in each direction on each wire pair
is a 5- level {+2, +1, 0, -1, -2} pulse
1000BASE-SX and LX
1000BASE-X uses 8B/10B encoding converted to nonreturn to zero (NRZ)
line encoding
Media Access Control

The Media Access Control

method treats the link as point-to-point. Since separate fibers are used
for transmitting (Tx) and receiving (Rx) the connection is inherently
full duplex.
Gigabit Ethernet permits only a single repeater between two stations.
1000Mbps Ethernet

1000BASE-SX use short-wavelength by 850 nm laser or LED source in

multimode optical fiber.
1000BASE-LX use long-wavelength by 1310 nm laser source uses
either single-mode or multimode optical fiber
Gigabit Ethernet Architecture
Daisy-chaining, star, and extended star topologies are all allowed.
The bandwidth of fiber is inherently very large. It has been limited by:
– emitter technology
– fiber manufacturing processes
– detector technology
10 Gigabit Ethernet
IEEE 802.3ae was adapted to include 10-Gbps fullduplex transmission
over fiber-optic cable.
With single-mode fiber, the maximum transmission distance is 40
kilometers makes 10GbE a viable MAN technology .
Compatibility with SONET/SDH networks operating up to OC-192
speeds (9.584640 Gbps) make 10GbE a viable WAN technology.
Some discussions between IEEE members have begun that suggest the
possibility of standards for 40-, 80-, and even 100-Gbps Ethernet.
Parameters for 10GbE Operation
802.3ae June 2002 10GbE family.
10GBASE-SR –short distances, multimode fiber, range between 26 m to 82
m
• 10GBASE-LX4 – wavelength division multiplexing (WDM), supports 240
m to 300 m over multimode fiber and 10 km over single-mode fiber
• 10GBASE-LR and 10GBASE-ER – support 10 km and 40 km over single-
mode fiber
• 10GBASE-SW, 10GBASE-LW, and 10GBASE-EW –work with OC-192
synchronous transport module (STM) SONET/SDH WAN equipment.
 Future of Ethernet

Ethernet has gone through an evolution from Legacy → Fast → Gigabit

→ Multi Gigabit technologies.
The future of networking media is three-fold:
– Copper (up to 1000 Mbps, perhaps more)
– Wireless (approaching 100 Mbps, perhaps more)
– Optical fiber (currently at 10,000 Mbps and soon to be
more)
Summary
10Base2, 10Base5, 10BaseT
Line encoding: Manchester, MTL3, NRZI…
Characteristics and varieties of 100-Mbps Ethernet
Characteristics and varieties of 1000-Mbps Ethernet
Basic architectural considerations of Gigabit and 10-Gigabit Ethernet
 Chapter 8
Ethernet Switching
Objectives
Define bridging and switching.
Explain Spanning-Tree Protocol (STP).
Collision domains and broadcast domains
Data flow and network segmentation
Ethernet Switching
Segmentation
Layer 2 Bridging
When a frame comes, bridge check the source address with the MAC
table
– If there was a mapping between the source address and
the receiving port, then ignores
– Else, update MAC table with the source address and
the receiving port
Bridge check the destination address with the MAC table
– If the destination address is in the MAC table, then
forward the frame to the associated port
– If the destination address is unknown, multicast or
broadcast, then forward the frame to all other ports except the
receiving port.
Layer 2 Switching
Rather than creating two collision domains, each port creates its own
collision domain (micro-segmentation).
A switch dynamically builds and maintains a Content-Addressable
Memory (CAM) table, holding all of the necessary MAC information
for each port.
Switch CAM Table
Operations that might have been done in software as in bridge can now
be done in hardware using an application specific integrated circuit
(ASIC).
 Switch benefits
Provide micro-segmentation
Double bandwidth between nodes
Collision-free transmission
Two 10- or 100- Mbps data path
Allow multiple circuits simultaneously
Latency
Latency is the delay between the time a frame first starts to leave the
source device and the time the first part of the frame reaches its
destination. Factors that cause delay are:
– Media delays.
– Circuit delays.
– Software delays.
– Delays caused by the content of the frame and where in
the frame switching decisions can be made.
Switching methods
Store-and-forward:
– The entire frame is received before forward.
– Increases latency with larger frames.
– Error detection is high.
Cut-through:
– Immediately forward a packet after checking the
destination address.
– No error checking
– Offers the lowest level of latency
Fragment-free switching:
– Forwards a packet after receiving the first 64 bytes.
– Filters out collision packets (size < 64 bytes)
Forwarding Decision
Switch Mode
With cut-through methods of switching, both the source port and
destination port must be operating at the same bit rate in order to keep
the frame intact. This is called synchronous switching.
If the bit rates are not the same, the frame must be stored at one bit rate
before it is sent out at the other bit rate. This is known as asynchronous
switching. Storeand- forward mode must be used for asynchronous
switching.
Switching modes
 Switching
Loop

