STUDY MATERIAL

TRANSPORT PHENOMENA
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL
JUNE – 2010

R S

Vel Tech
Vel Tech Multi Tech Dr.Rangarajan Dr.Sakunthala Engineering
College
Vel Tech High Tech Dr. Rangarajan Dr.Sakunthala Engineering
College

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 SEM - VII

INDEX

UNITS PAGE NO.

I. Transport by Molecular Motion 06

II. One Dimensional Transport in Laminar Flow (Shell Balance) 39

III. Equations of Change and Their Applications 104

IV. Transport in Turbulent and Boundary Layer Flow 147

V. Analogies between Transport Processes 183

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Preface to the First Edition

This edition is a sincere and co-ordinated effort which we hope has made a

great difference in the quality of the material. “Giving the best to the students,

making optimum use of available technical facilities & intellectual strength” has

always been the motto of our institutions. In this edition the best staff across the

group of colleges has been chosen to develop specific units. Hence the material, as a

whole is the merge of the intellectual capacities of our faculties across the group of

Institutions. 45 to 60, two mark questions and 15 to 20, sixteen mark questions for

each unit are available in this material.

Prepared By : Mr. E . VasanthKumar.

Asst. Professor.

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CH 1403 TRANSPORT PHENOMENA

UNIT I TRANSPORT BY MOLECULAR MOTION 9

Importance of transport phenomena; analogous nature of transfer process; basic concepts, conservation laws;
continuous concept, field, reference frames, substantial derivative and boundary conditions; methods of analysis;
differential, integral and experimental methods.
Phenomenological laws of transport properties Newtonian and non Newtonian fluids; rheological models; theories of
transport properties of gases and liquids; effect of pressure and temperature.

UNIT II ONE DIMENSIONAL TRANSPORT IN LAMINAR FLOW (SHELL BALANCE) 12

General method of shell balance approach to transfer problems; Choosing the shape of the shell; most common
boundary conditions; momentum flux and velocity distribution for flow of Newtonian and non-newtonian fluids in
pipes for flow of Newtonian fluids in planes, slits and annulus heat flux and temperature distribution for heat sources
such as electrical, nuclear viscous and chemical; forced and free convection; mass flux and concentration profile for
diffusion in stagnant gas, systems involving reaction and forced convection.

UNIT III EQUATIONS OF CHANGE AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 14

Conservation laws and equations of change; Development of equations of continuity motion and energy in single
multicomponents systems in rectangular co-ordinates and the forms in curvilinear co-ordinates; simplified forms of
equations for special cases, solutions of momentum mass and heat transfer problems discussed under shell balance by
applications of equation of change, scale factors; applications in scale-up

UNIT IV TRANSPORT IN TURBULENT AND BOUNDARY LAYER FLOW 7

Turbulents phenomena; phenomenological relations for transfer fluxes; time smoothed equations of change and their
applications for turbulent flow in pipes; boundary layer theory; laminar and turbulent hydrodynamics thermal and
concentration boundary layer and their thicknesses; analysis of flow overflat surface.

UNIT V ANALOGIES BETWEEN TRANSPORT PROCESSES 4

Importance of analogy; development and applications of analogies between momentum and mass transfer; Reynolds,
Prandtl, Von Karman and Colbum analogies.

TEXT BOOKS

1. R.B. Bird, W.E. Stewart and E.W. Lighfoot, “Transport Phenomena”, John Wiley, 1978
2. Robert, S Brodkey, Harry C. Hershey, “Transport Phenomena”, McGraw-Hill International Edn. 1988.

REFERENCES

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1. L.S.Sissom, and D.R.Pitts, “Elements of Transport Phenomena”, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1972.
2. R.W.Fahien, “Elementary Transport Phenomena”, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1983.
3. J.R. Welty, R.W. Wilson, and C.W.Wicks, “Fundamentals of Momentum Heat and Mass Transfer”, 2 nd Edn.
John Wiley, New York, 1973.

UNIT – I

PART – A
1. What are the Transport phenomena?

The subject of transport phenomena includes three closely related topics: fluid dynamics,
heat transfer. Fluid dynamics involves the transport of momentum, heat transfer deals with the
transport of energy, and mass transfer is concerned with the transport of energy, and mass
transfer is concerned with the transport of mass of various chemical species.

2. What are levels at which transport phenomena can be studied?

1. Macroscopic level
2. Microscopic level
3. Molecular level

3. Define Macroscopic level?

A set of equations are written over a system are called macroscopic equations which
describes how the mass, momentum and energy in the system changes due to various inputs to
the system from the surrounding.

4. Define Microscopic level?

A set of equations in written over a small region within the system called equations of
change which describes how the mass, momentum and energy changes within the small region.

5. Define Molecular level?

This level helps as to understand the fundamental mechanism of mass, momentum, energy
in terms of molecular structure and intermolecular terms.

6. Low of conservation of mass?

According to law of conservation of mass, the

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 Rate of mass
� �� Rate to mass �
� �� �
entering into
� leaving out �
�- � at steady state
�
the system
� �
�� �
the system � �
Rate of mass
� �� Rate of mass � �
Rate of mass �
� �� � � �
entering into
� leaving out �= �
�- � accumulate �
�
the system
� �
�� the system �
� � �
in the system �
� �
At unsteady state.
7. Law of conservation of momentum?

According to law of conservation of momentum, the

Rate of momentum � �
� sum of forces acting �
Rate of momentum � �
� �-� �+� �= 0 at steady state
� in �� out ��on the system �

8. Law of conservation of Energy?

According to law of conservation of energy, the

Rate
� of energy � �
Rate of energy �
� in �-�
out �= 0 at steady state
� �� �
Rate
� of energy � �Rate of energy � �Rate of accumulation �
� -
�� +
�� = 0 at unsteady state.
� in �� out �� in system ��

9. Equation of continuity?

Equation of continuity describe the time rate of change of density as observed by an

observer who is flouting along the fluid.

Vectorial representation is given as

DP
-�( P.V ) =
Dt
10. Driving force for momentum, mass of energy transfer?

Driving force for

(a) Momentum Transfer – velocity gradient
(b) Heat transfer – Temperature gradient
(c) Mass transfer – Concentration gradient

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11. Equation of continuity for incompressible fluid?

The equation of continuity for an incompressible fluid of can be given as

( D.V ) = 0
\ p in constant
�x �y �z
( or ) + + =0
�x y
� z
�

12. Explain partial Derivative?

The partial time derivation /t

Suppose we stand on a bridge and observer the concentration of fish just below us as a
function of time. We can then record the time of change of the fish concentration at a fixed
location. The result is ( � t ) x,y,z the partial derivative of c with respect to t, at constant x,y, and
c/�
z.

13. Total Time Derivative?

Now suppose that we jump into a motor boat and speed around on the river, sometimes
going upstream, sometimes downstream, and sometimes across the current. All the time we are
observing fish concentration. At any instant, the time rate of change of the observed fish
concentration is
dc �� c dx ��c dy ��c� dz ��c
=� � � + =� � � + =� � + =� � �
dtt �� �x,y ,z dt ��
x� y,z ,t dt ��y�z ,x ,t
dt �� �x,y ,t

In which dx / dt, dy / dt, and dz / dt are the components of the velocity of the boat.

14. Substantial Time Derivative?

Next we climb into a canoe, and not feeling energetic, we just float along with the current,
observing the fish concentration. In this situation the velocity of the observer is the same as the
velocity v of the stream, which has components v x, vy and vz. If at any instant we report the time
rate of change of fish concentration, we are then giving

Dc � c c
� �c c
� Dc � c
= + vx + vy + vz or = + ( v + �c )
Dtt � x
� y
� z
� Dtt �

The special operator D / Dt = /t + v. is called the substantial derivative (meaning that the time
rate of change is reported as one moves with the “substance”), The terms material derivative,

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hydrodynamic derivative, and derivative following the motion are also used.

15. State Newton’s law of viscosity?

The law which describes the momentum transport is called as Newton’s law of viscosity
and in the force per unit area across section in directly proportional to the velocity gradient.

Momentum flux  velocity gradient

(or)
Shear stress  velocity gradient

dv x
F/A �
dy
dv
F/A = m x
dy
dv
t = -m x
dy

16. Newtonian fluids

Fluids which obey Newton’s law of viscosity were called as Newtonian fluid.

e.g. liquids whose Molecular weight less than 5000.

17. Non Newtonian fluids

Fluids which does not obey Newton’s low of viscosity were called as Non Newtonian fluid.

e.g. Polymeric liquids, suspensions, pastes, slurries etc.

18. Define Shear stress

F
t=
A
t = Shear stress, F is shearing force, A – Area.

