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Condition monitoring of the first mode of metal transfer in friction stir welding by image
processing techniques. In this paper, the author discusses a method for online condition
monitoring of the friction stir welding process using image processing techniques. In
experimental work, friction stir welding is performed with a modified milling machine.

Tool material used is tool steel with 16 mm shoulder diameter and an M6 threaded pin.
The rotating speed of the tool and its traverse speed are fixed at 1120 rpm and 200
mm/min. The material used is 6.3 mm thick 6063-T4 aluminum alloy. In image
processing, the pre-processing stage consists of applying filtering techniques to
eliminate the noise from the acquired images.

Then the color image is converted to a grayscale intensity image and then a histogram
of the gray level image is generated. A transverse section is taken across the gray level
image and a plot of the variation of the pixel intensity along a profile is generated.
Finally, the contouring of the gray level image is performed to display a contour plot of
the data and extract prominent features from the image.

In an online condition monitoring system, a camera is mounted adjacent to the tool

head at a suitable height to capture the images of the welded portion, and then the
images are sent back to the computer for analysis. Then various image processing and
computer vision algorithms are applied to recognize the defects in the first mode of
metal transfer.

Therefore, it may be concluded that the digital image processing techniques are
adopted to compare the variations in the first mode of metal transfer in friction stir
welding. Hence, automation of the friction stir welding process, if adopted using an
online monitoring system, can improve the productivity and quality of the weld and it
may provide cost benefits. Experimental study on Friction Stir Welding of copper metals.

In this paper, friction stir welding experiment using pure C11000 copper is discussed,
along with the process control required for a successful friction stir welding process. In
the experimental work, the friction stir welding is performed with a modified milling
machine. The tool is made of SKH9 high-speed steel with 12 mm shoulder diameter and
3 mm pin diameter. The workpiece used is C11000 copper with dimensions 60mm x
20mm x 3.1mm (LxWxH). The spindle can spin with rotational speeds from 400 to 1200
rpm. The fixture table can move with speeds from 20 to 60 mm/min.

for the welding experiment two welding conditions were selected (i) ? = 800 rpm, ? = 30
mm/min and (ii) ? = 900 rpm, ? = 50 mm/min. during the welding process, the pin is
pushed into the workpiece to a depth of 2.85 mm. At this moment the downward force
is 4kN. After the temperature increases to 400 ?C, due to the expansion of heated metal,
the downward force is increased to 7kN.

k-type thermocouple with a digital thermometer to record the temperature histories on

the advancing and retreating sides during the welding process. For successful friction
stir welding process the temperature range was found 460-530 ?C. Vickers hardness
tests and tensile tests were carried out to estimate the hardness distribution and tensile
strength of the welded product.

The hardness of the welded part is less than the base metal because of dynamic
recovery and dynamic recrystallization. The hardness at the thermal-mechanical affected
zone is about 55% and 70% of base metal before welding for the two respective
conditions. The tensile strength of the weld was about 60% and 70% of base metal
before welding for the two respective conditions.

Hence, it may be concluded that the appropriate temperature range for successful
friction stir welding process is 460 – 530 ?C. Temperature on the advancing side is
higher than the retreating side. Hardness and Tensile strength at the thermal-
mechanical affected zone were about 60% of base metal.

Application of Taguchi's optimization technique in determining aluminum to brass

friction stir welding parameters. In this research, Al-Mg and CuZn34 alloys were lap
joined using friction stir welding. The rotational speed, tool tilt angle and traverse speed
were the process parameters that were optimized using Taguchi L9 orthogonal design
of experiments.

The optimum process parameters were determined regarding the tensile shear strength
of the joint. The materials used were 5083 aluminum alloy and brass rolled plates with a
thickness of 2.5 mm each. The rotating tool was made of a 2436 steel alloy with a
shoulder of 20 mm diameter and a cylinder pin of 6 mm diameter.

