EXPERIMENT NO.

–
OBJECTIVE:
Study of NC, CNC AND DNC machine.

THEORY

Computer Numerical Control

Computer numerical control (CNC) is the numerical control system

in which a dedicated computer is built into the control to perform
basic and advanced NC functions. CNC controls are also referred to
as soft-wired NC systems because most of their control functions are
implemented by the control software programs. CNC is a computer
assisted process to control general purpose machines from
instructions generated by a processor and stored in a memory system.
It is a specific form of control system where position is the principal
controlled variable. All numerical control machines manufactured
since the seventies are of CNC type. The computer allows for the
following: storage of additional programs, program editing, running
of program from memory, machine and control diagnostics, special
routines, inch/metric, incremental/absolute switchability.
CNC machines can be used as stand alone units or in a network of
machines such as flexible machine centres. The controller uses a
permanent resident program called an executive program to process
the codes into the electrical pulses that control the machine. In any
CNC machine, executive program resides in ROM and all the NC
codes in RAM. The information in ROM is written into the electronic
chips and cannot be erased and they become active whenever the
machine is on. The contents in RAM are lost when the controller is
turned off. Some use special type of RAM called CMOS memory,
which retains its contents even when the power is turned off.
 Figure 21.1: CNC milling machine

* Direct Numerical Control

In a Direct Numerical Control system (DNC), a mainframe computer
is used to coordinate the simultaneous operations of a number NC
machines as shown in the figures 21.2 & 21.3. The main tasks
performed by the computer are to program and edit part programs as
well as download part programs to NC machines. Machine tool
controllers have limited memory and a part program may contain few
thousands of blocks.So the program is stored in a separate computer
and sent directly to the machine, one block at a time.
First DNC system developed was Molins System 24 in 1967 by
Cincinnati Milacron and General Electric. They are now referred to as
flexible manufacturing systems (FMS). The computers that were used
at those times were quite expensive.
 Figure 21.2: DNC system

Figure 21.3: DNC system

* Advantages & Disadvantages of CNC machine tools

 Figure 21.4 (a) Manually operated milling

Figure 21.4 (b) Computer controlled

machine milling machine
Some of the dominant advantages of the CNC machines
are:
 CNC machines can be used continuously and only need to be
switched off for occasional maintenance.
 These machines require less skilled people to operate unlike
manual lathes / milling machines etc.
 CNC machines can be updated by improving the software used
to drive the machines.
 Training for the use of CNC machines can be done through the
use of 'virtual software'.
 The manufacturing process can be simulated virtually and no
need to make a prototype or a model. This saves time and
money.
 Once programmed, these machines can be left and do not
require any human intervention, except for work loading and
unloading.
 These machines can manufacture several components to the
required accuracy without any fatigue as in the case of
manually operated machines.
 Savings in time that could be achieved with the CNC machines
are quite significant.

Some of the disadvantages of the CNC machines are:

 CNC machines are generally more expensive than manually
operated machines.
 The CNC machine operator only needs basic training and skills,
enough to supervise several machines.
 Increase in electrical maintenance, high initial investment and
high per hour operating costs than the traditional systems.
 Fewer workers are required to operate CNC machines
compared to manually operated machines. Investment in CNC
machines can lead to unemployment.

Applications of NC/CNC machine tools

CNC was initially applied to metal working machinery: Mills,

Drills, boring machines, punch presses etc and now expanded
to robotics, grinders, welding machinery, EDM's, flame cutters
and also for inspection equipment etc. The machines controlled
by CNC can be classified into the following categories: CNC
mills and machining centres.