19. Unit of Viscosity

kg
m=
m.s
20. Unit of Kinematic viscosity

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 M m2
g= =
e s

21. What are the two factors which affects the viscosity of any liquid?

 Inter molecular cohesive forces

 Transfer of molecular momentum.

22. Classification of fluids based on pressure.

 Compressible
 Incompressible

23. Visco elastic fluid:

When we remove shear stress, the fluid comes back to original fluid.

e.g., egg white

rubber latex.

24. Convert the unit of viscosity from C.G.S system to SI unit.

Unit of viscosity in C.G.S is

gm 10 -3 kg
1 poise = =
cm.sec 10 -2 m.s
kg
1 poise = 10 -1
m.sec

25. Convert the unit of Kinematic viscosity from C.G.S. system to SI unit.

Unit of Kinematic viscosity in C.G.S. is stkes

cm 2 (10 -2 )2 m 2
1 stokes = =
sec sec
m2
1 stokes = 10 -4
sec

26. Compute the steady state momentum flux in N/m 2 where the lower plate viscosity is 0.3 m/s

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in +ve x direction and the plate separation is 0.0003 and the fluid viscosity is 0.7 C.P.

dVx
t = -m
dy
(0.3 - 0)
= -(0.7 �10 -3 �
(0 - 0.0003)
= 0.7 N/m 2

27. Write the Ellis model equation for three phase models for Non-Newtonian fluid.

dVx � �-1
- f0 + f1 Z yx �
=� �
dy Z yx

Where, Po. f1,  are three adjustable positive parameter.

28. Write the Reiner-phillipp off model equation for three phase models for Non-Newtonian
fluid.
� �
� �
� �
-dVx � 1 � x
dy
=�
m - m �Zy
�mo + o �
2 �
� 1 + �Z yx ��
� �Zs ��
� � ��

Where mo, m, Zs are three adjustable parameters.

29. What are the assumptions implied in the derivation of Hagen poisuille equation.

1. The flow is laminar

2. Density of fluid is constant
3. The flow is independent of time
4. The fluid is Newtonian
5. End effects are neglected
6. The fluid behaves as a continuous
7. There is no slip at the wall.

PART – B

1. Explain the detail about Transport phenomena?

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 The subject of transport phenomena includes three closely related topics: fluid dynamics,
heat transfer. Fluid dynamics involves the transport of momentum, heat transfer deals with the
transport of energy, and mass transfer is concerned with the transport of energy, and mass
transfer is concerned with the transport of mass of various chemical species. These there transport
phenomena should, at the introductory level, be studied together for the following reasons.

 They frequently occur simultaneously in industrial, biological, agricultural, and

meteorological problems; in fact, the occurrence of any one transport process by it self is the
exception rather than the rule.
 The basic equations that describe the three transport phenomena are closely related. The
similarity of the equations under conditions is the basis for solving problems “by analogy”.
 The mathematic tools needed for describing these phenomena are very similar. Although it is
not the aim of this book to teach mathematics, the student will be required to review various
mathematical topics as the development unfolds. Learning how to use mathematics may be a
very valuable by – product of studying transport phenomena.
 The molecular mechanisms underlying the various transport phenomena are very closely
related. All materials are made up of molecules, and the same molecular motion and
interactions are responsible for viscosity, thermal conductivity, and diffusion.

The main aim of the book is to give a balanced overview of the field of transport phenomena,
present the fundamental equations of the subject, and illustrate how to use them to solve
problems.

There are many excellent treatises on fluid dynamics, heat transfer, and mass transfer. In
addition, there are many research and review journals devoted to these individual subjects and
even to specialized subfields. The reader who has mastered the contents of this book should find
it possible to consult the treatises and journals and go more deeply into other aspects of the
theory, experimental techniques, empirical correlations, design methods, and applications. That
is, this book should not be regarded as the complete presentation of the subject, but rather as a
stepping stone to a wealth of knowledge that lies beyond.

2. Fundamentals of Transport Phenomena?

It is a major transport operation and this subject of transport phenomenon includes three
closely related topics fluid dynamics, heat transfer and mass transfer. The unified study of these
three transfer operations finds more importance as in almost all of the engineering process. These
transfer operation frequently occur simultaneously.
The generalized equation which describes these transfer operations is given by flux 
driving force.

Fundamental Transport Processes:

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Momentum Transport of fluid dynamics:

It deals with the transfer of momentum which occurs, in moving mead such as in the
separation process of fluid flow, sedimentation, filtration, mixing, etc.

The law which describes the momentum transport is called as Newton’s law of viscosity
and in given as follows

Momentum flux  velocity gradient

(or)
Shear stress  velocity gradient

dv
t
dx
dv
t=m
dx
Where,
t = momentum flux (or) shear stress kg/ms2 bnlk
m = Visconsity in kg/ms

kg kg m
2
= m
m.s m.s s
kg kg
2
=
ms ms 2

momentum Mass �velocity

= V = Velocity m/s
Area �Time Area �time
kg.m
= x = space co – ordinate
s.s.m 2
kg
=
ms 2
Heat Transfer:

It is concerned with transfer of heat from one phase to another. It occurs in the separation
processes such as drying, evaporation, crystallization etc.

The law which describes the heat transfer is called as Fourier law of heat conduction, and is
given as follows.
Heat flux  Temp gradient

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 Q dT
q or �
A dx
dT
q=k
dx

Where,

J w
q = heat flux 2
or 2
ms m
Q = rate of heat flow J/s or w
A = unit area m2
k = thermal conductivity of the material
w J
or
m.k sm.k
T = Temperature in k.
x = space co – ordinate in m
w w k
2
= �
m m.k m
w w
2
= 2
m m

Mass transfer:

In this fundamental process, we are concern with transfer of mass from one phase to
another distinct phase.

The basic mechanism in the same whether the phases are gas, liquid or solids. This input
distillation, absorption, adsorption, extraction, leaching, crystallization etc.

The law which describes the mass transfer is called as tick’s law of diffusion and in given
by,
Molar flux  concentration gradient
dc A
NA 
dx
dc A
N A = D AB
dx

Where

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 moles
NA = molar flux
m 2 sec
DAB = Diffusivity of component A into B m2/s
moles
CA = Concentration of component A per unit volume
m3
x = space – co – ordinate m

moles m 2 moles
=
m 2 sec s m 3 .m

moles moles
=
m 2 .s m 2 .s

These three transport process at the introductory level should be studied together for the
following reasons.

1. The Basic equations that describes these three processes are closely relate
2. They frequently occur simultaneous in industrial, biological, agricultural problems.
3. The molecular mechanism interline the various transport phenomenon are very closely
related.

All materials are made up of molecules and the some molecular motion and the interaction
between them are responsible for viscosity, thermal conductivity and diffusivity.

3. Explain the three levels at which Transport Phenomena can be studied?

Three levels at which transport phenomena can be study:

Macro scope level:

A set of equation are written over a system are called macroscopic equations which
describes how the mass, momentum and energy in the system changes because of the introduction
and removal of the entitle by entering and leaving stream, and pecan of the various other inputs to
the system from the surrounding. No attempt is made to understand all the details of the system
and this macroscopic description is desirable only in some instances where overall view is needed

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Microscopic level:

A set of equation is written over a small region within the system called equation of change
which describes how the mass, momentum and energy changes within the small region. The aim
here in to get information about velocity, temperature, pressure, concentration profile within the
system. This microscopic level of study will gives the more detailed information that are required
for the understanding the process.

Molecular level:

This level helps us to understand the fundamental mechanism of mass, momentum, energy
in terms of molecular structure and intermolecular forces

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4. Law of conservation of mass?

Law of conservation of mass:

According to law of conservation of mass the rate of mass entering into the system = the
rate of mass leaving out the system at steady state.

Rate of mass entering into the system – the rate of mass leaving out the system = rate of
mass accumulated in the system at unsteady state.

Where,
1 – Density of fluid entering the system at section 1 – 1
A1 – Across sectional area of the system at section 1 – 1
V1 – Velocity of the system at section 1 – 1

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 2, A2, V2 are irrespective to the system at section 2 – 2

mass
Rate of mass=
time
density �volume
=
time
density �( Area �length )
=
time
= density  Area  Velocity

Therefore the rate of mass in section

1 – 1 = 1 A1 V1
Therefore the rate of mass out section
2 – 2 = 2A2V2

Therefore at steady state 1 A1 V1 = 2A2V2

Incompressibility state A1V1 = A2V2

d ( mass )
At unsteady state the rate of mass accumulated inside the system =
dt
d ( density �volume )
=
dt
Law of conservation of mass at unsteady state

d
1A1V1 - 2 A 2 V2 = ( V )
dt

5. Explain law of conservation of momentum?

Law of conservation of momentum:

Rate of momentum in – Rate of momentum out + sum of forces acting on the system = 0. At
steady state.