When multiple switches are designed with redundant paths to provide

for reliability and fault tolerance in a simple hierarchical tree, switching
loops are unlikely to occur.
 Spanning-Tree Protocol
Main function of the Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) is to allow
redundant switched/bridged paths without suffering the effects of loops
in the network
Spanning Tree Protocol
A switch sends special messages called bridge protocol data units
(BPDUs) out all its ports to let other switches know of its existence.

The switches use a spanning-tree algorithm (STA) to resolve and shut

down the redundant paths
Collision Domains and Broadcast
Domains
Shared Media Environments
It is important to be able to identify a shared media environment,
because collisions only occur in a shared environment.
Some networks are directly connected and all hosts share Layer 1.
Collisions in collision domain
Collision Domain Segmentation

The types of devices that

interconnect the media segments define collision domains.
Round-Trip Delay

The 5-
4-3-2-1 rule also provides guidelines to keep roundtrip delay time in a
shared network within acceptable limits.
Segmenting a collision domain with bridge
Segmentation increases the opportunity for each host in the network to
gain access to the media.

This
effectively reduces the chance of collisions and increases available
bandwidth for every host.
 Broadcasts
in Bridged Environment

Layer 2 devices forward broadcast and if excessive, can reduce the

efficiency of the entire LAN.
Broadcasts must be controlled at Layer 3, as Layer 2 and Layer 1
devices cannot.
Router
Routers actually work at Layers 1, 2, and 3.
A router (layer 3 device) solves the problem of too much broadcast
traffic.
It is Layer 3 that allows the router to segment broadcast domains or
“network”.
Broadcast Domain Segmentation
 Data
Flows
Summary
Layer 2 bridging and switching
Content-addressable memory (CAM)
Switching methods
Spanning-Tree Protocol (STP)
Collisions, broadcasts, collision domains, and broadcast domains
Layer 1, 2, and 3 devices with collision domains and broadcast domains
Data flow
 Chapter 9
TCP/IP and IP Addressing
Objectives
Introduction to TCP/IP
Internet addresses
Obtaining an IP address
Introduction to TCP/IP
History and Future of TCP/IP

The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD)

created the TCP/IP reference model because it wanted a network that
could survive any conditions.
In 1992 the standardization of a new generation of IP, IPv6, was
supported by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) with 128 bits
long.
 Application Layer
Handles high-level protocols, issues of representation, encoding, and
dialog control.
The TCP/IP protocol suite combines all application related issues into
one layer and ensures this data is properly packaged before passing it
on to the next layer.
 Transport Layer
The transport layer provides transport services including flow control
and reliability from the source host to the destination host.
The transport layer constitutes a logical connection between the
endpoints of the network.
Internet Layer

The purpose of the Internet

layer is to select the best path through the network for packets to travel.
The main protocol that functions at this layer is the Internet Protocol
(IP).
IP - Internet Protocol
IP: provides connectionless, best-effort delivery routing of packets. IP
is not concerned with the content of the packets but looks for a path to
the destination.
IP performs the following operations:
– Defines a packet and an addressing scheme
– Transfers data between the Internet layer and network
access layers
– Routes packets to remote hosts
Other Internet Layer Protocols
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) provides control and
messaging capabilities.
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) determines the data link layer
address, MAC address, for known IP addresses.
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) determines IP addresses
when the MAC address is known.
Network Access Layer

The network access layer

is also called the host-to-network layer.
Include the LAN and WAN technology details such as: Ethernet,
Token-Ring, ISDN, and Frame-Relay.
Include the mapping of IP addresses to physical hardware addresses
and encapsulation of IP packets into frames.
 Internet

Two computers, anywhere in the world, following certain hardware,

software, and protocol specifications, can communicate reliably.
Internet Addresses
Network and Host Addressing
IP address is hierarchical and has two parts:
– First part identifies the network where the system is
connected.
–

Second part identifies that particular system on the network.

