INTRODUCTION

Evolution is the process of change in all forms of life over

generations, and evolutionary biology is the study of
how evolution occurs. Biological populations evolve
through genetic changes that correspond to changes in
the organisms' observable traits. Genetic changes
include mutations, which are caused by damage or replication
errors in organisms' DNA. As the genetic variation of a
population drifts randomly over generations, natural
selection gradually leads traits to become more or less common
based on the relative reproductive success of organisms with
those traits.
The age of the Earth is about 4.5 billion years. The earliest
undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates at least from 3.5 billion
years ago. Evolution does not attempt to explain the origin of life
(covered instead by abiogenesis), but it does explain how early
lifeforms evolved into the complex ecosystem that we see
today. Based on the similarities between all present-day
organisms, all life on Earth is assumed to have originated
through common descent from a last universal ancestor from
which all known species have diverged through the process of
evolution.
Evidence for Evolution
The evidence for evolution is compelling and extensive. Looking
at every level of organization in living systems, biologists see the
signature of past and present evolution. Darwin dedicated a large
portion of his book, On the Origin of Species, to identifying
patterns in nature that were consistent with evolution, and since
Darwin, our understanding has become clearer and broader.

Physical Evidence

Fossils

Fossils provide solid evidence that organisms from the past are
not the same as those found today, and fossils show a
progression of evolution. Scientists determine the age of fossils
and categorize them from all over the world to determine when
the organisms lived relative to each other. The resulting fossil
record tells the story of the past and shows the evolution of form
over millions of years (Figure 1a). For example, scientists have
recovered highly detailed records showing the evolution of
humans and horses (Figure 1b).
Anatomy and Embryology

Figure 2. The similar construction of these appendages indicates

that these organisms share a common ancestor.

Another type of evidence for evolution is the presence of

structures in organisms that share the same basic form. For
example, the bones in the appendages of a human, dog, bird, and
whale all share the same overall construction (Figure 2) resulting
from their origin in the appendages of a common ancestor. Over
time, evolution led to changes in the shapes and sizes of these
bones in different species, but they have maintained the same
overall layout. Scientists call these synonymous parts
homologous structures.

Some structures exist in organisms that have no apparent

function at all, and appear to be residual parts from a past
common ancestor. These unused structures without function are
called vestigial structures. Some examples of vestigial structures
are wings on flightless birds, leaves on some cacti, and hind leg
bones in whales.
Another evidence of evolution is the convergence of form in
organisms that share similar environments. For example, species
of unrelated animals, such as the arctic fox and ptarmigan, living
in the arctic region have been selected for seasonal white
phenotypes during winter to blend with the snow and ice (Figure
3). These similarities occur not because of common ancestry, but
because of similar selection pressures—the benefits of not being
seen by predators.

Figure 3. The white winter coat of the (a) arctic fox and the (b)
ptarmigan’s plumage are adaptations to their environments.
(credit a: modification of work by Keith Morehouse)

Embryology, the study of the development of the anatomy of an

organism to its adult form, also provides evidence of relatedness
between now widely divergent groups of organisms. Mutational
tweaking in the embryo can have such magnified consequences
in the adult that embryo formation tends to be conserved. As a
result, structures that are absent in some groups often appear in
their embryonic forms and disappear by the time the adult or
juvenile form is reached. For example, all vertebrate embryos,
including humans, exhibit gill slits and tails at some point in their
early development. These disappear in the adults of terrestrial
groups but are maintained in adult forms of aquatic groups such
as fish and some amphibians. Great ape embryos, including
humans, have a tail structure during their development that is lost
by the time of birth.

Biological Evidence

Biogeography

The geographic distribution of organisms on the planet follows

patterns that are best explained by evolution in conjunction with
the movement of tectonic plates over geological time. Broad
groups that evolved before the breakup of the supercontinent
Pangaea (about 200 million years ago) are distributed worldwide.
Groups that evolved since the breakup appear uniquely in regions
of the planet, such as the unique flora and fauna of northern
continents that formed from the supercontinent Laurasia and of
the southern continents that formed from the supercontinent
Gondwana. The presence of members of the plant family
Proteaceae in Australia, southern Africa, and South America is
best due to their appearance prior to the southern supercontinent
Gondwana breaking up.