The possible forces that may act on any system are

1. Pressure force  force execrate on the system by pressure

2. Shear force
3. Gravitational force

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 momentum
Rate of momentum =
time
mass �velocity
=
time
density �volume �velocity
=
time
density �( Area �length ) �velocity
=
time
= density �Area �velocity

Expression for force:

1. Pressure force
Froce
pressure =
Area
F
P= P
A
FP = force due to pressure

FP = PA C.S = r2
S.A = 2rl
2. Shear force:
Force
Shear =
Area
Fs
t=
A
FS = tA

3. Gravitational force:
Gravitational force = m g
Fg = m g
Fg = p �vol �g

Rate of momentum accumulation inside the system:

d ( momentum )
dt
d ( madd �velocity )
dt
d ( �( vol ) �v )
dt

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\ Steady state momentum balance

( PAV ) in Vin - ( PAV ) out Vout + ( PA + tA + P ( vol ) g ) in - ( PA + tA + P ( vol ) g ) out = 0

The unsteady state momentum balance can be written as

d
( PAV ) in Vin - ( PAV ) out Vout + ( PA + tA + P ( vol ) g ) in - ( PA + tA + P ( vol ) g ) out = (  ( vol ) v )
dt

Energy balance:

Rate of heat in – Rate of heat out = 0 (steady state) Qin – Qout = 0

Rate of heat in – Rate of heat out = Rate of accumulation (unsteady state)

d
Qin - Qout = ( heat )
dt

6. Explain law of conservation of energy?

According to the law of conservation of energy, the energy of the colliding pair – of
molecules must be the same before and after the collision. The energy of an isolated molecule is
the sum of the kinetic energies of the two atoms and the interatomic potential molecule is the sum
of the kinetic energies of the two atoms and the interatomic potential energy, fA, which describes
the force of the chemical bond joining the two atoms 1 and 2 of molecule A, and is a function of
the interatomic distance rA2 - rA1 . Therefore, energy conservation leads to
�1 .2 1 .2 � �1 .2 1 .2 �
�2 m A1 r A1 + m A2 r A2 + f A �+ � m B1 r B1 + m B2 r B2 + f B �=
� 2 � �2 2 �
�1 ' . '2 1 ' . '2 ' �� 1 ' . '2 1 ' . '2 �
m
�2 A 1 r A1 + m r A2 + f +
A � �
m B1 r B1 + m B 2 r B2 + f'B �
� 2 A2
� �2 2 �
.2

( . .
Note that we use the standard abbreviated notation that r A1 = r A1 .r A1 . We now write the )
velocity of atom 1 of molecule A as the sum of the velocity of the center of mass of A and the
. . .
velocity of 1 with respect to the center of mass; that is r A1 = r A + R A1 . Then equation becomes.
�1 .2 � �1 .2 � �1 ' . '2 ' �� 1 ' . '2 �
m
�2 A r A + u +
A�� m B r B + u =
B� � m r A + u +
A � �
m B r B + u'B �
� �2 � �2 � �2
A
� �
1 . 2 1 . 2
In which uA = m A1 R A1 + m A2 R A 2 + fA is the sum of the kinetic energies of the atoms
2 2
referred to the center of mass of molecule A, and the interatomic potential of molecule A. That is,
we split up the energy of each molecule into its kinetic energy with respect to fixed coordinates,

20
and the internal energy of the molecule (which includes its vibrational, rotational, and potential
energies). Equation makes it clear that the kinetic energies of the colliding molecules can be
converted into internal energy or vice versa. This idea of an interchange between kinetic and
internal energy will arise again when we discuss the energy relations at the microscopic and
macroscopic levels.

7. Explain law of conservation of Angular Momentum?

Finally, the law of conservation of angular momentum can be applied to a collision to give
. . . .
�� rA1 �m A1 r A1 �+ � rA 2 �m A 2 r A 2 � �+ �� rB1 �m B1 r B1 �+ � rB2 �m B2 r B2 ��
�� � � � �=
�� �� � �
��� �
� �
�� � �
��
��' .' � � .' � �� �' .' � � .' � �
�� rA 1 �m 'A 1 r A 1 �+ �
rA' 2 �m 'A 2 r A 2 ��+ � r
�B1 � m '
B1
r B1 + r '
� �B 2 � m '
B2
r B2 ��
�� �� �� � � �� ��
In which X is used to indicate the cross product of two vectors. Next we introduce the center – of
– mass and relative position vectors and velocity vectors as before and obtain
. . ��' .' � � ��' .' � �
�� rA �m A r A �+ IA � +� rB �m B r B �+ I B �
� = �� rA �m A r A �+ I'A �+ �� rB �m B r B �+ I 'B �
�� � � �� � �
� �� � �� � � �� � �
. .
� �� �
In which 1A = R A1 �m A1 R A1 + R A2 �m A2 R A2 is the sum of the angular moment of the atoms
� �� �
referred to an origin of coordinates at the center of mass of the molecule – that is, the “internal
angular momentum”. The important point is that there is the possibility for interchange between
the angular momentum of the molecules (with respect to the origin of coordinates) and their
internal angular momentum (with respect to the center of mass of the molecule). This will be
referred to later in connection with the equation of change for angular momentum.

The conservation laws as applied to collisions of monatomic molecules can be obtained

from the results above as follows. Equation directly applicable; equation is applicable if the
internal energy contributions are omitted; and equation may be used if the internal angular
momentum terms are discarded.

Much of this book will be concerned with setting up the conservation laws at the
microscopic and macroscopic levels and applying them to problems of interest in engineering and
science. The above discussion should provide a good background for this adventure. For a
glimpse of the conservation laws for species mass, momentum, and energy at the microscopic and
macroscopic levels, see table.

8. Explain the equation of change in terms of the substantial derivative?

The Equations of Change in terms of this substantial Derivative:

Before proceeding we point out that several different time derivatives may be encountered

21
in transport phenomena. We illustrate these by a homely example – namely, the observation of
the concentration of fish in the Mississippi River. Because fish swim around, the fish
concentration will in general be a function of position (x,y,z) and time (t).

The partial time derivation /t

Suppose we stand on a bridge and observer the concentration of fish just below us as a
function of time. We can then record the time of change of the fish concentration at a fixed
location. The result is ( � t ) x ,y ,z the partial derivative of c with respect to t, at constant x,y, and z.
c/�

The Total Time Derivative d/dt

Now suppose that we jump into a motor boat and speed around on the river, sometimes
going upstream, sometimes downstream, and sometimes across the current. All the time we are
observing fish concentration. At any instant, the time rate of change of the observed fish
concentration is
dc �� c dx ��c dy ��c� dz ��c
=� � � + =� � � + =� � + =� � �
dtt �� �x,y ,z dt ��
x� y,z ,t dt ��y�z ,x ,t
dt �� �x,y ,t

In which dx / dt, dy / dt, and dz / dt are the components of the velocity of the boat.

The Substantial Time Derivative D / Dt

Next we climb into a canoe, and not feeling energetic, we just float along with the current,
observing the fish concentration. In this situation the velocity of the observer is the same as the
velocity v of the stream, which has components v x, vy and vz. If at any instant we report the time
rate of change of fish concentration, we are then giving
Dc � c �c �c c
� Dc � c
= + vx + vy + vz or = + ( v + �c )
Dtt � �x y
� z
� Dtt �
The special operator D / Dt = /t + v. is called the substantial derivative (meaning that the
time rate of change is reported as one moves with the “substance”), The terms material derivative,
hydrodynamic derivative, and derivative following the motion are also used.

Now we need to know how to convert equations expressed in terms of /t into equation
written with D / Dt. For any scalar function f(x,y,z,t) we can do the following manipulations:

22
 � � � �� � ��
( f ) + � �
� v x f �+ � v y f �+ � v z f �
t
� ��x � ��y � ��z �
ff
�� � �ff � � ��  � � � �
=  � + vx + vy + v z �+ f � + v x + v y + v z �
��t �x y
� �z � ��t �x �y � z �
Df
=
Dt
The equations of change for Isothermal Systems in the D / Dt – form equation (A) through (C) are
obtained form equation with no assumptions. Equation (D) is written for symmetrical t only.