 CNC lathes and turning centers

 CNC EDM
 CNC grinding machines
 CNC cutting machines (laser, plasma, electron, or flame)
 CNC fabrication machines (sheet metal punch press, bending
machine, or press brake)
 CNC welding machines
 CNC coordinate measuring machines
CNC Coordinate Measuring Machines:

A coordinate measuring machine is a dimensional measuring device,

designed to move the measuring probe to determine the coordinates
along the surface of the work piece. Apart from dimensional
measurement, these machines are also used for profile measurement,
angularity, digitizing or imaging.
A CMM consists of four main components: the machine, measuring
probe, control system and the measuring software. The control
system in a CMM performs the function of a live interaction between
various machine drives, displacement transducers, probing systems
and the peripheral devices. Control systems can be classified
according to the following groups of CMMs.

1. Manually driven CMMs

2. Motorized CMMs with automatic probing systems
3. Direct computer controlled (DCC) CMMs
4. CMMs linked with CAD, CAM and FMS etc.

The first two methods are very common and self explanatory. In the
case of DCC CMMs, the computer control is responsible for the
movement of the slides, readout from displacement transducers and
data communication. CMM are of different configurations-fixed
bridge, moving bridge, cantilever arm figure 21.5(a), horizontal arm
and gantry type CMM as shown in figure 21.5(b).
Figure 21.5(a) Cantilever type CMM

Figure 21.5(b) Gantry type CMM

 EXPERIMENT NO.-
OBJECT:

Study of Finite Element method and static load analysis

THEORY:
Finite element analysis, utilising the finite element method (FEM), is a product
of the digital age, coming to the fore with the advent of digital computers in the
1950s. It follows on from matrix methods and finite difference methods of
analysis, which had been developed and used long before this time. It is a
computer-based analysis tool for simulating and analysing engineering products
and systems. FEA is an extremely potent engineering design utility, but one that
should be used with great care. For example, it is possible to integrate a system
with computer-aided design software, leading to a type of uninformed push-
button analysis in the design process. Unfortunately, colossal errors can be
made at the push of a button, as this warning makes clear.
FEA is an extremely potent engineering design utility, but one which should be
used with great care. Despite years of research by some of the earth’s most
intelligent mathematicians and scientists, it can only answer the questions asked
of it. So, as the saying goes, ask a stupid question.
The most common advantages include:
 optimised product performance and cost
 reduction of development time
 elimination or reduction of testing
 first-time achievement of required quality
 improved safety
 satisfaction of design codes
 improved information for engineering decision making
 fuller understanding of components allowing more rational design
satisfaction of legal and contractual requirements
1. Linear static structural capabilities
 homogeneous/non-homogeneous materials
 isotropic/orthotropic/anisotropic materials
 temperature-dependent material properties
 spring supports
 support displacements: point, line, pressure loads
 body forces (accelerations)
 initial strains (e.g. concrete prestressing tension)
 expansion
 fracture mechanics
 stress stiffening.
2. Non-linear static structural capabilities
 material non-linearities (e.g. plasticity, creep)
 large strain (gross changes in structure shape)
 large displacements
 gaps (compression only interfaces)
 cables (tension only members)
 friction
 metal forming.
3. Linear dynamic capabilities
 natural frequencies and modes of vibration
 response to harmonic loading
 general dynamic loading
 response spectrum loading
 power spectral density loading
 spin softening.
4. Non-linear dynamic capabilities
  time history response of non-linear systems
 large damping effects
 impact with plastic deformation.
5. Linear steady-state thermal capabilities
 homogeneous/non-homogeneous materials
 isotropic/orthotropic/anisotropic materials
 temperature-dependent material properties
 conduction
 isothermal boundaries
 convection
 heat fluxes
 internal heat generation.

Results of finite element analyses

The amount of information that can be produced by an FEA system, especially
for non-linear analysis, is enormous, and, for the first-time user, can be
daunting. For the main areas we are considering, most general-purpose finite
element codes provide the capability to determine the items in Box 2, again
adapted from Baguley and Hose (1994). Results can be presented in various
forms such as tabulated numerical data, line graphs, charts and multicoloured
contour plots.
Cantilever beam
Problem description
The problem is a simple cantilever beam. We only give outline instructions for
most of this problem. You are required to issue the correct commands, based
on your previous experience and the given data.
At the end of this exercise you are asked to use your knowledge in beam
theory to calculate the bending stresses and to verify the results of your finite
element analysis.