The great diversification of marsupials in Australia and the

absence of other mammals reflect Australia’s long isolation.
Australia has an abundance of endemic species—species found
nowhere else—which is typical of islands whose isolation by
expanses of water prevents species migration. Over time, these
species diverge evolutionarily into new species that look very
different from their ancestors that may exist on the mainland. The
marsupials of Australia, the finches on the Galápagos, and many
species on the Hawaiian Islands are all unique to their one point
of origin, yet they display distant relationships to ancestral species
on mainlands.
Molecular Biology

Like anatomical structures, the structures of the molecules of life

reflect descent with modification. Evidence of a common ancestor
for all of life is reflected in the universality of DNA as the genetic
material and in the near universality of the genetic code and the
machinery of DNA replication and expression. Fundamental
divisions in life between the three domains are reflected in major
structural differences in otherwise conservative structures such as
the components of ribosomes and the structures of membranes.
In general, the relatedness of groups of organisms is reflected in
the similarity of their DNA sequences—exactly the pattern that
would be expected from descent and diversification from a
common ancestor.

DNA sequences have also shed light on some of the mechanisms

of evolution. For example, it is clear that the evolution of new
functions for proteins commonly occurs after gene duplication
events that allow the free modification of one copy by mutation,
selection, or drift (changes in a population’s gene pool resulting
from chance), while the other copy continues to produce a
functional protein.
CONCLUSION
Since Darwin developed his ideas on descent with modification
and the pressures of natural selection, a variety of evidence has
been gathered supporting the theory of evolution. Fossil evidence
shows the changes in lineages over millions of years, such as in
hominids and horses. Studying anatomy allows scientists to
identify homologous structures across diverse groups of related
organisms, such as leg bones. Vestigial structures also offer clues
to common ancestors. Using embryology, scientists can identify
common ancestors through structures present only during
development and not in the adult form.
Biogeography offers further clues about evolutionary
relationships. The presence of related organisms across
continents indicates when these organisms may have evolved.
For example, some flora and fauna of the northern continents are
similar across these landmasses but distinct from that of the
southern continents. Islands such as Australia and the Galapagos
chain often have unique species that evolved after these
landmasses separated from the mainland. Finally, molecular
biology provides data supporting the theory of evolution. In
particular, the universality of DNA and near universality of the
genetic code for proteins shows that all life once shared a
common ancestor. DNA also provides clues into how evolution
may have happened. Gene duplications allow one copy to
undergo mutational events without harming an organism, as one
copy continues to produce functional protein.
Many misconceptions exist about the theory of evolution—
including some perpetuated by critics of the theory. First,
evolution as a scientific theory means that it has years of
observation and accumulated data supporting it. It is not “just a
theory” as a person may say in common vernacular.
Another misconception is that individuals evolve, though in fact it
is populations that evolve over time. Individuals simply carry
mutations. Furthermore, these mutations neither arise on purpose
nor do they arise in response to an environmental pressure.
Instead, mutations in DNA happen spontaneously and are already
present in individuals of a population when a selective pressure
occurs. Once the environment begins to favor a particular trait,
then those individuals already carrying that mutation will have a
selective advantage and are likely to survive better and
outproduce others without the adaptation.
Finally, the theory of evolution does not in fact address the origins
of life on this planet. Scientists believe that we cannot, in fact,
repeat the circumstances that led to life on Earth because at this
time life already exists. The presence of life has so dramatically
changed the environment that the origins cannot be totally
produced for study.
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
2. EVIDENCES FOR EVOLUTION
3. CONCLUSION
Acknowledgement
I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my
teacher Sir Rahul as well as our principal Sir Vishwabandhu
Dubey who gave me the golden opportunity to do this wonderful
project on the topic Evidences for evolution, which also helped me
in doing a lot of Research and i came to know about so many new
things I am really thankful to them.
Secondly i would also like to thank my parents and friends who
helped me a lot in finalizing this project within the limited time
frame.