Taguchi technique utilizes the Signal to noise ratio approach to measure the quality
characteristic deviating from the desired value. The tensile strength of the friction stir
welding joints values is analyzed to study the effects of the FSW process parameters.
Based on the signal to noise ratio values the optimum level setting was obtained at
1100 rpm of rotational speed, 1.5 degrees of tile angle, and 6.5

mm/min of transverse speed. The analysis of variance aims to evaluate the significance
of process parameters on the tensile shear force for this paper. From the result of the
analysis of variance, the rotational speed is a highly significant factor and plays a major
role in affecting the tensile strength of the weld. At the optimum level, the maximum
tensile shear force is 5117 N.

During confirmation test, the tensile shear force value is 5253 N at an optimum value of
parameters and it is observed that the error between the predicted value of the
maximum tensile shear force and the analyzed value of that is found as 2.5%. According
to the optical microscopic investigations, three distinct zones have been identified are
the stirred (nugget) zone, the thermal-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ), and the heat-
affected zone (HAZ).

In tensile shear tests, increasing the rotational speed of the tool at constant traverse
speeds resulted in increasing of the tensile shear force up to a maximum and then a
decrease in tensile shear force has appeared. The maximum value of hardness was
observed in the middle of the nugget zone due to the formation of very fine
recrystallized grains.

Effect of friction stir welding tool design on welding thermal efficiency. The present
study explores the gain in thermal efficiency when a combination of thermal barrier
coatings and geometrical changes are applied to the friction stir welding tool design.
Based on finite element heat transfer simulation, some features were found to reduce
the tool heat loss in conventional friction stir welding tool. First is the reduction of the
tool's main body diameter. Additionally, a hole was drilled along the tool centreline. The
purpose of these was to reduce the cross-sectional area and corresponding conducted
heat.

To further decrease the heat conducted to the tool shank, a series of grooves were
introduced. A Y2O3 stabilized ZrO2 thermal barrier coating applied to the tool shank
surface to improve the insulation performance of the tool. Five tools with these thermal
insulation features were fabricated.

The workpiece used is Aluminium alloy 6061-T6 plates of dimension 300×75×5 mm and
the welding process parameters are rotational speed, 800 rpm, traverse speed, 30
mm/min, plunge depth of the shoulder, 0.3 mm. a FLIR A320 infrared thermal imager
was used to obtain the temperature field of the tool and k-type thermocouples were
used to measure the welding plate temperature.

The heat transfer models for the tool and workpiece were created in Abaqus with
DC3D20 heat transfer brick element. The comparison between infrared thermal
measurements and the finite element temperature contour plot for steady-state friction
stir welding of AA6061. It was found that the tool structures with thermal insulation
features reduced heat flow into the tool as much as 50%, and improved the welding
thermal efficiency by up to 96% for aluminium welding under the current experimental
conditions.

The thermal efficiency for friction stir welding of C45 carbon steel was much lower than
aluminium plates, ranging from 59.7 to 81.7%. Compared with conventional tools, the
new tool design improved thermal efficiency by up to 4.2 and 14.1% for aluminium and
steel workpiece, respectively. Condition Monitoring In Friction Stir Welding Using
Accelerometer.

This paper discusses the condition monitoring by the accelerometer to study the
changes in the welding parameter. In experimental work, a milling machine was
modified to perform the friction stir welding process. The tool selected was the C45 tool
steel and is hardened to 55 BHN. The tool is having 15mm of shoulder diameter and the
pin diameter is 5mm.

The workpiece material used is Al 6082. The welding process was carried for 1.2 minutes.
The signals of the welded zone are captured using an accelerometer that is placed in the
machine. The analog to digital conversion these signals is carried out with NI 9211 DAQ
Card and fed to Lab VIEW software for further analysis.

During trial runs, It was observed that the speed of 1000 rpm and feed of 70 mm/min
provided a better quality of welding. The vibration signals captured for a defect-free
workpiece are recorded and for a defect-free workpiece, the magnitude of vibration
signal at 10.25 kHz is 9 microns of magnitude. Then the workpiece with air gap defect is
welded for the same speed and feed. It is found that the magnitude of the air gap at
10.25 kHz is around 20-45 microns of magnitude for a 10 - 15 mm air gap.