D
= - ( �.v ) (A)
Dt
Dv
 = -�p - [ �.t] + g (B)
Dt
D �1 2 �
 � v �= - ( v.�p ) - ( v. [ �.t] )  ( v.g ) (C)
Dt �2 �
D
.{ r p } � � � [r g]
+
�=- [ rѴd-
v ] Ѵt+�
� � � .{ r } �
+
(D)
Dt

The quantity in the second parentheses in the second line is zero according to the equation of
continuity. Consequently equation can be written in vector form as

� Df
( f ) + ( �.vf ) = 
�t Dt
Similarly, for any vector function f(x,y,z,t),

� Df
( f ) + [ �.vf ] = 
t
� Dt

These equations can be used to rewrite the equations of change given in terms of the
substantial derivative as shown in table.

Equation A in table tells how the density is decreasing or increasing as one moves along
with the fluid, because of the compression [ ( �.v ) < 0 ] or expansion of the fluid [ ( �.v ) > 0 ] .
Equation B can be interpreted as (mass)  (acceleration) = the sum of the pressure forces, viscous
forces, and the external force. In other words, equation is equivalent of Newton’s second law of
motion applied to a small blob of fluid whose envelope moves locally with the fluid velocity v.

We now discuss briefly the three most common simplifications of the equation of motion.
(i) For constant  and m insertion of the Newtonian expression for t from equation into the
equation of motion leads to the very famous Navier – Stokes equation, first developed from

23
 molecular arguments by Navier and from continuum arguments by Stokes.

D D
 v = -�p + m�2 v + g or  v = -��+ m�2 v
Dt Dt

In the second from we have used the “modified pressure � = p +  gh introduced in chapter
where h is the elevation in the gravitational field and gh is the gravitational potential energy per
unit mass. Equation is a standard starting point for describing isothermal flows of gases and
liquids.

Figure: The equation of state for slightly compressible fluid and an incompressible fluid when
T is constant.

It must be kept in mind that when constant  is assumed, the equation of state (at constant
T) is a vertical line on a plot of p vs.  thus the absolute pressure is no longer determinable from 
and T, although pressure gradients and instantaneous differences remain determinate by equation
or equation absolute pressure are also obtainable if p is known at some point in the system

(ii) When the acceleration terms in the Navier – Stokes equation are neglected – that is, when 
(Dv / Dt) = 0 – we get
0 = - p + m2 v + g

Which is called the Stokes flow equation. It is sometimes called the creeping flow equation,
because the term  [v. v], which is quadratic in the velocity, can be discarded when the flow is
extremely slow. For some flows, such as the Hagen – Poiseuille tube flow, the term  [v. v]
drops out, and a restriction to slow flow is not implied. The stokes flow equation is important in
lubrication theory, the study of particle motions in suspension, flow through porous media, and
swimming of microbes. There is a vast literature on this subject.
(iii) When viscous forces are neglected – that is, [ . t] = 0 – the equation of motion becomes.

Dv
 = -�p + g
Dt

24
Which is known as the Euler equation for “inviscid” fluids Of course, there are no truly “inviscid”
fluids, but there are many flows in which the viscous forces are relatively unimportant. Examples
are the flow around airplane wings (except near the solid boundary), flow of rivers around the
upstream surfaces of bridge abutments, some problems in compressible gas dynamics, and flow of
ocean currents.

9. Explain about Mechanism of Momentum Transport.

NEWTON’S LAW OF VISCOSITY

VISCOSITY AND MECHANISM OF MOMENTUM TRANSPORT

This chapter deals with flow of viscous fluid and the basic physical property that
characterizes and fluid flow is viscosity.

Newton’s Law of Viscosity:

Figure:

25
 Figure:

Consider a fluid either gas o liquid place between two large parallel plates which are
everywhere separated by a uniform distance Y, of cross-sectional area A of plate. At time t = 0 the
lower plate alone is set in motion with constant velocity ‘v’. When the lower plate set in motion,
the transfer of momentum occurs from the lower plate to the very first adjacent layer of fluid near
the plate, then throw the next adjacent layers of fluid. Thus a velocity profile is established
between the plates. The unsteady and steady state velocity profile are shown in figure.

During unsteady state the velocity in ‘x’ direction is a function of both position ‘y’ and at
time ‘t’, and during steady state the velocity is the function of the position or distance ‘y’ alone.

To maintain the steady state velocity profile between the plates a constant force ‘F’ is
required to keep the lower plate will the given constant velocity ‘v’. Thus the force per unit cross
sectional area is directly proportional to the velocity gradient.

dv x
F/A �
dy
dv
F/A = m x
dy
dv
t = -m x
dy

Equation Newtons law of viscosity, where

t = Shear stress or momentum flux kg/ms2
m = bulk viscosity of fluid which is placed between fluids kg/ms
vx = velocity of fluid in ‘x’ direction
dVx = change in velocity
g = direction
dVx
for this particular case equation can be written as tyx = -m
dy
Where tyx = the momentum flux in the given position ‘y’ in a given direction

-ve sign in equation represents decrease (density when distance ‘y’  increases)

10. Effect of Temperature and Pressure on viscosity?

Effect of temperature and pressure on viscosity:

Effect of temperature

26
 Viscosity of any fluid depend upon two

 Inter molecular cohesive forces

 Transfer of molecular momentum
For Liquids:

In liquids the intermolecular cohesive forces predominates molecular momentum transfer

and hence viscosity of liquids primarily depends upon the magnitude of intermolecular cohesive
forces with increase of temperature the cohesive forces decrease rapidly resulting in decrease of
viscosity of liquid.

For Gases:

In gases the molecular momentum transfer predominates the intermolecular cohesive

forces, (because in gases the molecules are widely spaced resulting in negligible intermolecular
action). With increase of temperature the exchange of momentum of molecules increases
vigorously and resulting in increase of viscosity of gases.

Effect of Pressure

The viscosity under ordinary condition is not appreciably affected by change in pressure.
However viscosity of oil has be found to increase with  in pressure.

11. Describe briefly about the classification of fluids?

CLASSIFICATION OF FLUIDS:

1. Based on viscosity

 Ideal fluid  imaginary

 Deal fluid  naturally occurring fluid.

2. Based on pressure and temperature:

 Compressible  density changes with P  TP; T, P e.g: All gases

 Incompressible  P  TP; e.g: All liquids.

3. Based externally applied shear stress (or)

Based on Newton’s law of viscosity:

27
 n
dV
t=m
dx
 Newtonian  which obeys Newton’s law of viscosity

 Non-Newtonian Time dependent

Time independent

Bingham pseudoplastic pilaent

Figure:
n=1
dV
t= m Newtonian
dx

e.g., All fluids for which we can write chemical formula.

28
 Figure:
Pseudoplastic: n < 1 or shear thinning fluid.
n <1
dV
t=m e.g: Blood, more slurries, most non-Newtonian flux most of polymer
dx
Solution.

Dilaent : n > 1 or shear thickening fluid

n >1
dV
t=m e.g.: starch suspension sand emulsion
dx

Time dependent:

 Thixotropic  time  m of non-new fluid 

 Rheopectic
Paints, some polymer solution
T  m eg.: gypsum suspension

Figure:
Visco elastic fluid:

When we remove shear stress, the fluid come backs to original fluid.

e.g., egg white, rubber latex.

12. Explain in detail the Rheological models?

RHEOLOGICAL MODELS:

Science of Rheology:

29
 This is the science of “deformation and flow”, and it include the study of the
mechanical properties of gases, liquids, plastics, asphalets, and crystalline materials, fornon-
newtonian fluids.

According to Newton’s law of viscosity a plot of momentum flux or shear stress (t) vs
�dV �
velocity gradient rate of gradient � �will give a straight line to the origin and slope of this line
�dx �
in the viscosity of that particular fluid at a given temperature and pressure.

The steady state behaviour of most fluid can be expressed by a generalized form as given in
the following equation.

dVx
tyx = -h
dy
dVx
Where, h can be expressed as a function of either or ty x . In regions, in which h decreases
dy
with increase in rate of shear the behaviour is termed in rate of shear the behaviour is termed as
pseudoplastic, in which h increases with increases in rate of shear the behaviour is termed as
dilaent.
It h is independent of shear rate then the behaviour in Newtonian fluid if h = m.

dVx
ty x = -m
dy

Numerous empirical equations or models have been proposed to express the steady state
dVx
relationship between ty x and . Few of them are,
dy
1) The Bingham model:

This two parameter mode is proposed to describe the deformation and flowing nature of
Bingham fluid.

The substances that follow this model is called Bingham plastics or Bingham fluids, and
these types of fluids can resist a small shear stress but flows easily somewhat like a Newtonian
fluid under larger shear stress.

At low shear the viscosity is infinite (No movement of Bingham fluid) and at higher shear
stress the m is decreases. E.g: toothpaste, jellies, sewage sludge etc.