 IP Address Classes
IP addresses are divided into classes to define the large, medium, and
small networks.
 IP
Address Classes
IP Address
The 127.0.0.0 network is reserved for loopback testing.
The Class D address class was created to enable multicasting in an IP
address. A multicast address is a unique network address that directs
packets with that destination address to predefined groups of IP
addresses.
A Class E address is reserved these addresses for research.
Reserved IP Address
Certain host addresses are reserved and cannot be assigned to devices
on a network.
– Network address – Used to identify the network itself
– Broadcast address – Used for broadcasting packets to
all the devices on a network
Network address
Network address provide a convenient way to refer to all of the
addresses on a particular network or subnetwork.
Two hosts with differing network address require a device, typically a
router, in order to communicate.
An IP address that ends with binary 0s in all host bits is reserved for the
network address.
Broadcast address
Broadcast goes to every host with a particular network ID number.
An IP address that ends with binary 1s in all host bits is reserved for the
directed broadcast address.
An IP address with binary 1s in all network bits and host bits is
reserved for the local broadcast address
Local broadcast address
Directed broadcast address
Example: 172.16.20.200
172.16.20.200 is Class B address
Network portion: 172.16
Host portion: 20.200
Network address: 172.16.0.0
Broadcast address: 172.16.255.255
Public IP Address
In order to connect to the Internet, every machines must have its own
public IP address. Public IP addresses are unique.
With the rapid growth of the Internet, public IP addresses were
beginning to run out. New addressing schemes are used so solve this:
– Classless interdomain routing (CIDR)
– IP version 6 (IPv6)
– Network Address Translation (NAT)
Private Address

Private networks can use private address to assign their machines in the
local network.
RFC 1918 sets aside three blocks of IP addresses for private, internal
use.
– Class A: 10.0.0.0
– Class B: 172.16.0.0 ?? 172.31.0.0
– Class C: 192.168.0.0 ?? 192.168.255.0
Connecting a network using private addresses to the Internet requires
translation (overloading) of the private addresses to public addresses.
This translation is served by NAT
Valid address?
150.100.255.255
175.100.255.18
195.234.253.0
100.0.0.23
188.258.221.176
127.34.25.189
224.156.217.73
IPv4 versus IPv6
Introduced by IETF in 1992, IPv6, known as IPng, uses 128 bits rather
than the 32 bits currently used in IPv4.
IPv6 uses hexadecimal numbers to represent the 128 bits.

IPv6 provides 640 sextrillion addresses. This version of IP should

provide enough addresses for future communication needs
Obtaining an IP address
Obtaining an IP Address
Static Assignment of IP Addresses

Each individual device

must be configured with an IP address.
Keep very detailed records, because problems can occur on the network
if you use duplicate IP addresses.
Dynamic addressing
There are some different methods that you can use to assign IP
addresses dynamically:
– RARP: Reverse Address Resolution Protocol.
– BOOTP: BOOTstrap Protocol.
– DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol.
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
BOOTP IP

Network administrator creates a configuration file that specifies the

parameters for each device. The administrator must add hosts and
maintain the BOOTP database.
BOOTP packets can include the IP address, as well as the address of a
router, the address of a server, and vendor specific information.
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

Successor to BOOTP.
Automatically allows a host to obtain an IP address from an IP pool
Use 4-steps IP registration and requires IP leased time
 DHCP Initialization Sequence
Broadcast request and discover DHCP server
Offer IP address, DHCP server address and Default Gateway address…
Request for the offered IP statistics
Acknownledge the request, confirm registration
Encapsulation
Address Resolution Protocol
In order for devices to communicate, the sending devices need both the
IP addresses and the MAC addresses of the destination devices.
ARP enables a computer to find the MAC address of the computer that
is associated with an IP address.
Address resolution protocol
ARP table in host
ARP operation
ARP operation: ARP request
ARP operation: Checking
ARP operation: ARP reply
ARP operation: Caching
ARP: Local Destination
Internetwork communication

How to communicate with devices that are not on the same physical
network segment.
 Default
gateway

In order for a device to communicate with another device on another

network, you must supply it with a default gateway.
A default gateway is the IP address of the interface on the router that
connects to the network segment on which the source host is located.
In order for a device to send data to the address of a device that is on
another network segment, the source device sends the data to a default
gateway.
Remote Destination
Packet forwarding
At layer 2, when encapsulating a frame, the host needs the destination
MAC address
The host will then compares IP address of source and destination.
– If the destination is on another network, then it will
encapsulate the frame with the default-gateway MAC address.
– If the destination is on the same network, then it will
use the destination MAC address
Then it checks if the needed MAC address is in the ARP table, if it is
not proceed ARP request to find the needed MAC address
Summary
Four layers of TCP/IP model
IP address, IP address classes
Network address and broadcast address
Public address and private address
IPv4 versus IPv6
Static addressing, RARP, BOOTP, DHCP
ARP local and remote destination
 Chapter 10
Routing Fundamentals Subnets
Objectives
Routed protocol
IP routing protocols
The mechanics of subnetting
Internet Protocol – Routed
Routed protocols
A routed protocol allows the router to forward data between different
networks
In order for a protocol to be routable, it must provide the ability to
assign a network number and a host number to each individual device.
The network address is obtained by ANDing the address with the
network mask.
Routed protocols
Connection oriented network services

A connection is established between the sender and the recipient before

any data is transferred.
All packets travel sequentially across the same circuit, or more
commonly, across the same virtual circuit.
Connectionless network services

Each packet is treated separately

When the packets pass from source to destination, they can:
– Switch to different paths.
– Arrive out of order.
IP as a Routed Protocol
IP is a connectionless, unreliable, best-effort delivery protocol.

IP does not verify that the data reached its destination. This function is
handled by the upper layer protocols.
Packet Propagation
Process in Router
IP header format
 IP header format:
Version
IP header format: Header length
 IP header format:
Service type
IP header format: Total length
IP header format: Identification
IP header format: Flags
IP header format: Fragment offset
 IP header format:
Time to Live
 IP header format:
Protocol
IP header format: Header checksum
IP header format: Addresses
IP header format: Options
IP header format: Padding
IP header format: Padding
IP Routing Protocol
Routing Overview
Routing is an OSI Layer 3 function.
Routing is the process of finding the most efficient path from one
device to another.
Two key functions of router:
– maintain routing tables
–

use
the routing table to forward packets
Layer 2 Switching and Layer 3 Routing
Routing vs. Switching
Routing Protocol

Routing protocols
allow routers to choose the best path for data from source to
destination. A routing protocol functions includes the following:
– Provides processes for sharing route information
– Allows routers to communicate with other routers to
update and maintain the routing tables
Eg:RIP, IGRP, OSPF, EIGRP, BGP
Routed vs. Routing protocol
Path Determination
Path determination enables a router to compare the destination address
to the available routes in its routing table, and to select the best path.
The router uses path determination to decide which port an incoming
packet should be sent out of to travel on to its destination.
Routing Tables
Routing tables contain the information of a route to forward data
packets across connected networks :
– Protocol type
– Destination/next-hop associations
– Route metric and routing protocol reliability
– Outbound interfaces
Routing Algorithms
Routing protocols often have one or more of the following design
goals:
– Optimization
– Simplicity and low overhead
– Robustness and stability
– Flexibility
– Rapid convergence
Routing Metrics
Metrics can be based on a single characteristic of a path, or can be
calculated based on several characteristics. The following are the
metrics that are most commonly used by routing protocols:
– Bandwidth: The data capacity of a link
– Delay: The length of time required to move a packet
along each link
– Load: The amount of activity on a network resource
– Reliability: Usually a reference to the error rate
– Hop count: The number of routers that a packet must
travel through before reaching its destination
– Ticks: delay on a data link using IBM PC clock ticks.
One tick is approximately 1/18 second.
– Cost: An arbitrary value, usually based on bandwidth,
monetary expense, or other measurement, that is assigned by a
network administrator.
IGP and EGP
An autonomous system is a network or set of networks under common
administrative control.
Two families of routing protocols are:
– Interior Gateway Protocols(IGPs): exchange routes
within an autonomous system. Eg: RIP, IGRP, OSPF, IS-IS…
–