To provide the tool breakage a high speed of 1500 rpm and a low feed of 50 mm/min
are set on the machine. Initially, the vibration signal shows the magnitude of 11 microns,
and then the magnitude is increased to 450 microns of magnitude when the tool fails. It
clearly distinguishes the intensity of the defect as well as the type of defect.

So the vibration-based online monitoring system is proposed for monitoring the friction
stir welding process. Monitoring of the friction stir welding process by means of
thermography. In this work, the thermographic technique is proposed to control the
friction stir welding process.

The material used was 6-mm-thick sheets of 5754 H111 aluminium alloy. The tool made
of high strength steel has a shoulder with a diameter of 22 mm, on which groves were
milled to improve the extrusion action on the surface material of the joints, while the
tool pin is threaded and truncated. The behavior of the welds was studied in two
combinations of the process parameters.

The considered values of the tool rotation speed and the welding speed were,
respectively, 500, 700 RPM and 20, 30 mm/min. The thermal acquisitions were
performed using two thermal cameras. To acquire the thermal data along the weld tool
direction, the cooled FLIR X6540 SC IR camera was used and the uncooled FLIR SC640 IR
camera was placed in perpendicular direction compared to the first thermal camera.
Both thermal cameras recorded the maps of surface temperature across the weld.

Temperatures inside the workpiece were measured by N-type thermocouples and a

digital thermometer was used to acquire the thermocouples data. Thermal data
acquired with both thermocouples and thermal cameras show an evident non-
symmetrical friction stir welding process in terms of temperatures measured during the
tests. Moreover, the higher temperatures were measured along the retreating side for
each parameter combination.

Thermal data analysis shows a non-stationary welding process. In particular, the

maximum temperature was evaluated for each test and a non-uniform trend of
maximum temperature was obtained along the welding direction. The statistical analysis
(ANOVA) showed that the thermal parameter maximum slope of the heating curve
(MSHC) is influenced both on tool rotation speed and welding speed.

Therefore, thermography could be used for online monitoring of the friction stir welding
process using a thermal parameter (MSHC) correlated with the process parameters.
Classification and identification of surface defects in friction stir Welding: An image
processing approach. In this paper, the author discussed using the digital image
processing techniques to identify and classify the surface defects encountered during
the friction stir welding process. A linear NC controlled friction stir welding machine is
used to perform the experiments.

The machine uses a strain gauge type load cell to measure the reaction and welding
force. Workpiece material is AA1100, pure commercial alloy and tool are made up of
tool steel H13 have shoulder diameter 20 mm and pin diameter is 5 mm. Rotational
speeds and welding speeds for two different levels are chosen as 800, 3000 rpm and 50,
125 mm/min.

Welding is performed in butt configuration, Another welding has been performed to

obtain the lap joint between AA6061-T6 sheet and AISI304 sheet each of thickness 1
mm. For this, the FSW tool whose shoulder is made from H13 steel and the pin is made
from tungsten carbide. Images of the welded sample are taken with a digital camera in
RGB format and an image processing algorithm was developed in MATLAB 2012a.

In image pyramid-based processing, the color image of the workpiece was taken and
converted to a grayscale image. The image pyramid further process the weld image for
image analysis and image enhancement as both spatial and frequency information of
the image is retained. This part of image processing mainly deals with the detection of
defects like surface grooves, pin-hole, and voids on the weld surface.

In image reconstruction-based processing, Image reconstruction algorithms can be

applied to both binary and grayscale images. Grayscale image reconstruction is the
reconstruction of the mask image by successive geodesic dilations of a marker image
until its contour fits under the mask image and such that the grayscale values of every
pixel of the marker image are less than or equal to that of the mask image.

This processing aimed to detect cracks and edges. After using two different image
processing techniques, the defects that occurred during friction stir welding have been
classified into voids, grooves, rough surface texture, flash and key-hole using their
unique features.

Additionally, the area plot gives the density of all kinds of defects in a cross-section of
the weld bead surface which can be used to analyze the percentage of good weld that
occurred. As discussed the proposed research will be useful for the online feedback
control-based welding parameters monitoring system to improve the weld quality.

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