UNIONS and INTERSECTION

WEEK 10

I. Topic: Unions and Intersection

II. Objectives:
At the end of 1 hour the learners must able to:
a. Define Union and Intersection
b. Characterized Union and Intersection
c. Prove unions and Intersection using different Laws

III. Content/ Discussion

UNION OF EVENTS

Union---the union of two events A and B, denoted as ,

is the event that occurs if either A or B or both occur
on a single performance of an experiment

• A U B = { x | x  A or x  B }

Example:

Roll a fair die.

The sample space of equally likely simple events is:

S = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 .}

A ={an odd number turns up }

B = {the number that turns up is divisible by 3}.

(a) Find the probability of the event E = “the number that turns up is odd or
is divisible by 3”. (b) Find the probability of the event F = “the number that turns
up is odd and is divisible by 3”.
 Solutions:

(a) A = {1, 3, 5},

B = {3, 6} ,
E = A∪ B = {1, 3, 5, 6}

INTERSECTION OF EVENTS

Intersection---the intersection of two events A and B, denoted

as , is the event that occurs if both A and B occur on a single
performance of the experiment

• A ∩ B = { x | x  A and x  B }

EXAMPLE:

– {1, 2, 3} ∩ {3, 4, 5} = {3}

– {New York, Washington} ∩ {3, 4} = 

• No elements in common

– {1, 2} ∩  = 

• Any set intersection with the empty set yields the empty set

LAWS OF UNION AND INTERSECTION

Laws Of
Laws of Union Intersection
Identity law Identity law
Domination law Domination law
Idempotent law Idempotent law
Commutative law Commutative law
Associative law Associative law
 COMPLEMENTS OF
WEEK EVENT

11

I. Topic: Complements of Event

II. Objectives:
At the end of 1 hour the learners must able to:

a. Define Complement

b. Translate complement to a symbol

c. Prove complements Statement

III. Content/ Discussion

Complement Using Venn diagram

The complement of a set using Venn diagram is a subset of U. Let U be the

universal set and let A be a set such that A ⊂ U. Then, the complement of A with
respect to U is denoted by A' or ACC or U – A or ~ A and is defined the set of all
those elements of U which are not in A.

Thus, A' = {x ∈ U : x ∉ A}.

Clearly, x ∈ A' ⇒ x ∉ A

Example on complement of a set using Venn diagram:

1. Let the set of natural numbers N = {1, 2, 3, ………..} be the universal set and
let A = {2, 4, 6, 8, ……….}

Then A' = {1, 3, 5, ………}

2. If U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} and A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} then A' = {2, 4, 6,
8}

3. If U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and A = {2, 3, 4} then U – A = ~ A = A' = {1, 5,

6}.

4. U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} be the universal set and A = {1, 3, 5} then A' = {2, 4,

6}.
 RELATIONS AND FUNCTION

(CARTESIAN PRODUCT)
WEEK
12
I. Topic: RELATIONS AND FUNCTION (CARTESIAN PRODUCT)

II. Objectives:
At the end of 1 hour the learners must able to:

a. Characterized Cartesian Product

b. Find Cartesian Product given two sets

c. Show that Cartesian Product .distributes over Intersection

III. Content/ Discussion

DEFINITIONS

Relation - Any set of ordered pairs

Function -A type of relation where there is
exactly one output for every input. For every x
there is exactly one y.
The Cartesian product A×B of two sets A and B is
the collection of all ordered pairs ⟨x,y⟩ with x∈A
and y∈B. Therefore, the Cartesian product of
two sets is a set itself consisting of ordered pair
members. A set of ordered pairs is defined as a
'relation.

EXAMPLES:

1. If A = {7, 8} and B = {2, 4, 6}, find A × B.

Solution:

A × B = {(7, 2); (7, 4); (7, 6); (8, 2); (8, 4); (8, 6)}

The 6 ordered pairs thus formed can represent the position of points in a plane, if a and
B are subsets of a set of real numbers.
2. If A × B = {(p, x); (p, y); (q, x); (q, y)}, find A and B.

Solution:

A is a set of all first entries in ordered pairs in A × B.

B is a set of all second entries in ordered pairs in A × B.

Thus A = {p, q} and B = {x, y}

3. If A and B are two sets, and A × B consists of 6 elements: If three elements of A × B

are (2, 5) (3, 7) (4, 7) find A × B.

Solution:

Since, (2, 5) (3, 7) and (4, 7) are elements of A × B.

So, we can say that 2, 3, 4 are the elements of A and 5, 7 are the elements of B.