30
 dVx
ty x = -mo + to if tyx > to
dy
dVx
=0 if tyx < to
dy
to = thershold stress
mo = Bluck viscosity
2) Ostwald de-Waele Model:

This two parameter model describes the behavior of pseudo-plastic and dilatent fluid and
this model is also known as power law model.

n -1
dVx dVx
tyx = - m
dy dy
Where,

M = flow consistency inlets.

n = flow behaviour inlets.
If n = 1, then the equations reduces to newton’s law of viscosity with m = m.

If n < 1, the equation represents the behaviour of pseudoplastic fluid (or) shear thinning
fluid.

If n > 1, the equation represents the behaviour of Dilatent fluid (or) shear thickening flud.

Example for Pseudoplastic fluid:

Blood, mud and most of the polymer solution.

Example for Dilatent fluids:

Starch suspension and sand emulsion.

3) Prandti-Eyring Model:

� 1 dVx �
tyx = A arc sin H �
- �
� B dy �

This two parameter model predicts the behaviour of pseudoplastic fluids at finite values of
tyx. This law reduces to Newton’s law of viscosity when m = A / B.

4) Elli’s Model:

31
 dVx � �-1
- fo + f1 t yx �t yx
=�
dy �

This three parameter model contain three adjustable positive parameter fo, f1, if  < 1,
newton’s law in approach for larger momentum flux.

5) Reiner-Phillippott Model

� �
� �
� �
dVx � 1 �
- =� t
dy � m o - m � �yx
mo + 2 �
� �tyx ��
� 1 + �t ��
� � s ��

This three parameter model contains three adjustable parameter mo, m, ts. This model
reduces to newton’s law of viscosity m = mo & m = m.

TWO PARAMETER MODELS

Figure

THREE PARAMETER MODELS

32
 Figure:
13. Explain the theory of viscosity of gases at low density?

Consider a pure gas composed of rigid non-attracting spherical molecules of diameter ‘d’,
mass ‘m’, present in a concentration of ‘n’ number of molecules per unit volume. Assume that ‘n’
to be very small enough so that the distance between molecules is many times their diameter ‘d’.

In such a gas mixture the average molecular speed U in m/s according to kinetic theory of
SKT
gases given by U = � (1)
m

Where U = avg molecular speed in m/s.

kgm 2
K = Bolt’s mann constant in 2
sk
T = absolute temperature in K.
m = mass of the gas molecule in kg.

The average molecular collision on one side of any stationary surface per unit area in given
1
by Z = nU  (2).
4

Where Z = wall collision frequency. 1 m 2 sec

1
n = number of molecules per unit volume m3

U = average mole. Speed m/s

The average distance traveled by a gas molecule between successive collision is given by
1 1
l= � (3) is also called mean free path.
2 d 2 n

Where,
l = mean free path ‘m’

33
 d = diameter of gas molecule ‘m’
n = number of molecular per unit volume 1/m

Figure:
Distance between the planes assumed here is given as a, given by

2
a= l � (4)
3
Where

a  distance between planes in m

l  mean free path in m.

To determine the viscosity of such gases in term of molecular property, consider the
dVx
behaviour of gas when it flows in the direction parallel to x axis with a velocity gradient . The
dy
‘x’ component momentum flux at any given constant ‘y’ can be written as

tyx = Rate of momentum in – Rate of momentum out from plane y.

-Z m Vx|y+a � (5)
= Z m Vx|y-a

kg kg
2
= 2 .m / s
ms m sec

The expressions for v x / y -a and v x/y+a by various other assumptions can be written as follows

dVx �
Vx / y -a = v x / y - 23 l
dy ��
� (6)
dV
Vx / y +a = v x / y + 23 l x �
dy ��

34
Substitute equation (6) & equation (2) in equation (5)

tyx = z m v x / y -a - Z m Vx / y +a
= 1
4nUm U x/y - 23 l dV
dy - �
x
�1 2 dVx
4 nUm Vx/y + 3 l dy �
�

� 2 dV 2 dV �
= 41 nUm �Vx / y - l x - Vx / y - l x �
� 3 dy 3 dy �
� � 2 dV ��
= nUm �
1
4 -2 � l x ��
� � 3 dy ��
1 dV
tyx = - nUml x � (7)
3 dy

We know that by Newton’s law of viscosity

dVx
tyx = -m � (8)
dy

Compare equation (7) and (8)

dVx 1 dVx
-m = - nUml
dy 3 dy
1
m= nUml � (9)
3
1
m = nUl � (10) n= 1
m3
m = kg.
3

The expression for viscosity in some other form can be obtained by substituting equation
(1) and equation (3) in equation (9).

1 8KT 1 1
m= n m
3 m 2 d 2 n
1 KTm 2 1
= 2 2
3 m2 2 d2

2 KTm
m=
3d 2 3

Equation represents viscosity of gas composed hard spheres at low density.

35
 The prediction of viscosity in independent of pressure agrees well with experimental data
upto 10 atm pressure and predicted temperature depends in less satisfactory. Therefore the co-
efficient of viscosity at absolute temperature to of a pure t of a pure mono atomic gas of molecular
weight M may be written in terms of parameters  (Characteristic diameter or collision diameter)
 (characteristic energy of interaction between the molecules is

MT
m = 2.669 �10 -5 � (12)
2 Wm

Where, Wm = collision integral (dimensionless)

Although this formula was derived for monoatomic gases it has been found to be the
seasonably good for polyatomic gases. It should be noted that viscosity of gases at low density
increases with temperature roughly as the 0.6 – 1.0 power of the temperature and this also noted
that there is no dependence on pressure in the low density rate.

14. Explain the Molecular theory of viscosity of liquids.

A rigorous kinetic theory of transport properties of monatomic liquids was developed by

Kirkwood and coworkers. However this theory does not lead to easy to use results. An older
theory, developed by Erying and coworkers, although less well grounded theoretically, does give
a qualitative picture of the mechanism of momentum transport in liquids and permits rough
estimation of the viscosity from other physics properties. We discuss this theory briefly.

In a pure liquid at rest the individual molecules are constantly in motion. However,
because of the close packing, the motion in largely confined to a vibration of each molecule within
a “cage” formed by its nearest neighbours. This cage is represented by an energy barrier of height
DG 0+ / N, in which DG 0+ is the molar free energy of activatic for escape from the “cage” into an
adjoin “hole”, and that the molecules thus more in each of the coordinate directions in jumps of
length a at a frequency v per molecule. The frequency is given by the rate equation,

KT +
v= exp( -D : Go / RT) � (1)
h

%is the Avogadro number and

In which k and h are the Boltmann and Planck constants, N
%k in the gas constant.
R= N

36
 dVx
In a fluid that is flowing in the x direction with a velocity gradient , the frequency of
dy
molecular rearrangements is increased. The effect can be explained by considering the potential
energy barrier as distorted under the applied stress tyx, so that

a��t yx V �
-D%G + = -D%G o+ �� � � (2)
�� �2 �
�s � �
� �

Where V is the volume of a mole of liquid and �(a / s)( tyx V / 2) in an approximation to the
work done on the molecules as they more at the top of the energy barrier, moving with the
applied shear stress (plus sign) or a against the applied shear stress (minus sign). We now define
V+ as the frequency of forward jumps and v- as the frequency of backward jumps. Then from
equations we find that
kT
v� = exp( -D%Go+ / RT) exp( �at yx V / 2dRT)  (3)
h

The net velocity with which molecules in layer A slip ahead of those in layer B in just
distance traveled per jump (a) times the net frequency of forward jumps (v+ - v-); this gives

v xA - v xB = a(v + - v - ) � (4)

The velocity profile can be considered to be linear over the very small distance d between
the layers A and B, so that

dVx �a �
=�� (v + - v1 ) � (5)
dy �d �
By combining equation, we obtain finally

dVx �a �
�KT exp -D%G + / RT � � +at yx v �
�
=��
dy �d �
�
�h
o ( )�
�
�
�
exp �
2dRT
�- exp( -at
� yx v / 2dR)
� � ��
a��KT exp -D%G + / RT �
� atyx v �
=�
�� �
�h
�d �
o ( �
�
�
)
2 sin h
2dRT �
�� (6)
�

This predicts a nonlinear relation between the shear stress (momentum flux) and the
velocity gradient – that in, non-Newtonian flow such nonlinear behaviour is discussed further in.

The usual situation, however, is that at yx v / 2dRT << 1 . Then we can use the Tayler series sin
3 5
hx = x + (1/ 30 x + ( 1 50 x + .........) and retain only one term. Equation 6 is then of the form of which

37
the viscosity beings given by

a
d �Nh
m=�
�� exp( D%Go+ / RT) � (7)
�a � v

The factor d a can be taken to be unity, this simplification involves no loss of accuracy.
Since D%G o is usually determined empirically to make the equation agree with explanation
+

viscosity data.