Figure 6 Diagram of a cantilever beam with a rectangular cross-section

Figure 6 illustrates the problem and associated dimensions. Note that all
dimensions should be converted to millimetres and appropriate units for the
analysis. Recall that it is the user’s responsibility to insure that all units are
consistent! The boundary conditions consist of fully fixing the node on the left.
The applied load is a single point load (force of 10000 N) applied to the right
node of the beam. The relevant dimensions are as follows:
Length = 2 m
Depth = 10 cm
Width = 5 cm
The beam is made of steel with a Young’s modulus of 200 GPa and Poisson’s
ratio of 0.30.

Interactive time required

45 to 60 minutes.

Features demonstrated
Linear analysis, Solid modelling, Meshing, Element table data, Post processing.

Interactive time required

45 to 60 minutes.

Features demonstrated
Linear analysis, Solid modelling, Meshing, Element table data, Post processing.
 The parameters of interest are:
Area = B × H = 5000
Second moment of area about y -axis
= I yy = B ×( H 3 )/12 = 0.41667× 10 7
1. Create 2 Keypoints
Create two key points at:
KP 1 = 0, 0, 0
KP 2 = 2000, 0, 0
2. Create line
Create a line between these two key points.
3. Set global element edge size
Set global element size to 200
4. Mesh the line with a default mesh
Mesh the line.
5. Apply displacement constraints
Fix all dofs at key point (or node) number 1
6. Apply force load
Apply a force of 10000 N in the minus Z direction on the node at
the other end of the beam.
7. Rotate the axes
If necessary, rotate the axes so that the z-axis is pointing up:
8. Solve with default criteria
Solve the system.
9. Plot deformed shape
What is the maximum displacement at the tip?
I got 32.0 mm
10.List nodal displacement values
 Here is the list of displacements I obtained as a function of node
x-position:

Table 1

Node number Node x-position Displacement (Uz)

1 0 0.000
3 200 0.4637
4 400 1.7914
5 600 3.8872
6 800 6.6549
7 1000 9.9986
8 1200 13.822
9 1400 18.030
10 1600 22.526
11 1800 27.213
2 2000 31.997

You can see that the maximum displacement is 32 mm (to 2 dp).

List stresses in the beam
To look at the stresses in the beam we normally need to define
an element table. You should read your FEA software’s help
menu, particularly on your chosen element to determine the
name (or identifier) of variables that give bending stresses.

Conclusion
In this course you were introduced to the FEA process or method. We outlined
the many continuum fields and subjects in which FEA can be applied and
showed how modelling using FEA is now an important part of engineering.
This course demonstrated the importance of understanding the limitations and
assumptions involved in order to use FEA safely with the aid of some tips and
words of caution.
Formula 1 motor racing is at the leading edge of car design – be it
aerodynamics, electronics, materials or engineering. The important role that
FEA plays in Formula 1 car design is highlighted in a case study involving the
tub (body) of a racing car.
Finally, to drive home the importance of practice of FEA, two simple exercises
are explained in detail so that, provided you have access to FEA software, you
can begin to understand the capabilities of the software.
Today, engineers use computers and software in the design and
manufacture of most products, processes and systems. Finite
element analysis (FEA) is one of the most important tools in an
engineer or designer’s arsenal of digital tools for design and
analysis of products and processes.