So, A = {2, 3, 4} and B = {5, 7}

Now, A × B = {(2, 5); (2, 7); (3, 5); (3, 7); (4, 5); (4, 7)}

Thus, A × B contain six ordered pairs.

4. If A = { 1, 3, 5} and B = {2, 3}, then

Find: (i) A × B (ii) B × A (iii) A × A (iv) (B × B)

Solution:

A ×B={1, 3, 5} × {2,3} = [{1, 2},{1, 3},{3, 2},{3, 3},{5, 2},{5, 3}]

B × A = {2, 3} × {1, 3, 5} = [{2, 1},{2, 3},{2, 5},{3, 1},{3, 3},{3, 5}]

A × A = {1, 3, 5} × {1, 3, 5}= [{1, 1},{1, 3},{1, 5},{3, 1},{3, 3},{3, 5},{5,
1},{5, 3},{5, 5}]

B × B = {2, 3} × {2, 3} = [{2, 2},{2, 3},{3, 2},{3, 3}]

 RELATION AND INVERSE
RELATIONS
WEEK
13
I. Topic: Relations and Inverse Relations

II. Objectives:
At the end of 1 hour the learners must able to:

a. Define Relation and Inverse Relation

b. Characterize Reflexive, Symmetric, Transitive and Equivalence Relation

c. Prove that the given set is Equivalence Relation

III. Content/ Discussion

Example: Given the function

f = {(1, 1), (2, 3), (3, 1), (4, 2)}, its domain is {1, 2, 3, 4} and its range is {1, 2, 3}.

The inverse relation of f is {(1, 1), (3, 2), (1, 3), (2,
4)}.
The domain of the inverse relation is the
range of the original function.
The range of the inverse relation is the
domain of the original function.
 Partitions and Equivalence
Relations
WEEK
14
I. Topic: Partitions and Equivalence Relations

II. Objectives:
At the end of 1 hour the learners must able to:

a. Differentiaste Partitions from Equivalence Relations

b. Identify whether the given statement is equivalence relation or

partitions.

c. Determine a partition on a given set.

III. Content/ Discussion

A relation on a set A is called an equivalence relation if it is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive

 This is definition 1 in the textbook

Consider relation R = { (a,b) | len(a) = len(b) }

 Where len(a) means the length of string a

 It is reflexive: len(a) = len(a)

 It is symmetric: if len(a) = len(b), then len(b) = len(a)

 It is transitive: if len(a) = len(b) and len(b) = len(c), then len(a) = len(c)

 Thus, R is a equivalence relation

EXAMPLES

Consider the relation R = { (a,b) | a mod 2 = b mod 2 }

 Thus, all the even numbers are related to each other

 As are the odd numbers

The even numbers form an equivalence class

 As do the odd numbers

The equivalence class for the even numbers is denoted by [2] (or [4], or [784], etc.)

 [2] = { …, -4, -2, 0, 2, 4, … }

 2 is a representative of it’s equivalence class

There are only 2 equivalence classes formed by this equivalence relation

 Identity and Constant
Function
WEEK
15

I. TITLE:Identity and Constant Function

II. OBJECTIVE:
a. Characterize Function
b. Illustrate Function through Mapping
III. DISCUSSION

 Constant Function is a function that always returns the same constant value. In other
words, the constant function is the function f(x) = c.
 Identity function is a function that always returns the same value as its argument. In
other words, the identity function is the function f(x) = x.

Examples:
The function f: R → a where 'a' is a constant, is called a constant function. It is denoted by f(x) = a. The
graph of a constant function is as shown in the figure given below; clearly a constant function is all-to-one.

The function f(x): R → R defined such that f(x) = x ∀ x ε R is an Identify function. The graph of an identity
function is shown in the figure given below.

Since an identity function is on-one and onto, so it is invertible.

Note: The inverse of an identity function is the identity function itself.
Examples:
Check whether the following functions are identical with their inverse.
(a) xy = 1
(b) x2 + y2 = 1
Ans. (a) Yes
(b) Only for 0 < x < 1, 0 < y < 1
 IMAGES AND PRE-IMAGES

WEEK OF SETS

16

I. TITLE: IMAGES AND PRE-IMAGES OF SETS

II. OBLJECTIVE:
a. Define Image and Pre-images
b. Identify whether that statement is a function
c. Solve problems on function
III. DISCUSSION

Definition (12.9 Image and pre-image).