It has been found that free energies of activation, D%G o determined by fitting equation 7 to
+

experimental data on viscosity for a given fluid and are simply related to the internal energy of
vaporization at the normal boiling point, as follows

D%G o+ = 0.408 DU vap  (8)

d
By using this empiricism and setting = 1 equation 7 becomes
a

Nh
m= exp 0.408 DU vap / RT � (9)
v%

The energy of vaporization at the normal boiling point can be estimated roughly from
Trouton’s rule

% - RT @ 9.4RT � (10)
DU vap = DH vap b b

With this further approximation equation (9) becomes

Nh
m= exp(3.8 Tb / T) � (11)
v%

Equation (9) and (11) are in agreement with the long-used and apparently successful
empiricism m = D exp(B / T) . The theory, although only approximation in nature, does give the
observed decrease of viscosity with temperature, but errors of as much as 30% are common when
equation (9) and (11) are used. They should not be used for very long slender molecules, such as
n - C 20 H 42 .

38
 Figure:

Escape process in the flow of a liquid (Molecule 1 must pass through a “bottleneck” to reach the
vacant site).

UNIT – II

PART – A

1. What are the possible forces that may act on any system?

 Pressure force
 Viscous force (or) shear force
 Gravitational force

2. What are the boundary conditions for solving momentum transfer?

1. At fluid-solid interfaces the velocity of fluid in equals to the velocity with which the solid
surface itself moving.

39
 2. At liquid-gas interfaces the momentum flux (and hence the velocity gradient) in the liquid
phase is very nearly zero and can be assumed to be zero in most of the cases.
3. At liquid-liquid interfaces the momentum flux perpendicular to the interface and the
velocity are continuous across the interface.

3. Expression for film thickness

3mQ
S= 3
pg cos bw

4. Why there is no slip at the wall.

Since the velocity of the fluid at wall surfaces is zero there is no slip at the wall.

5. Write Van-Karman momentum balance flow equation.

(dVx dvx
tyx( t) = -K 22
(d v x / dy ) dy
2 2 2

Where 1k2 – universal constant.

6. Write the significance of the flow behavior index (n) in power law?

The significance of flow behavior index ‘n’ in power law as,

It is described by ostwald – dewaele model.

n -1
dv x dv ox
tyx = - m
dy dy
n = flow behavior inlets.
(i) n = 1, the equation reduces to Newton’s law of viscosity if m = m
(ii) n < 1, the equation represents the behaviors of pseudoplastic (or) shear thinning fluid.
(iii) n > 1, the equation represents the behavior of pilatent fluid (or) shear thickening fluid.

7. General steps to solve momentum flow balance?

1) Write the momentum balance in the form of equation (1) for a given shell of finite thickness
Rate of momentum is – Rate of momentum out + sum of forces acting on the system = 0  (1)
2) Let this thickness approaches zero, and make use of mathematical definitions of 1 st order
derivations to obtain corresponding differential equations describing momentum flux.
3) Insert appropriate Newtonian or Non-Newtonian expressions for momentum flux to obtain
differential equation for velocity distribution.

40
 4) The integration of these two differential equations yield momentum flux and velocity
distribution for the given system respectively, which further useful to calculate varions
other quantities such as average velocity, maximum velocity, volumetric flow, pressure
drop and forces on boundaries.
5) In the two integrations mentioned above, when are then calculated by the use of boundary
conditions.

8. Write Euler’s equations?

D
-(�.t) - (�.p) + g = (eV)
Dt

For a fluid of constant density & viscosity the equation of motion is in the form of equation
above put (, t) = 0

D
- .  + g = (eV)
Dt

It is defined as Euler’s equation; and it has been widely used for flow systems in which
viscous effects are relatively unimportant.

9. Relation between maximum velocity and average velocity?

The relation between maximum & average velocity of fluid through a circular tube,

Vz max 1 < vz )
= 1-( r R)
2
= (or)
< v2 > 2 v z max

10. Write Von-Karmen similarity hypothesis?

On the basis of dimensional consideration von-karmen suggested that consideration Von-

Karmen suggested that the Reynold’s stress have form,

(dvx / dy)3 dv x
tyx( t) = -K z2
(d 2 v x / dy 2 )2 dz

Kz is considered constant whose value is given as 0.4 by some & as 0.36 by others.

11. Draw the shear stress distribution in a pipe?

41
 The shear stress at the centre of the circular pipe in O.

Figure:

12. Define Stokes law?

Stokes law can be given as

FK = 6mV�R
Where, K in the radius of the non-rotating sphere.

13. What are the forces which acts on the submerged sphere

The forces that act on the submerged sphere are

 Drag force
 Lift force

The drag force is given by

V2
Fo = C D A P 
�
AP  largest proportional area.

The lift force is the force exerted by the fluid in the direction perpendicular to the fluid
flow.
14. Difference between free and forced convection?

Free convection Forced convection

1. Heat transfer that occurs
between the solid to the fluid
surface by means of natural
means.
2. Fluid motion caused by local
buoyancy difference.
1. Heat transfer by artifical means of
fan, blower, etc.
2. Non-zero streams motion in far-
field.

15. Define thermal diffusivity?

42
 Thermal diffusivity is given by

�= k C p = m 2 s (unit)

16. State Frick’s law of diffusion?

According to Frick’s law, molar flux  concentration gradient
dC
J i * � A � (1)
dx
dC A
J i * = - DAB
dx
17. Relationship between mass transfer co-efficient and diffusivity?

The mass transfer co-efficient is directly proportional to the square root of diffusivity,

hp � DAB

18. Relationship between Mass flux and Heat flux

Mass flux is defined by

Mass kg
� 2
Area.time mS

Heat flux is defined by

heat transferred Q q w
= = = 2
Area.time A.S s m s
19. Define Friction factor?

For a system involving complex geometry the estimations are complex & difficult to
accomplish by using same experimental data (or) correlation thus to make this complexity some
what easier we need a term called friction factor.

PO - PL
 = P 2L >2
P < Vz

Here F in the fanning friction factor.

43
20. State Fick’s second law of diffusion?

The Fick’s secondsecond law of diffusion can be stated as

CA
�
= DAB �2 CA
�t

It is also known as diffusion equation. It is usually used for diffusion in solids a stationary
liquid.

PART – B

1. General procedure for setting up and solving momentum balance boundary conditions for
solving momentum transfer?

Velocity distribution in laminar flow

The velocity distributions under laminar condition for different types of flow condition are
derived by writing the momentum balance.

Shell momentum balance:

44
 The shell momentum balance under steady state condition can be written as

Rate of momentum in - Rate of momentum out + sum of forces acting on the system = 0  (1)

Momentum transfer in due to two factors:

 Due to fluid property – bulk viscosity of fluid

 Due to bulk motion of fluid.

The momentum transfer due to 1st factor occurs in the direction perpendicular to the fluid
flow direction, and then the second factor it occurs in the direction of fluid flow.

The possible forces that may act on any system:

 Pressure force
 Viscous force (or) shear force
 Gravitational force

General procedure for setting up and solving momentum balance:

1. Write the momentum balance in the form of equation (1) for a given shell of finite thickness.
2. Let this thickness approaches zero and make use of mathematical definations of 1 st order
derivations to obtain corresponding differential equations describing momentum flux
distribution.
3. Insert appropriate Newtonian or non-Newtonian expressions for momentum flux to obtain
differential equation for velocity distribution.
4. The integration of these two differential equations (equation from step (2) & (3)), yields
momentum flux and velocity distribution for the given system respectively, which is
further useful to calculate various other quantities such as average velocity, maximum
velocity, volumetric flow, pressure drop and forces on the boundaries.
5. In the two integrations mentioned above various constants of integrations appears which
are then evaluated by the use of boundary conditions.

2. Derive an Expression for Max velocity & Average velocity in a flow of falling film.

1. At fluid solid interfaces the velocity of fluid in equals to the velocity with which the solid
surface itself moving.
2. At liquid-gas interfaces the momentum flux (and hence the velocity gradient) in the liquid
phase is very nearly zero and can be assumed to be zero in most of the cases.

45
 3. At liquid-liquid interfaces the momentum flux perpendicular to the interface and the
velocity are continuous across the interface.

Flow of a Falling film:

Figure:

Consider the steady flow of Newtonian fluid with constant density and viscosity over a flat
inclined surface from a reservoir as show in figure, our attention in focused over a region of length
L where entrance disturbance or exist disturbance are not included.

