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3. Gandhiji as a Writer
4. Gandhiji as a Philosopher
The Early life history of Gandhiji:
It is well known that more has already been written about Gandhiji
than about any other leader in modem Indian History, and that numbering
among these thousands of works are, to date, more than four hundred
biographies of him. The innumerable works produced on Gandhiji show
what kind of man he was, and his influence on people throughout the
world in general, and India in particular.
By about 1850, British rule had been firmly established in India. The
uprising of 1857, known as Sepoy Mutiny, had merely served to
consolidate the British adventure into an empire. India had effectively
passed under the British guardianship, so effectively indeed, that instead
of resenting alien rule the new generation of educated Indians were eager
to submit to the civilizing mission of their foreign masters. It seemed that
the British empire in India was safe for centuries.
64
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To be at school at the stroke of the hour and to run back home as soon
as school closed, that was his daily habit. He literally ran back, because
he could not bear to talk to anybody. At school he always tried to be
honest, truthful and obedient. According to Upadhyaya, though he was
bom in a Vaishya family, Mohandas had many special occasions to visit
the Haveli i.e., the Vaishnava Temple. But the glitter of pomp never
appealed to him. The religious beliefs of the family had their stamp on
his tender mind and he developed a natural faith in Ramanama. Mohan
started showing signs of rational thinking at an early age. When he
became the leader of the masses, he practised the Mantra ‘Ramanama’,
and repeated it at the time of crisis and difficulty. Ramanama was the
last word he had uttered before he died.
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also we notice that he adhered to truth, which later became the cardinal
principle of his life.
When Mohan was married he was thirteen years old. His parents
selected the daughter of a Porbunder merchant, Gokuldas Makanji. His
daughter Kasturbai was also thirteen. The marriage was celebrated with
traditional pomp. Kasturbai came to Rajkot house. She was pretty smart.
Occassionally he used to encourage her to study. This early marriage
was bad for him in some ways, but still worse things were to follow.
All this had its due effect on me. I was beaten. It began to grow on
me that meat eating was good, and that, if the whole country took to meat
eating, the English could be overcome.”9 Right from school days Mohan
had a desire to drive the English out of India. Being a shy, weak, and
timid boy, he thought by eating meat he would overcome most of his
weaknesses.
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Though he started smoking, eating meat and stealing, he felt sorry and
decided against stealing. He wrote down all his offences on a sheet of
paper and handed the same to his father, who was sick. Karamchand
Gandh: read the letter of confession. Without saying a word, with a deep
sigh, he tore it up. Mohan’s eyes were filled with tears. The power of
truth was revealed to him. From that day onwards, he began speaking the
truth and truth only. The love and affection of his father was immense.
He would come home running immediately after school, and would
massage his father’s feet. These incidents show how the family discipline
worked. About this Upadhyaya observes : “Persuasion and change of
heart later became Gandhiji’s guiding principles in dealing with men of
all types.”10 It is good to confess one’s weaknesses. So young Mohan
resolved to be good, but he knew that he could not be good unless he
loved truth. Changing the heart of the opponents and persuading them
until they yielded became Gandhiji’s principles later on. At the age of
sixteen Mohandas lost his 63 year old father, who was then a pensioner of
Rajkot state. Soon after Kasturbai bore a baby, which died within three
or four days of its birth.
the intention of coming to London for the sake of study was actually
formed, I had a secret design in my mind of coming here to satisfy my
curiosity of knowing what London was.”11 The passion which is common
in any young man was there in young Mohan too. His desire was
fulfilled, as his brother Laxmidas managed to find the means to send his
brother abroad. Getting the permission and support of elders was not an
easy task, but he did it nevertheless.
Gandhiji in England
Putalibai was a shrewd mother, but she had her own doubts. A young
man in a foreign land was likely to go astray with temptations of meat,
wine and women. The mother’s objection to Mohandas going abroad was
overcome by the son’s solemn vow not to touch wine, women and meat.
Gandhiji writes : “I vowed not to touch wine, woman and meat. This
done, by mother gave her permission.”12 Gandhiji stuck to his promise till
the end. He sailed for England in 1888. Sri.Tryambami Muzumdar, an
elderly lawyer from Junagad, who was also going to England to qualify
for the Bar, was on the same ship as Mohan was sailing in. He was then
nineteen. The other passengers were all English people. He felt very shy
and nervous on the ship. He found it difficult to speak in English. He did
not mix with the other passengers, nor did he dine at the table - he used to
take his meals in his cabin. He depended mainly on sweets and fruits.