Let f : A → B, and let C ⊆ A and let D ⊆ B • The set f(C) = {f(x) : x ∈ C} is the “image of
A in B”. This is a subset of B. • The set f −1 (D) = {x ∈ A : f(x) ∈ D} is the “preimage of D
in A”. This is a subset of A.

IV. EXAMPLES

1. f: {1, 2, 3} → {a, b, c, d} defined by

The image of the set {2, 3} under f is f({2, 3}) = {a, c}. The image of the function f is {a,
c}. The preimage of a is f −1({a}) = {1, 2}. The preimage of {a, b} is also {1, 2}. The
preimage of {b, d} is the empty set {}.

2. f: R → R defined by f(x) = x2.

The image of {−2, 3} under f is f({−2, 3}) = {4, 9}, and the image of f is R+.
The preimage of {4, 9} under f is f −1({4, 9}) = {−3, −2, 2, 3}. The preimage of set N =
{n ∈ R | n < 0} under f is the empty set, because the negative numbers do not have
square roots in the set of reals.

3. f: R2 → R defined by f(x, y) = x2 + y2.

The fibres f −1({a}) are concentric circles about the origin, the origin itself, and the empty
set, depending on whether a > 0, a = 0, or a < 0, respectively.

4. If M is a manifold and π: TM → M is the canonical projection from the tangent

bundle TM to M, then the fibres of π are the tangent spaces Tx(M) for x∈M. This is also
an example of a fiber bundle.
5. A quotient group is a homomorphic image.
 CONCEPTS OF CARDINAL
NUMBERS
WEEK
17

I. TITLE: CONCEPTS OF CARDINAL NUMBER

II. OBLJECTIVE:
A. Show natural number is cardinal numbers
B. Give examples of cardinal numbers that are not natural numbers
C. Add and multiply cardinal numbers
III. DISCUSSION

The Addition of Cardinal Numbers

Let n1 and n2 be cardinal numbers. There are then sets A1 and A2 such that #(A1) = n1 and #(A2)
= n2. It is essential that A1 and A2 be disjoint. From A1 and A2 we can create A'1=
{(a1,1)|a1∈A1}=A1×{1} and A'2={(a2,2)|a2∈A2}=A2×{2}. The sum of cardinals is the cardinality
of the union of the representative sets for the cardinals; i.e.,

n1 + n2 = #(A'1) + #(A'2)
= #(A'1∪A'2)

To be rigorous we must establish that addition of cardinals is well defined. This means that we
must show that if

#(A'1) = #(A"1) and

#(A'2) = #(A"2)
then #(A'1∪A'2) = #(A"1∪A"2)

To do this consider an element x from #(A'1∪A'2). Let f1 be the one-to-one function from A'1 to
A"1) and f2 be the one-to-one function from A'2 to A"2. The one-to-one onto function from
A'1∪A'2 to A"1∪A"2 is then merely f1 on A'1 and f2 on A'2.

Infinite Cardinal Numbers

If a set can be put into a one-to-one correspondence with the natural numbers it is said to
be countably infinite or denumerable. The cardinality of the natural numbers {0, 1, 2, 3, ... } is
denoted as aleph null, 0. If a set is finite or denumerable it is said to be countable.

The original definition of infinite is "not finite," meaning "cannot be put into a one-to-one
correspondence with any finite set. Another criteria of infiniteness is whether a set contains a
proper subset that can be put into a one-to-one correspondence with the set itself. It is easy to
establish that if a set is equipotent to a proper subset of itself then it cannot be finite. The proof is
by contradiction. Suppose a set S has one-to-one correspondences with a proper subset T and
with a finite set {1,2,...,n}. Then there is a one-to-one correspondence between the proper subset
T and the finite set. But since T is a proper subset of S there exists an element of S which does
not belong to T, call it u. This would mean there would be a one-to-one correspondence between
T∪{u} and {1,2,..,n,n+1} and hence between {1,2,..,n} and {1,2,..,n+1}. Therefore S cannot be
finite.

The other proposition of interest is that if a set is not finite there exists a one-to-one
correspondence between the set and one of its proper subsets.

This property of infinite sets provide the basis for some amusing illustrations. N. Ya. Vilenkin in
his Stories About Sets hypothesizes a hotel with an infinite number of rooms. When a hotel with
a finite number of rooms is filled any new customers have to be turned away. For an infinite
hotel that is filled new customers still can be accomodated. The occupant in the first room is
moved to the second room. The second room's occupant is moved to the third room and so on.
The new customer can then be put in the first room. If n new customers show the present
occupant of room i can be moved to room n+i for all values of i, thus freeing up space for the n
new customers. If an infinite number of new customers arrive they also can be accomodated by
moving the present occupant of any room, say room i, is moved into room 2i thus freeing up all
of the odd numbered rooms for the infinity of new customers.