EXPERIMENT NO.-
OBJECT:
Draw circle using bsesenham”s circle drawing algorithm using C

PROCEDURE:

Step1: Start Algorithm

Step2: Declare p, q, x, y, r, d variables

p, q are coordinates of the center of the circle
r is the radius of the circle

Step3: Enter the value of r

Step4: Calculate d = 3 - 2r

Step5: Initialize x=0

&nbsy= r

Step6: Check if the whole circle is scan converted

If x > = y
Stop

Step7: Plot eight points by using concepts of eight-way symmetry. The center is
at (p, q). Current active pixel is (x, y).
putpixel (x+p, y+q)
putpixel (y+p, x+q)
putpixel (-y+p, x+q)
putpixel (-x+p, y+q)
putpixel (-x+p, -y+q)
 putpixel (-y+p, -x+q)
putpixel (y+p, -x+q)
putpixel (x+p, -y-q)

Step8: Find location of next pixels to be scanned

If d < 0
then d = d + 4x + 6
increment x = x + 1
If d ≥ 0
then d = d + 4 (x - y) + 10
increment x = x + 1
decrement y = y - 1

Step9: Go to step 6

Step10: Stop Algorithm

CODING:

#include<graphics.h>

#include<stdio.h>

void pixel(int xc,int yc,int x,int y);

int main()

int gd,gm,xc,yc,r,x,y,p;

detectgraph(&gd,&gm);

initgraph(&gd,&gm,"C://TurboC3//BGI");

printf("Enter center of circle :");

scanf("%d%d",&xc,&yc);

printf("Enter radius of circle :");

scanf("%d",&r);

x=0;

y=r;

p=3-2*r;

pixel(xc,yc,x,y);

while(x<y)

if(p<0)

x++;

p=p+4*x+6;

else
{

x++;

y--;

p=p+4*(x-y)+10;

pixel(xc,yc,x,y);

getch();

closegraph();

return 0;

void pixel(int xc,int yc,int x,int y)

putpixel(xc+x,yc+y,WHITE);

putpixel(xc+x,yc-y,WHITE);

putpixel(xc-x,yc+y,WHITE);
putpixel(xc-x,yc-y,WHITE);

putpixel(xc+y,yc+x,WHITE);

putpixel(xc+y,yc-x,WHITE);

putpixel(xc-y,yc+x,WHITE);

putpixel(xc-y,yc-x,WHITE);

}
 EXPERIMENT NO.-
OBJECT:
Draw 2D drawing as per given dimension using AutoCAD

Make aligned dimensions A, B and C on the geometry as shown in

drawing A above using DIMALIGNED command.

Now type DIMEDIT on the command line and press enter, select oblique
from the command line as shown in the image below.
Now click on dimension marked A from drawing shown above and press
enter. Command line will prompt you to select an angle to align this
dimension type 30 and press enter again. Your dimension will now align
with the geometry to make it look like isometric dimension.

For dimensions B and C you can use the same method with the oblique
angle of 30 and -30 respectively. Your final drawing will look like this after
using DIMEDIT on all three dimensions.

Making Isometric Dimension Text:

The dimensions now look correct but when you look closely at dimension
text they are still not properly aligned as per drawing. You need to make
changes to dimension text also in order to make it look normal.

Type DIMTEDIT on the command line and press enter then click on
the dimension which you want to edit, I am selecting dimension C for this
case.
From the command line, select Angle option and type an angle of 30
degrees then press enter. The dimension text will now align with the
dimension line. For dimensions, A and B use an angle of 30 and -30
degrees respectively in DIMTEDIT command.

Making Isometric Text:

To write text on the isometric cube type TEXT on the command line and
press Enter. Now click on the face of cube towards dimension C and enter
a text height value and rotation angle of 30 degrees in the command line
prompts.

Type any text and press enter twice to exit the TEXT command, I am using
“Text” as the sample text on the isometric cube.
Repeat the process of writing text on the face of cube towards dimension
B as well, but in this case change angle of text to -30 degrees keeping all
other parameters unchanged.

Now select text on the face of dimension C then right click and select
Properties from the contextual menu. From the Text panel of properties
palette change value of Obliquing to 30.

Repeat the process for text on cube facing dimension B but in this case
change obliquing value to -30. The final drawing with isometric dimension
and text will look like the image shown below.