Let  - density of fluid kg/m3

m - viscousity of liquid kg/ms
L – region of length L in which the velocity profile in fully developed(or) length of the
liquid film which in under study in ‘m’.

s – Thickness of liquid film in ‘m’

W - Width of liquid film ‘m’ in ‘y’ direction.
b - angle of inclination of flat surface from the reservoir vertical wall.
txz – the ‘Z’ momentum flux at any constant position ‘x’ kg/ms2
vz – Velocity in Z direction m/s
Dx – small thickness of liquid film over which the momentum balance is made, ‘m’.

The steady state momentum balance over a shell of thickness Dx length ‘L’ with ‘W’ can be
written as,

Rate of momentum in – Rate of momentum out + sum of forces acting on the system = l

46
Rate of momentum in across the = Momentum flux  area
t
surface due to bulk viscosity of fluid at x = x = xz Xx =LW
x

Rate of momentum out across the

txz X
surface due to bulk viscosity of liquid = LW
x = Dx

at x = x + Dx

Rate of momentum in across the

momentum
surface due to bulk motion of liquid =
time
mass �velocity
at Z = 0 =
time
den �vol �velocity
=
time
length �V
= den �Area �
time

= den  Area  Velocity2

= AV2
2
= (WDx)v z Z = 0
Rate of momentum of
2
across the surface due to = (WDx)v z Z = L
bulk motion of liquid Z = L

The gravitational force acting on the system = mass  gZ

= density  volume  gZ
= (LWDx)g Z
= (LWDx)g cos b
Substitute all the above expression in equation (1):

0
LWtxZ x = x - LWt xz x =x +Dx + WDx v z2 Z =0
-
0
WDx v 2z Z =L
+ (LWDx)g cos b = 0

The third and fourth term get cancelled because Vz is same at Z = 0 and Z = L

LWtxZ x= x - LWtxz x= x +Dx + (LWDx)g cos b = 0

 the above equation by LW Dx

47
 txz -txz
x=x + g cos b = 0
Dx Dx x = x +Dx

txz
x= x - txz x= x+Dx
+ g cos b = 0
Dx
txz
x= x - txz x= x+Dx
= -g cos b = 0
Dx

Taking the limit Dx  0

txz x=x -txz

Lt x = x +Dx
= -g cos b
Dx �0 Dx

The left hand side of the above equation in the definition for 1st order differential equation,

-d( txz )
= -g cos b
dx
d( txz )
= g cos b
dx
Integrating

d( t
� xz ) = g cos b�
dx
txz = g cos b x + C1 � (2)

Boundary condition:

(i) At x = 0 txz = 0

Apply B.C at equation (2)

0 = g cos b(0) + C1
C1 = 0
txz = g cos b x � (3)

Equation (3) in the expression for momentum flux distribution at any given point ‘x’ since the
fluid under study in Newtonian, Newton’s law of viscosity is applicable is given by

dv z
txz = -m � (4)
dx

48
Compare equation (3) & (4)

dv z
-m = g cos b x
dx
dv z g cos b x
=-
dx m
Integrating

dv z g cos bx
�dx =- �x dx
m
-g cos b x 2
vz = - + C2 � (5)
m 2

0
B.C (ii) @ x = s , vz = 0

Apply B.C in equation (5)

g cosb s 2
0=- + C2
m 2
-g cos b s 2
C2 = � (6)
2m
sub (6) in (5)
g cosb x 2 -g cos b s 2
vz = - +
m 2 2m
g cosb 2
vz = (s - x 2 )
2m
g cos b 2
s (1 - ( x s ) � (7)
2
vz =
2m

Equation (7) in the expression for velocity distribution at any given point ‘x’.

Maximum velocity:

B.C (iii) x = 0, vz = vx max

Sub B.C. in equation (7)

49
 g cos b s 2
v z max = � (8)
2m

Average Velocity:

Average velocity is obtained by summing up all the velocities at a particular c.s divided by
the c.s. area.

w s

�
�v dx dy
z

< v z >= 0 o
w s

�
�dx dy
0 o
Ww
g cosb 2
= 1 Ws � � s (1 - x 2 s 2 )dx dy
o o
2 m

g cosb s 2 w
=
2mws �
[(x - s12 ( ) ] dy
x3
3
s
0
0

g cosb s w s3
s dy
2mw �
= -
o 3 s 2

g cosb s 2s
= (y)ow
2mw 3
g cosb s 2
= w
mw 3

g cos bs 2
< v z >= � (9)
3m

Volumetric flow rate:

Q = c.s. Area  average. Velocity

m 3 s = m 2 �m s
g cos bs 2
= ws �
3m
g cos bs 3 w
Q= � (10)
3m

50
Expression for film thickness s:

Rearrange equation (9) & (10) for s

< v z > 3m
s=
g cosb
or
3m
s=
g cosb w

Forces on the wall surface:

Fs
t=
A
Fs = txz x =s x S.A txz equation (3)
= (g cosbx) x=s x(LW)
Fs � shear force, at watt so Fw
Fw = g cosb s L w

All the above expression are valid only if the flow in laminar.

3. Derive an expression for Max velocity & Average velocity in a flow through a circular tube.

Flow through a circular tube

Consider a steady flow of a Newtonian fluid with constant viscosity under steady state
condition throw a circular tube.

Assumption made:
1. The flow in laminar (i.e., NRe  2100)
2. Density of fluid is constant [incompressible flow]
3. The flow is independent of time. [steady state]
� dv �
4. The fluid is Newtonian � trz = -m z �
� dr �
5. End effects are neglected [if the selection of pipe of interest must be free from entrances and
exist disturbances.]
6. The fluid behaves as a continuum [fully developed flow].
7. There is no slip at the wall. [Velocity of fluid at wall surfaces in zero].

Let ‘R’ is the radius of the circular tube ‘m’.

51
 ‘L’ is the length of tube in ‘m’.
‘Dr’ in the thickness of the shell over which the momentum balance is made.

‘r’ radius of the shell which is ranging from o  R.

‘Po’ the pressure intensity at the z = 0 N/m2.

‘PL’ in the pressure intensity at Z = L.

trz in the momentum flux at any given constant radial distance ‘r’. kg/ms2.

vz Z – component velocity m/s

Q volumetric flow rate m3/s

Figure:
The steady state momentum balance over the cylindrical shell of thickness ‘Dr’ can be
written as

Rate of momentum in – Rate of momentum out + sum of forces acting on the system = 0
(1)
Rate of momentum in across the cylindrical surface due to viscous transport at r = r

= mom. flux  Area

52
 = trz r=r (2rL)
= (rtrz r = r +Dr 2L)
Rate of momentum out across the cylindrical surface due to viscous transport at r = r + Dr

= (rtrz ) r=r+Dr 2 L
Rate of momentum in across the annular surface due to bulk motion at z = 0.

2
= (2rDr) v z z=0
Rate of momentum out across the annular surface due to bulk motion at z =L.

= (2 rDr) v 2z z=L

The pressure force acting on the annular surface at z = 0,

FP
P=
A
FP = P �A
= Po (2rDr)
The pressure force acting on the annular surface at z =L

FP = -PL (2 rDr) (down stream pressure)

-ve sign because pressure is acting opposite to direction of lfuid flow.

The gravitational force acting on the cylindrical volume

Fg = mg
= den  vol  g
= (2 rLDr)g

Substitute all above equations in equations (1).

(rtrz ) r =r (2 L) - [(r + Dr) trz ] r + r +Dr 2 L +
0 0
(2 r Dr) U 2z z=0 - PL (2r Dr )v 2z z=L +
Po (2 rLDr) - PL (2rDr)+P(2rLDr)g=0
Since vz = 0 and z = L, so 3rd & 4th term get cancelled.

(r + Dr)trz (2L) - (rtrz) r=r (2L) =

r +D r

2rDr[Po - PL + PL g]
 by 2LDr

(r + Dr)tr2 r+Dr - rtrz r=r r

= (Po - PL ) + rg
Dr L

53
 The left hand of the above equation can be written as on differentiating

d Po - PL
(rtrz ) = r �
� + g ��
dr � L �
d Po - PL + gL �
( rtrz ) = r �
� �
dr � L �
d �Po - gz z =0 - [PL - gz z=1 �
[rtrz ] = r � �
dr � L �
d Po - PL �
[rtrz ] = r �
� �� (2)
dr � L �
Where,

Po = Po - gz z = 0
PL = PL - gz z = L

PO and PL represents the combined effect of pressure and gravitational force.

Integrating,

Po - PL
d(rt
� )= r dr
L �
rz

P - P r2
rtrz = o L + c1
L 2
P - PL
trz = o

Here c, must be 0, since trz is cannot be intimate, so C1 = 0

P0 - PL r
trz =
L 2

Equation (3) Z – momentum flux distribution at give radial distance ‘r’.

