Defining and explaining

• Sometimes, it is necessary to explain what we mean more clearly.

• Defining is particularly useful when you want to make your argument clearer or
when you are using terms that may have many possible interpretations.
useful structures:
• By… I mean…
• By this I mean…
• In other words,…
• That is to say,…
• To be more precise,…
• Here I am (not) referring to…
E.g.: I am convinced that examinations have a positive influence on
learning and by that I mean that they lead to a better grasp of the
subject, which is essential in areas such as medicine. While I admit
that they can creat undue pressure on students and can cause stress-
related conditions, I would argue that these problems can be largely
avoided if the approach to examinations is handled effectively by
those concerned. Overall, students are motivated by examinations and
this motivation can only benefit them.

giving and refuting counterarguments

• A counterargument is an argument that is contrary to, or opposite of, the writer’s
opinion.
• This is a forceful way of expressing an argument and is done by rejecting an
argument that you do not agree with.
• You normally give and then refute a counterargument in the penultimate
paragraph when the main arguments have been presented
1. giving a counterargument
• Opponents of …
Supporters of … + would argue that …
Lovers of … + would say that …
Haters of … + would claim that …
Advocates of…
 • Some people may
might + argue that…
could
would
• An argument in support of / against … is that…
• A claim often heard in favour of / against … is...
2. refuting a counterargument
• Such an argument seems to have some some merits on
the surface, but it turns out to be a superficial / biased /
groundless / unreasonable / short-sighted idea.
• This point seems to have certain surface values.
However, on a thorough examination / when examined in
its entirety, it is nothing but a mere discrimination
against…

• While I agree that …., I find it unacceptable to argue that…

• While it is true that …, it is hardly acceptable that…

• There is little evidence to support the idea that…

• It is unjustifiable to say that…

• I am unconvinced that…

E.g.: Opponents of mandatory uniforms say that students

who wear school uniforms cannot express their
individuality. This point has some merit on the surface.
However, as stated previously, school is a place to learn, not
to flaunt wealth and fashion.

E.g.: The opponents of capital punishment might say that no

one has the right to decide who should die, including the
government. However, when the government sends soldiers to
war, it is deciding the fate of those soldiers who will die. As
long as the government has a right to send its citizens to a
battlefield, it has a right to put criminals to death.