Muzumdar advised him to speak in English, no matter even if he
committed mistakes in grammar.
meat The climate in England, he said, was very cold and one could not
live “.here without eating meat. Mohan replied that if one could not stay
in England without eating meat, he would much rather return to India
than break his promise to his mother.
In order to keep himself engaged Gandhi started writing the diary, and
the result is a work which can be read as both an impression and a
memoir, that is, an Autobiography. For the first few days on reaching
England he felt very uneasy. Everything was different there. The people,
their ways and manners, their food, their residences were all different.
He used to weep during the night. Although England was intolerable, he
made up his mind to stay there for three years, and return to India only
after completing his studies. In England he was forced to take meat, but
he did not want to bring upon himself the guilt of breaking his promise.
The promise was the only thing that made him stick to vegetarian food.
One day he suddenly saw a sign-board and entered a vegetarian
restaurant in Farringdon Street. He also bought a copy of Salt’s ‘Plea for
Vegeterianism’. He had a hearty meal - the first satisfying meal he ever
ate with relish, since his arrival in England. He became a vegetarian by
choice.
During the early period of his stay in England Mohan went through
a phase of playing the English gentleman. He took lessons in French,
elocution, and ball-room dancing. But he soon realized - and here he
foreshadowed the real Gandhiji - that if he could not become a gentleman
by virtue of his character, the ambition was not worth cherishing. He was
also ashamed of spending money on such things. He began leading a
more simple life. He took cheap rooms, and began to cook for himself.
Towards the end of his second year in London he came across two
73
He also read the Bible, about the same time, when a Christian friend
whom he had met in a vegetarian boarding house introduced him to the
sacred book. But he read with interest only the New Testament and
especially the Sermon on the Mount. Having read the Gita, The Light of
Asia, and the Bible, Gandhi became eager to know about other religions.
He, on the advice of a friend, read Carlyle’s Heroes and Hero Worship,
and came to know about the greatness, courage and unpretentious
practices of Mohammed, the propounder of Islam. He had not much time
for a deep study of religion while he was in England. The attitude of
respect for all religions, the desire to understand the best in each of them,
were thus planted in his mind early in life.
Gandhi had gone to England to qualify for the Bar. That was not a
difficult thing. He was asked by Joshi to understand only two things, (a)
to complete the term, and (b) to pass the written tests. He passed his
examination for the Bar on June 10, 1891, and sailed for India two days
later, that is on June 12. Now he was a qualified barrister.
This was the Mahatma in the making during his stay in England. He
himself was, then, not aware that he would be a sort of worry for the
British Government when he was in South Africa and later in India.
He loved each and every Londoner. He touched the heart of every
Londoner. Once he said to an English Journalist: “My heart goes out to
the British people, and when I heard that the Temple Church was
bomoed, I bled.”14 This shows how he loved his enemy, and the love he
had for religious places, and the sympathy he bore for the white people.
He was a friend and, mentor of everybody. His greatness was that of an
ordinary man who through a long process of trial and error achieved a
unique greatness of his own.
his grief at all. Nobody saw him weep or shed even a single drop of tear
- sometimes grievous shocks do not find outward expression in
lamentation or in tears. At the age of twenty two he was indeed an
orphan, having lost both his parents.
Then he started drafting petitions for poor clients; but that did not
fetch good income to lead a decent life in Bombay. In desperation he
applied for a job to earn something, in which he had to teach English in a
school for an hour every day: but here, too, he was unsuccessful. He
failed to establish himself in Bombay. So, he went back to Rajkot, where
he was able to make three hundred rupees a month. In Rajkot, another
bitter experience came his way. It was a conflict between his family
affection and his sense of public duty. His elder brother, who had done
so much for him, was out of favour with the political agent. Gandhiji’s
76
with the common people. They were all from upper middle class society,
and convent educated. These people had failed because they did not
arouse that political consciousness in the country as a whole, which
Gandhiji did. It was during this critical juncture that Gandhiji made his
appearance felt on the Indian political scene. He joined politics as soon
as he returned from South Africa. In South Africa he had successfully
met the challenge of the British.
social work, and I think the reply will stand good to the end of my life.”20
Gandhiji really had a bent of mind to serve the people. He was not in
the least interested in building up his image as a political leader. Today’s
political leaders manipulate the people’s minds and sentiments through
the media. For Gandhiji politics was a vehicle for evolving the social
consciousness of the people. But today’s politics is an art and science of
acquiring and manipulating the state power. Gandhiji did his religious
and social work through politics.
When Gandhiji went to South Africa he was not himself sure about his
future. He had gone there to attend to the problem of Dada Abdulla and
company. He writes: “I had gone there only for a single case prompted
by self interest and curiosity........ Pretoria was my goal. The case was
being fought out there.”21 Gandhiji’s intention in the beginning was clear.
But after staying there the situation forced him to become the leader of
the Indian community. Gandhiji was an eye witness to the sufferings of
thousands of our countrymen in South Africa. He plunged into the field
and resolved to employ the weapon of passive resistance to win the
struggle into which he and the resident Indians had willingly thrown
themselves heart and soul. The step which he took in South Africa was a
bold one. He had to fight with the Whites not with violence or by means
of organized riots, which usually happen these days, but with the strength
of soul force. Thus, we can say that Gandhiji, the leader of the Indian
freedom movement was bom in South Africa. The Gandhian approach to
solving problems was totally different ; it was of finding the greatest
common measure of agreement.
Gandhiji was very firm about the things he did. Suffering was part
and parcel of his life. He suffered for the sake of peaceful agitation.
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Truth and non-violence were his only weapons. Louis Fischer observes:
“Professor Gilbert Murray wrote : Be careful in dealing with a man who
cares nothing for sensual pleasure, nothing for comfort or praise or
promotion, but is simple, determined to do what he believes to be right.
He is a dangerous and uncomfortable enemy because his body, which you
can always conquer, gives you so little purchase over his soul. That was
Gandhi, the leader.”22 For the first time in the history of India Gandhiji
demonstrated how a leader should be. Self identification with the poorest
was the sole aim of Gandhiji. He showed the stuff of which heroes are
made.
In unvanquishable number
Shake your chains to earth like dew
Which in sleep has fallen on you-
Ye are many, they are few.”23
The whole poem is an embodiment of his theory of non-violence. The
poem served as a mouthpiece for Gandhiji in making the people take a
non-violent and resolute stand in face of the difficulties they might come
across. The weapon which he gave to the masses was non-violence,
submitting completely to the opponent and thereby making him yield.
The concluding lines of the poem suggest the number of Indians
compared to the British. With hope he read aloud this verse of Shelly.
According to Muriel, Leister non-violence, naked truth, non-theft,
prayer, discipline, all became personified in Gandhiji. He was a selfless
and loving man of god. He never lost the common touch; he rarely used
long words or abstract nouns; never said a thing that he didn’t mean, he
did not propagate a theory that he didn’t practise. He envisaged non
violence, naked truth, selflessness as techniques, as powerful means of
national liberation and as instruments for establishing a just society. He
was determined to drive India into the future by achieving independence
with the weapons of the past. He chose as his instrument not the sword,
but something far simpler, something that was to be the political symbol
of an indigenous economy - the spinning wheel. This was chosen by him
purposely and it was to challenge the west by denying all the western
values. It was a brilliant political idea. Soon the wheel became the status
symbol of Indianism.
At the turn of the 19lh century Indians literally had no say in the
administration of the country. The East India Company was dissolved
after the revolt of 1857. A new political office was set up in London.
The vast territories of India over which the British ruled were divided into
provinces, which were in turn divided into smaller districts. Each
province was put under a Governor. The actual Civil Administration of
the country was carried on through ICS officers who were selected
through competitive examinations in London. Indians had hardly any
voice in the Government of their own country.
Daring his stay in India he spent a month with his political mentor
Gokhale. He was very much benefited by this contact. Soon he returned
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of India.
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After 1920, the Indian national movement was focused on only two
chief strategies 1) direct mass action, and 2) negotiations. Freedom to
Gandhiji did not mean English rule without Englishmen ; it meant the
creation of conditions which would enable the people to live according
to their own genius. Gandhiji gave importance to the creation of
conditions like the development of cottage industries which he called a
constructive programme. Today, India needs this inward-looking
tendency ; it needs the Swadeshi spirit. Creating opportunities was the
depth and substance of Gandhiji’s national ideas. Gandhiji’s political
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leadership was accepted by one and all. After the Baradoli Civil
Disobedience movement, the Khilafat Movement, and Quit India
Movement, Gandhiji was at the height of his political leadership. Patel in
his speech said: “He is (Gandhiji) there to guide us and command us.
We are not to reason why. We must carry out his commands. Be they
hot or be they soft, a soldier knows only to obey his commander........ So
long as Gandhiji remains in our midst, he is our sole commander.”32
Gandhijfs political activity was a sort of problem for the British
government, the officials were very careful while arresting Gandhiji.
They knew anything could happen if he was arrested because he had such
a sway over the people. He was the sole commander of the Indian
masses.
Nehru during the months of December 1921, and January 1922 it was
estimated that about 30,000 persons had been sentenced to imprisonment
in connection with the non-cooperation movement. Though most of the
prominent men and workers were in prison, the leader of the whole
struggle, Mahatma Gandhi, was still out, issuing from day to day
messages, directions which inspired the people. The Government had not
touchec him so far, for they feared the consequences, the reactions of the
Indian Army and the police. Gandhiji as a leader of the non-cooperation
movement was least afraid of the British Raj.
the hands of Gandhiji. Suffering was a part and parcel of the Satyagrahis.
About the political leadership of Gandhiji no one could doubt. All
wanted that he should be the guiding spirit. Louis Fischer observes : “
Everyone realized that Gandhi would have to be the brain, heart and
directing hand of any civil disobedience movement, and it was therefore
left to him to choose the hour, the place and the precise issue.”3S Gandhiji
was the brain and heart of the political struggle in India, and everyone felt
that Gandhiji would lead them to the altar. The means adopted by
Gandhiji were unique ; that is why the whole world looked towards
Gandhiji in particular and India in general. India meant Gandhiji.
a Cabinet Mission to India to negotiate with the Indian leaders for the
transfer of power to Indian hands. Bipin Chandra again writes : “ The
British Prime Minister, Clement Atlee, announced on 20 February 1947
that the British would transfer power to India latest by June 1948, Lord
Louis Mountbatten was sent to India as Viceroy to arrange for the transfer
of power. In spite of serious differences that arose between the Congress
and the Muslim League, Lord Montbatten worked out a compromise plan
and also brought forward the date for the transfer of power by more than
a year. India would become free on 15 August 1947.”37 India became
free on 15 August. The man behind the whole struggle was Gandhiji.
Because of his able political leadership we could get freedom. Without
Gandhiji it would never have been possible to unite the whole of India.
Indians’ future was secure at the hands of Gandhiji. He is the real
architect of India - that is why we call him ‘The Father of the nation’.
The service which he rendered was matchless. Gandhiji had the strength
of a political ruler with absolute power, and he had the mind of a believer
in political and social equality. Gandhiji was a practical visionary and a
nation builder. His methods were clean, his approach was unique. He
attacked his opponents not with weapons of steel, but with the weapons
of love, humanity and understanding.
Gandhiji came into politics not because he wanted to, but his
devotion to truth drew him into the field of politics. He had neither the
lust for power nor had the mania to dominate other men. He wanted to
liberate India by peaceful means, that is, he was against using any kind
of violence and he argued that the differences and problems could be
resolved through negotiations. Mahatma Gandhiji’s rise to fame was not
sudden. He was a unique phenomenon. His greatness was unusual which
covers a large area of human experience. His infinite love for truth and
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ahimsa made him an early chief advocate of the cause of truth and non
violence. He was looked upon as a moral leader and saint, and the people
of India had placed unlimited political authority in his hands. Gandhiji
was a great builder and a liberator. His experience, his experiments and
his basic ideas, particularly his concern for nation building were simply
great. His ideas have a deep relevance even today.
3. Gandhiji as a Writer
Gandhiji rarely wrote for the pleasure of writing. He wrote and spoke
when he had to write and speak, on practically all subjects under the sun,
either to clear up some problem in his mind or in the mind of his co-
workers, admirers and critics. He published most of his writings, which
are either in the form of articles, speeches, letters or reports of his
interviews, mainly as a result of either self introspection or for
periodicals, such as Indian Opinion (Phoenix) 1904-1914, Young India
(Ahmedabad) 1919-1932, and Harijan (From Poona) 1933-1941, and in
1942 (From Ahmedabad). His writings in Hindi and Gujarati were
simultaneously published in Harijan Sevak (Ahmedabad), Harijan
Bandhu (Ahmedabad), and Navjivan (Ahmedabad).
During his life-time, and after his death, many people have edited his
writings and speeches either in the form of collected writings or speeches.
Gandhiji’s faithful secretary and lifelong companion Mahadev
Desai translated into English almost everything that Gandhiji wrote in his
mother tongue - and the ability of Mahadev Desai to write as Gandhiji
95
Gandhiji started writing in his early youth, but what he had to say then
was not of consequence, apart from the fact that even at that time he was,
within his limitations, led by a far-ffom-common seriousness of purpose,
along with an extraordinary measure of human warmth. His South
African days were a period of severe self-preparation. He was caught all
unawares by this sudden, inescapable need, but its truly rich fruit-bearing
was to take place many years later in India.
doubt with a touch of what is called local colour. His principal aim was
to enable the reader to know their divine, dynamic and deep self.
Gandhiji’s purpose was to reach the hearts of the mute millions.
Although Gandhiji started writing in his early youth, the writer in him
grew up surprisingly fast a few years before his imprisonment in 1922.
And it was through his pen and the magnetism of his personality that he
awakened the Indian masses. He expressed their feelings in a sober and
restrained manner. He had a knack of selecting the aptest titles for his
articles.
plain, distinctive and impressive manner and conveyed his views and
feelings to the reader. He wrote truthfully and without fear of anybody,
because he even loved his enemy. He was sincere in his thoughts, words
and deeds. His style reflects the transparent sincerity and frankness of his
heart. In fact, perfect sincerity, truthfulness and frankness were his chief
aims in writing.
For about thirty years Gandhiji dominated the Indian scene, and the
period from 1919-1948 may be called the Gandhian Era of Indian history.
His contribution to thought and action has been so original and great that
he has left his impression not only on India but also on the whole world.
He is being studied and discussed by thinkers and social workers in all
countries where problems of freedom, social uplift and moral
regeneration persist.
Gandhiji was nineteen years old when he started writing the diary. In
the diary we can see a budding writer. Bhabani Bhattacharya observes :
“The London Diary holds vivid glimpses of an immature, but eager youth
100
A creative thinker and writer is set with the task of changing the
current scale of values in life, and Gandhiji did it most conspicuously.
101
Every piece of Indian writing bears the stamp of India in the usage of
language. For Gandhiji English was a useful, efficient and necessary
tool, neither more nor less. He was essentially a man of action, and a
leader. “There is a close connection between his spoken and written style.
By the sheer power of his personality he forged a simple, vivid English,
plain and undistinguished, but capable of suggesting passion and truth by
its very simplicity.”50 He was influenced by Ruskin, The New Testament,
Thoreau and Tolstoy; these supplied ideas and thoughts. He was not a
103
professional writer. Writing and talking were essential for him like water
and air. He used writing for a creative purpose. He used words to
communicate his message of Truth, love, non-violence and universal
brotherhood.
Gandhiji did not separate politics from religion, and he made religion
as his foundation. Romain Rolland states : “To understand Gandhi’s
activity', it should be realized that his doctrine is like a huge edifice
composed of two different floor or grades. Below is the solid ground
work, the basic foundation of religion. On this vast and unshakable
104
Gandhiji’s writings are a sort of golden legacy. His writings will last
forever. Gandhiji once said : “My writings should be cremated with my
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body. What I have done will endure, not what I have said or written.”™
What Gandhiji had done for the nation will remain permanent. Whatever
he has done will last long, and so will his writings.
4. Gandhiji as a Philosopher
Right from his childhood we can see that his life was based on
discipline. Later on he prescribed this code of discipline to his co
workers when he started an Ashram at Sabarmati. Gandhiji writes : “My
life is based on disciplinary resolutions.”59 He was the strictest observer
of principles; he never deviated from the resolutions that he made once.
It is very clear that Gandhiji’s entire political philosophy, his political
goal and the means he adopted were all of a piece. All of them spring
from his religion, that is, truth and non-violence. Gandhiji derived his
moral and religious ideas essentially from Hinduism, the religion of his
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birth, from his mother and his nurse Rambha. Tulsi Ramayana had also a
great effect on him, and so had the Bhagavad Gita and ‘Christianity’. He
believed in the philosophy of truth and non-violence.
Human activity or serving the society at large was his mission and
religion. He was of the opinion that the idea of politics should stem from
the concept of truth, which is the substance of all morality. He
spiritualised politics. The views which he held about politics had a
bearing on his morality. In fact Gandhiji derived his position from the
Bhagavad Gita. To make politics religious, and religion practical, he
ultima:ely selected the path of the Gita - Karma Yoga, which suggests a
way of spiritual realization through social action.
Ill
We must know that Gandhiji had a philosophy of his own, he had his
own metaphysical beliefs which he took for granted in forming a
philosophy of life. Aldous Huxley observes : “Men live in accordance
with their philosophy of life, their conception of the world. This is true
even of the most thoughtless. It is impossible to live without a
metaphysic.”62 Gandhiji was a philosopher - a spiritual rather than
materialist. He was after knowledge, and hated all that was false.
Gandhiji was a philosopher in that all his endeavors were devoted to
attaining the knowledge of the eternal. He dimly perceived that whilst
everything around him was ever changing, ever dying, there was
underlying all that change a living power that was changeless, that held
the cosmos together, that created, dissolved, and recreated. That
informing power or spirit was God. Though he disclaimed that he was a
philosopher, his philosophical thoughts lie scattered all through his
writings. He believed that the work which he undertook was not his, but
God’s. God holds the whole world in balance. The Almighty is the
greatest living force. God is changeless. God is truth, and truth is the
norm in man and which sustains man; man, therefore, should stick to
truth whatever be the consequences. Worship of God, who is truth,
consists in sticking to Truth at all costs, not in ritual.
It was perhaps Gandhiji’s humility which made him say that he was
not an academician or theoretician. Yet he presents a total view of reality.
Gandhiji is a philosopher in this sense. He accords the central place to
truth, non- violence and morality and tries to look at the whole world in
terms cf these concepts. It is values like Truth, Non-violence and
morality that occupy the central place in Gandhiji’s world-view.
Gandhiji writes : “I do not have the qualifications to teach my philosophy
of life, and also don’t possess enough qualifications to practise the
112
Gandhiji was an ideal man judged by any standard, he was never after
fame, position or power. It can be said that another name for sacrifice is
Gandhiji. Aldous Auxley describes an ideal man in these words : “The
ideal man is the non-attached man. Not attached to his bodily sensations
and lusts. Not attached to his craving for power and possessions........
113
system of thought for all his thinking and action. The twin ideals, truth
and non-violence, figure most prominently in his ideology.
The world witnessed Gandhiji as the first person who effectively used
and realized the principle of Ahimsa, when he acted as a leader of India’s
fight for freedom. Before Gandhiji no one had made up his mind to act
on the principle of non-violence in the interest of the country and
especially as a leader of a country fighting for freedom. Gandhiji said :
“My philosophy, if I can be said to have any, excludes the possibility of
harm to one’s cause by outside agencies.”73 He was careful to add that
fighting for a bad cause will lead to bad results or a sort of cold war.
117
denies the truth of their experiences, not certainly the scientist. Gandhiji
had the temperament of a scientist. He approached the problems of life
and found solutions for them in a novel and scientific way. Science
always aims at finding truth. Gandhiji experimented with truth by testing
it out in his day-to-day life. He was ever ready to sacrifice his life for the
sake of truth.
national life. Gandhiji was able to hold back the modem drift towards
materialism and violence, because his eyes were fixed clearly on a
fundamentally spiritual goal, the attainment of truth and non-violence.
REFERENCES:
l.Sumitra Gandhi Kulkami. Gandhi Mere Pitamah (Hindi), Tr to
Kannada, by Dr.T.C.Pumima. (Taranga, Kannada Weekly Magazine
(ed), and pub by, T.Satish U.Pai, Manipal, Manipal Press Ltd,
Karnataka, India, 3rd Feb 2005), P.15.
94), P.56.
124
53.Ibid. PP 105-106.
54.K.R.Srinivas Iyengar. Indian Writing in English. (Delhi, Sterling
Publishers pvt. Ltd. 1985), PP. 248-249.
55.1bid. P.272.
56.M.K.Naik. History ofIndian English Literature. (New
Delhi, Sahitya Academy, 1982), P.125.
127
62. Aldous Huxley. Ends and Means. (London. Chatto and Windus,
1957), P.252.