The Ordering of Cardinal Numbers

If a set A can be put into a one-to-one correspondence with a subset of set B then the cardinality
of A is less than or equal to the cardinality of set B; #(A)≤#(B). If set B can also be put into a
one-to-one correspondence with a subset of set A then it can be shown that set A and set B have
the same cardinality (The Schroeder-Bernstein Theorem).

Multiplication of Cardinal Numbers

Multiplication of two cardinal numbers is defined as the cardinality of the Cartesian product of
two sets having cardinalities equal to the two cardinals. Let n1 and n1 be two cardinals and let
A1 and A1 such that #(A1) = n1 and #(A2) = n2. There is no necessity that A1 and A2 be disjoint.
The product of n1 and n2 is defined as:

n1*n2 = #(A1)*#(A2)
= #(A1×A2)

The Cartesian product of the set of positive integers may be enumerated in a systematic manner
as indicated below. This establishes that the set of ordered pairs of positive integers has the same
cardinality as the set of positive integers, 0.

The indicated pattern for the enumeration of the ordered pairs of integers establishes a one-to-
one correspondence between the set positive integers P and the set of pairs of positive integers,
P×P. Thus #(P×P)=#(P) and hence 0* 0= 0. This obviously implies that for any finite
cardinal n

n
0 = 0.
 Exponentiation of Cardinal Numbers

Raising one cardinal number to a power equal to that of another cardinal number can defined
defined in terms of the set of functions mapping from one set into another. Let the notation
BA denoted the set of all functions from a domain of set A to a range of set B. For finite sets the
number of different functions from a set A of n elements into a set B of m elements is mn. The
raising of one cardinal number to a power of another cardinal number is defined as follows. Let
m and n be cardinal numbers and the sets A and B such that #(A)=n and #(B)=m. Then:

mn = #(BA).

As with addition and multiplication we must establish that exponentiation is well defined; i.e., if
there are one-to-one correspondences between A and A' and B and B', respectively, then there is
a one-to-one correspondence between BA and B'A'. Suppose f:A→A' and g:B→B' are the one-to-
one correspondences between A and A' and B and B'. Let h be any function from A to B,
h:A→B. Consider the function h' ∈ B'A' defined by

h'(a') = b' = g(h(f-1(a'))).

This function takes any element a' belonging to A' and first obtains the corresponding element a
of A, then obtains the element b of B given by h(a) and from b obtains the corresponding
element of B', b'=g(b). Thus for any function in BA there is one and only one function
corresponding to it in B'A'. The crucial question is whether given any function in B'A' there is one
and only one function in BA corresponding to it. The corresponding function is determined as
follows. For any function h':A' → B' the corresponding function h in BA is given by:

h(a) = g-1(h'(f(a))).

Thus there is a one-to-one correspondence between the set of functions BA and the set of
functions B'A'. There the exponentiation of cardinal numbers defined previously is well defined.

There are two important properties of the powers of finite cardinal numbers:

(mn)p) = mnp
mn+p = mnmp.

Below are proofs that these properties apply to all cardinal numbers.

Let A, B, and C be sets such that #(A)=n, #(B)=m and #(C)=p. The first property requires that
we show that:

#((BA)C) = #(BA×C).

The right hand side involves functions of the form f(a,c)=b, where a, b and c are from the sets A,
B and C, respectively. If we hold c fixed we get a function from A to B, which might be
expressed as fc(a)=b. For different values of c we get the different functions of BA. This is just a
function of the form C→BA. Thus the two sides describe the same set and thus the cardinalities
are the same.

To prove the second property the sets A and C must be disjoint. To prove the second property we
must establish that

#(BA∪C) = #(BA×BC).

EXAMPLES

(i) Set A = {2, 4, 5, 9, 15} has 5 elements.

Therefore, the cardinal number of set A = 5. So, it is denoted as n(A) = 5.

(ii) Set B = {w, x, y, z} has 4 elements.

Therefore, the cardinal number of set B = 4. So, it is denoted as n(B) = 4.

(iii) Set C = {Florida, New York, California} has 3 elements.

Therefore, the cardinal number of set C = 3. So, it is denoted as n(C) = 3.

 Republic of the Philippines
Partido State University
Goa, Camarines Sur

SUBMITTED BY:

MANILYN P. ARROYO

SUBMITTED TO:

MARGARITA M. LANCISO
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR II