Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Your about to read an award winning article. This article won the 2000 Beychok-M
ontemayor Award here at The Chemical Engineers' Resource Page!
Updated Fall of 2002 (New Additions in Blue)
Experience is typically what turns a good engineer into a great engineer. An eng
ineer that can look at a pipe and a flowmeter and guess the pressure drop within
5%. Someone who can at least estimate the size of a vessel without doing any ca
lculations. When I think of such rules, two authors come to my mind, Walas and B
ranan. Dr. Walas' book, Chemical Process Equipment: Selection and Design has bee
n widely used in the process industry and in chemical engineering education for
years. Mr. Branan has either helped write or edit numerous books concerning this
topic. Perhaps his most popular is Rules of Thumb for Chemical Engineers. Here,
I'll share some of these rules with you along with some of my own. Now, be awar
e that these rules are for estimation and are not necessary meant to replace rig
orous calculations when such calculations should be performed. But at many stage
s of analysis and design, these rules can save you hours and hours. As always, i
f you have some shortcuts that you'd like to add to the list, email them to me a
nd I'll add them on. You can also download this page as an Excel 97 file here (u
pdated).
Physical Properties
Cooling Towers
A. With industrial cooling towers, cooling to 90% of the ambient air satura
tion level is possible.
B. Relative tower size is dependent on the water temperature approach to th
e wet bulb temperature:
Twater-Twb
Relative Size
5 2.4
15 1.0
25 0.55
C. Water circulation rates are generally 2-4 GPM/sq. ft (81-162 L/min m2) a
nd air velocities are usually 5-7 ft/s (1.5-2.0 m/s)
D. Countercurrent induced draft towers are the most common. These towers ar
e capable of cooling to within 2 °F (1.1 °C) of the wet bulb temperature. A 5-10 °F (2
.8-5.5 °C) approach is more common.
E. Evaporation losses are about 1% by mass of the circulation rate for ever
y 10 °F (5.5 °C) of cooling. Drift losses are around 0.25% of the circulation rate.
A blowdown of about 3% of the circulation rate is needed to prevent salt and che
mical treatment buildup.
Conveyors
A. Pneumatic conveyors are best suited for high capacity applications over
distances of up to about 400 ft. Pneumatic conveying is also appropriate for mul
tiple sources and destinations. Vacuum or low pressure (6-12 psig or 0.4 to 0.8
bar) is used for generate air velocities from 35 to 120 ft/s (10.7-36.6 m/s). Ai
r requirements are usually in the range of 1 to 7 cubic feet of air per cubic fo
ot of solids (0.03 to 0.5 cubic meters of air per cubic meter of solids).
B. Drag-type conveyors (Redler) are completed enclosed and suited to short
distances. Sizes range from 3 to 19 inches square (75 to 480 mm). Travel velocit
ies can be from 30 to 250 ft/min (10 to 75 meters/min). The power requirements f
or these conveyors is higher than other types.
C. Bucket elevators are generally used for the vertical transport of sticky
or abrasive materials. With a bucket measuring 20 in x 20 in (500 mm x 500 mm),
capacities of 1000 cubic feet/hr (28 cubic meters/hr) can be reached at speeds
of 100 ft/min (30 m/min). Speeds up to 300 ft/min (90 m/min) are possible.
D. Belt conveyors can be used for high capacity and long distance transport
s. Inclines up to 30° are possible. A 24 in (635 mm) belt can transport 3000 cu. f
t./h (85 cu m/h) at speeds of 100 ft/min (30.5 m/min). Speeds can be as high as
600 ft/min (183 m/min). Power consumption is relatively low.
E. Screw conveyors can be used for sticky or abrasive solids for transports
up to 150 ft (46 m). Inclines can be up to about 20°. A 12 in (305 mm) diameter s
crew conveyor can transport 1000-3000 cu. ft./h (28-85 cu. m/h) at around 40-60
rpm.
Crystallization
A. During most crystallizations, C/Csat (concentration/saturated concentrat
ion) is kept near 1.02 to 1.05
B. Crystal growth rates and crystal sizes are controlled by limiting the de
gree of supersaturation.
C. During crystallization by cooling, the temperature of the solution is ke
pt 1-2 °F (0.5-1.2 °C) below the saturation point at the given concentration.
D. A generally acceptable crystal growth rate is 0.10 - 0.80 mm/h
Drivers and Power Recovery
A. Efficiencies: 85-95% for motors, 40-75% for steam turbines, 28-38% for g
as engines and turbines.
B. Electric motors are nearly always used for under 100 HP (75 kW). They ar
e available up to 20,000 HP (14,915 kW).
C. Induction motors are most popular. Synchronous motors have speeds as low
as 150 rpm at ratings above 50 HP (37.3 kW) only. Synchronous motors are good f
or low speed reciprocating compressors.
D. Steam turbines are seldom used below 100 HP (75 kW). Their speeds can be
controlled and they make good spares for motors in case of a power failure.
E. Gas expanders may be justified for recovering several hundred horsepower
. At lower recoveries, pressure let down will most likely be through a throttlin
g valve.
Drying of Solids
A. Spray dryer have drying times of a few seconds. Rotary dryers have dryin
g times ranging from a few minutes to up to an hour.
B. Continuous tray and belt dryers have drying times of 10-200 minutes for
granular materials or 3-15 mm pellets.
C. Drum dryers used for highly viscous fluids use contact times of 3-12 sec
onds and produce flakes 1-3 mm thick. Diameters are generally 1.5-5 ft (0.5 - 1.
5 m). Rotation speeds are 2-10 rpm and the maximum evaporation capacity is aroun
d 3000 lb/h (1363 kg/h).
D. Rotary cylindrical dryers operate with air velocities of 5-10 ft/s (1.5-
3 m/s), up to 35 ft/s (10.5 m/s). Residence times range from 5-90 min. For initi
al design purposes, an 85% free cross sectional area is used. Countercurrent des
ign should yield an exit gas temperature that is 18-35 °F (10-20 °C) above the solid
s temperature. Parallel flow should yield an exiting solids temperature of 212 °F
(100 °C). Rotation speeds of 4-5 rpm are common. The product of rpm and diameter (
in feet) should be 15-25.
E. Pneumatic conveying dryers are appropriate for particles 1-3 mm in diame
ter and in some cases up to 10 mm. Air velocities are usually 33-100 ft/s (10-30
m/s). Single pass residence time is typically near one minute. Size range from
0.6-1.0 ft (0.2-0.3 m) in diameter by 3.3-125 ft (1-38 m) in length.
F. Fluidized bed dryers work well with particles up to 4.0 mm in diameter.
Designing for a gas velocity that is 1.7-2 times the minimum fluidization veloci
ty is good practice. Normally, drying times of 1-2 minutes are sufficient in con
tinuous operation.
Drum Type Vessels
A. Liquid drums are usually horizontal. Gas/Liquid separators are usually v
ertical
B. Optimum Length/Diameter ratio is usually 3, range is 2.5 to 5
C. Holdup time is 5 minutes for half full reflux drums and gas/liquid separ
ators. Design for a 5-10 minute holdup for drums feeding another column
D. For drums feeding a furnace, a holdup of 30 minutes is a good estimate
E. Knockout drum in front of compressors should be designed for a holdup of
10 times the liquid volume passing per minute.
F. Liquid/Liquid separators should be designed for settling velocities of 2
-3 inches/min
G. Gas velocities in gas/liquid separators, velocity = k (liquid density/(v
apor density-1))^0.5, where k is 0.35 with horizontal mesh deentrainers and 0.16
7 with vertical mesh deentrainers. k is 0.1 without mesh deentrainers and veloci
ty is in ft/s
H. A six inch mesh pad thickness is very popular for such vessels
I. For positive pressure separations, disengagement spaces of 6-18 inches b
efore the mesh pad and 12 inches after the pad are generally suitable.
Electric Motors and Turbines
A. Efficiencies range from 85-95% for electric motors, 42-78% for steam tur
bines, 28-38% for gas engines and turbines
B. For services under 75 kW (100 hp), electric motors are almost always use
d.
C. Turbines can be justified in services where they will yield several hund
red horsepowers. Otherwise, throttle valves are used to release pressure.
D. A quick estimate of the energy available to a turbine is given by:
E. For two phase flow, an estimate often used is Lockhart and Martinelli:
F. Control valves require at least 0.69 bar (10 psi) pressure drop for suff
icient control
G. Flange ratings include 10, 20, 40, 103, and 175 bar (150, 300, 600, 1500
, and 2500 psig)
H. Globe valves are most commonly used for gases and when tight shutoff is
required. Gate valves are common for most other services.
I. Screwed fitting are generally used for line sizes 2 inches and smaller.
Larger connections should utilize flanges or welding to eliminate leakage.
J. Pipe Schedule Number = 1000P/S (approximate) where P is the internal pre
ssure rating in psig and S is the allowable working stress of the material is ps
i. Schedule 40 is the most common.
Pumps
A. Power estimates for pumping liquids:
________________________________________
Amine Treating
Range, (Btu/h.ft².°F)
Rich/Lean Amine Exchanger 75 90
Regenerator Condenser 70 90
Regenerator Reboiler (STM) 100 120
Lean Amine Cooler 80 90
Catalytic Cracking
Range, (Btu/h.ft².°F)
Naphtha Cooler 55 65
Feed / DFO 35 45
DFO Cooler 45 55
DFO Cooler (300-400 °F) 80 100
Gas Oil / DFO 40 50
Gas Oil / Quench 35 50
Gas Oil / Tar 30 40
Quench or STB / Feed 35 45
Quench / BFW 60 80
Quench or STB Cooler 30 50
Quench and/or STB Cooler (300-400 °F) 50 70
Quench Steam Gen. 70 90
Reduced Crude / Quench 35 45
Reduced Crude / Tar Sep. Btms. 30 40
SYN Tower Condenser 30 40
Crude Distillation
Range, (Btu/h.ft².°F)
Crude / Heavy Gas Oil 40 50
Crude / Kerosene 35 45
Crude / Light Gas Oil 40 50
Crude / Naphtha 40 50
Crude / Reduced Crude 25 35
Crude / Vac. Tar 25 30
Heavy Gas Oil Cooler 50 50
Heavy Gas Oil Steam Gen. 100 120
Kerosene Cooler 55 65
Light Gas Oil Cooler 45 55
Lube Dist. / Crude 40 50
Naphtha Cooler 60 70
Reduced Crude / Gas Oil 35 45
Reduced Crude / Naphtha 40 50
Reduced Crude Cooler 20 30
Tower Overhead / Crude 30 40
Tower Condenser 45 55
Vac. Tar / Steam Gen. 45 55
Vac. Tar Cooler (box) 10 20
Hydrodesulfurization
Range, (Btu/h.ft².°F)
Charge / Reactor Effluent 60 70
Charge / Gas Oil Product 55 65
Charge / HTS Off Gas 50 60
HTS Off Gas / Water Condenser 75 85
Stripper Feed / Gas Oil Product 55 65
Stripper Bottoms Cooler 65 75
Stripper Condenser 55 65
Total Gas / Gas Oil Product 55 65
________________________________________
Naphtha Hydrotreating & Reforming
Range, (Btu/h.ft².°F)
Pretreater Reactor Effluent / Charge (Cold End) 65 75
Pretreater Reactor Effluent / Charge (Hot End) 70 80
Pretreater Reactor Effluent Condenser 80 90
Naphtha Splitter Feed / Botomms 65 80
Naphtha Splitter Condenser 65 75
Reactor Effluent Condenser 80 100
Reactor Effluent / Feed (Cold End) 70 85
Reactor Effluent / Feed (Hot End) 80 90
Splitter or Stripper Feed / Pretreater Effluent 75 85
Stabilizer Reboiler (Hot Oil) 75 95
Thermal Cracking
Range, (Btu/h.ft².°F)
Coker Combination TWR Condenser 40 50
Gas Oil / Gas Oil 30 40
G.O. Cracker O'hd Condenser 45 65
Gas Oil Reflux Steam Gen. 80 90
Gasoline / Naphtha Charge 60 80
Thermal Tar Cooler (box) 10 20
Thermal Tar Steam Gen. 40 50
Top Reflux / BFW 60 80
Top Reflux / Naphtha 60 80
Top Reflux / Naphtha Charge 50 60
Top Reflux Cooler 55 65