Exterior Gateway Protocols(EGPs): exchange routes between

autonomous systems. Eg: BGP
Link state and distance vector
Distance-Vector Protocols (RIP, IGRP, EIGRP):
– View network topology from neighbor’s perspective.
– Add distance vectors from router to router.
– Frequent, periodic updates.
– Pass copy of routing tables to neighbor routers.
Link State Protocols (OSPF, IS - IS):
– Gets common view of entire network topology.
– Calculates the shortest path to other routers.
– Event-triggered updates, respond quickly to network
changes.
– Passes link state advertisement, known as link-state
refreshes, to other routers.
 Distance
vector routing
Link state routing
The Mechanics of Subnetting
Why we need to divide network?

Network administrators sometimes

need to divide networks, especially large ones, into smaller networks:
– Reduce the size of a broadcast domain.
– Support basic network security.
– Implement the hierarchical managements.
So we need more network addresses for your network. But I want the
outside networks see our network as a single network.
Subnetting
Subnetworks are smaller divisions of network.
To create a subnet address, a network administrator borrows bits from
the original host portion and designates them as the subnet field.
Subnet mask
Extended Network Prefix”.
Determines which part of an IP address is the network field and which
part is the host field.
32 bits long.
Divided into four octets.
Network and Subnet portions all 1’s.
Host portions all 0’s.
Default subnet mask: Example
192.168.2.100 / 255.255.255.0.
11000000.10101000.00000010.01100100.
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000.
11000000.10101000.00000010.01100100.
Class C network:
– 24 bits for network portion.
– 0 bits for subnet portion.
– 8 bits for host portion.
Subnet address: 192.168.2.0
Subnet mask: Example
172.16.65.100 / 255.255.240.0.
10101100.00010000.01000001.01100100.
11111111.11111111.11110000.00000000.
10101100.00010000.01000001.01100100.
Class B network:
– 16 bits for network portion.
– 4 bits for subnet portion.
– 12 bits for host portion.
Subnet address: 172.16.64.0.
How many bits can I borrow?
All of subnet bits are:
– 0 : reserved for network address.
– 1 : reserved for broadcast address.
The minimum bits you can borrow is:
2 bits.
The maximum bits you can borrow is:
Number of host bits -2 bits
Slash mask is the sum total of all bits assigned to the subnet field plus
the fixed network bits. So 172.16.1.100 with subnet mask
255.255.240.0 may be written as 172.16.1.100/20
Subnetting example
Given network 172.16.0.0.
We need 8 usable subnets and up to 1000 hosts on each subnet.
Calculating a subnet
Determine the class of network and default subnet mask.
Determine how many bits to borrow Determine the subnet mask and
the actual number of subnets and hosts.
Determine the ranges of host address for each subnet. Choose the
subnets that you want to use.
Calculating a subnet: STEP 1
Determine the Class of network
Class B
Determine the default subnet mask
255.255.0.0
Calculating a subnet: STEP 2
Number of subnets <= 2n - 2 with n is number of bits that are
borrowed.
Number of hosts <= 2m - 2 with m is number of remaining bits.
Determine how many bits to borrow from the host portion from
requirement:
– 8 subnets.
– 1000 hosts on each subnet.
Choose n = 4:
– Number of possible subnets is:
24 - 2 = 14
– Number of possible hosts on each subnet is:
2(16-4) - 2 = 4094
 Calculating a
subnet: STEP 2 (Cont.)

The subnet mask: 255.255.240.0.

Calculating a subnet: STEP 3 (Cont.)
Determine the subnets from 4 borrowed bits from the host portion (last 2
bytes):
1st subnet: .00000000.00000000

2nd subnet: .00010000.00000000

3rd subnet: .00100000.00000000

…
15th subnet: .11110000.00000000
Calculating a subnet: STEP 3 (Cont.)
Calculating a subnet: STEP 3 (Cont.)

Using subnets No.1 to No.8.

Assign IP addresses to hosts and interfaces on each network. IP address
configuration.
Lab Companion
10.3.5b Subnetting a Class A Network
10.3.5c Subnetting a Class B Network
10.3.5d Subnetting a Class C Network
Summary
Router protocol
Connection-oriented vs. connectionless
Process in router
IP packet structure
Routing protocol and routing table
Routing algorithm and metrics
Routing categories
Subnetting and calculate subnetworks