Since the fluid is Newtonian, Newton’s law of viscosity is applicable,

dv z
� (4)
trz = -m
dr
Compare equation (3) and (4)

54
 dv z Po - PL r
-m =
dr L 2
dv z (PL - Po )r
=
dr 2mL

Integrating
(PL - Po )
dv
� rd
2m �
z =

(PL - Po ) r 2
vz = + c2
2mL 2
r = R, v z = 0
(PL - Po ) R 2
0= + c2
2mL 2
(P - P ) �
�
c2 = - � L o R 2 �
� 4m �
(P - P ) r (PL - Po )rR 2
2
vz = L o -
2mL 2 4m
(P - P )
v z = L o [r 2 - R 2 ]
4mL
2
(PL - Po )r.R 2 �r �- 1�
�
vz = � � �
�
4mL �R � �
�
(Po - PL ) 2 2
vz = [R - r ]
4mL

Po - PL 2 � r 2 �
vz =
4mL
R 1- R
� �
� (5) ( )
Equation (5) in the expression for velocity distribution, and thin results tells that, for a
steady laminar incompressible Newtonian fluid in a circular tube follows the parabolic path.

55
 Figure:
Maximum Velocity:

r = 0; vz = vz max

Then equation (5)

Po - PL
v z max = � (6)
4mL

Average velocity:

<vz> is obtained by summing up all the velocity divided by the c.s. area

Sub equation (5)

2 R

�
�v r dr dq
z

< v z >= 0 0
2 R

�
�r dr dq
0 0

56
 ( ) ���r dr dq
2 R
Po - PL 2
�
( )
2
r
� � �4mL R 1 - R
0 0 �
< v z >=
( r R)
2 R
2
� dq
0
0

( )
2 R
�Po - PL �2 2
� 4mL R �
� � r - r 2 dr dq
� � 0 0 R
= 2
R 2 dq
�2
0
R

( )
2
�Po - PL � 2 r 2
R � 2 - 1 2 r 4 dq
4
� 4mL � R
� � 0
= 0
R 2 ( 0) 2
2 0
�Po - PL � 2 �R 2 R 2 � 2
R
� 4mL � �2 - 4 � ( 0) 0
= � � � �
R2
�2 
2
�Po - PL � 2 �2 R 2 �
� 4mL �R �4 �2 
� � � 2 �
=
 R2
(Po - PL )R 2
< v z >= � (7)
8mL

Ratio of average velocity to maximum velocity

Divide equation (7) by (6)

< vz >
=
v z max
(Po - PL )R 2 4nmL
=
8mL(Po - PL )R 2
< vz > 1
= =
v z max 2

Volumetric flow rate:

Q = Average velocity  c.s. Area

Q = <vz>  R2

57
 (Po - PL )R 4
= Q= � (9)
8mL

Expression for pressure drop per unit length:

In terms of

(i) Average velocity:

(Po - PL ) 2
< v z >= R � equ (7)
8mL

From (7)

Po - PL 8m < v z >
=
L R2
Po - PL 8m < v z >
=
( )
2
L P
2
DP Po - PL 32m < v z >
= = � (10)
L L D2

Equation (10) is Hagen’s poisuillie equation viscosity can be determine using this equation
(significance)

(ii) In terms of volumetric flow rate:

From (9)
(Po - PL )R 4
Q=
8mL
Po - PL 8mQ
=
L R 4
8mQ
=
( )
4
 D2
Po - PL 128mQ
=
L .D 4
DP Po - PL 128mQ
= = � (11)
L L D 4

58
Equation (10) & (11) are known as Hagen – Poisuillie equation.

The z-component forces on wetted wall surface:

Fz = trz (surface area)

r=R

From equation (3) trz

r(P - PL ) �
�
Fz = � o � ( 2 RL )
� 2 L �r =R
Fz = (Po - PL )R 2 � (12)

5. Determination of capillary radius by flow measurement.

One method of determining the radians of a capillary tube is to measure the rate of flow of
a viscous fluid through a tube. Find the radius of the capillary from the following flow data.

1. Length of capillary = 50.02 cm

2. Kinematic viscosity of fluid = 4.03  10-5 m2/s
3. Density of fluid = 0.955  103 kg/m3
4. Pressure drop across capillary tube = 4.829  105 N/m2
5. Mass rate of flow thorugh tube = 2.997  10-3 kg/s

Ans: 0.7512 mm

m Q 3.1376 �10 -6
g= v = QA = =
t  D 2  (1.502 �10 -3 )2
4 4
DP 32m < v z >
=
L D2
DP 128mQ
=
L D4
1M = 100cm
m
4.03  10-5 = 1M = 1000mm
0.9552 �10 3
1N = kg m/s 2
m = 0.0384 kg/m s

2.997 �10 -3 kg m 3 m 2
Q= � =
0.9552 �10 3 s kg s
= 3.137  10-6 m3/s

59
 4.829 �10 5 128 �0.0384 �3.137 �10 -6
=
50.02 �10 -2  �D4
30 32,937.01 D4 = 128 �0.0384 �3.137 �10 -6
D 4 = 5.08 �10 -12
D = 0.00150 m, 1.5 mm
r = 0.75 mm

VD
NRe =
m
0.9552 �10 3 �1.7708 �1.50210 -3
=
0.385
= 65.989 < 2100, hence laminar

5. Determination of viscosity from capillary flow data glycerin @ 26.5C in flowing throw a
horizontal tube 1 ft long, 0.1 inches inside diameter for a pressure drop 40 psi, the flow rate in
0.00398. The  of glycerin at 26.5C 1.261 g/cm3 from the data find the viscosity of from the flow
data find the viscosity of glycerin in CP [measurement of flow in circular tube is one of the
common in circular tube is one of the common methods for determining viscosity, such
methods for determining viscosity, such devices are referred to as capillary in cometers].

L = 1 ft = 0. 3048 m
D = 0.1 in = 2.45  10-3 m 40  6.8947
1ft = 0.3048 m
lb 3 2
DP = 40 2f = 275.788 �10 N/m 1 inc =2.54 �10 -2 m
ln
1lbf / in 2 = 6.8947kPa
 = 1.261 g/m 3 = 1.261 kg / m 3
3
Q = 0.00318 ft min = 1.8783 �10 -6 m sec
3

3
= 1.127 �10 -4 m 60s
DP 8 �16 �m �Q
=
L D 4 �
275.788 �10 3 8 �16 �m �1.8783 �10 -6
=
0.3048 (2.54 �10 -3 )4 �
904816.273 = m �1838612.418
0.4921 �10 -3 gm
m=
10 2 s
gm
= 4.921 cm.s
= 492.1 cp

60
6. Write the Binham flow in a circular tube?

A non-newtonian fluid described by Bingham model,

dv z
A)t = to - m o dr if t > to
B)t = o if t �to

Is flowing throw a vertical tube as a result of pressure gradient, the radius and length of the
tube are R and L respectively. Obtain a relationship between the volumetric flow rate Q and the
pressure gradient by using shell balance technique. Also show that for to = 0 the relationship
reduces to Hagen poisnille equation.

Assumptions:

All same except, (4) non-Newtonian fluid

FLOW THROUGH A CIRCULAR TUBE:

The steady state momentum balance

Rate of momentum in – Rate of momentum out + sum of forces acting on the system = 0

(1)

Rate of momentum in
across the cylindrical surface = (rtrz) r =r 2 L
due to viscous transport at r = r

Rate of momentum out across

the cylindrical surface due to = (rtrz) r =r +Dr 2L
viscous transport at r = r + Dr

Rate of momentum in across

2
the annular surface due to bulk = (2 rDr)v z z =0
motion at z = 0

Rate of momentum out across

2
the annular surface due to bulk = (2 rDr)v z z =L
motion at Z

61
The pressure force acting on the annular surface at z = 0,

FP
P=
A
FP = P �A
=Po (2 rDr)

The pressure force acting = FP = -PL (2rDr)

on the annular surface z = L

The gravitation force acting

on the cylindrical volume = (2 rLDr)g

Sub above equation in equation (1)

(rtrz ) r =r (2L) - [(r + Dr)trz ] r +Dr 2 L +

0 0
(2 r Dr )v 2z z = 0 - (2r Dr )v 2z z =L + o (2 rDr)
-L (2 rDr) + (2 rLDr)g = 0
(r + Dr)trz r+Dr (2 L) - (rt rz ) r =r (2L) =
Po (2 rDr) - PL (2rDr) + (2 rLDr)g
(r + Dr)trz r+Dr (2 L) - (rt rz ) r =r (2L) =
2rDr[Po - PL + PLg ]
 By 2 LDr

(r + Dr)trz r +Dr - rtrz r =r

r
(Po - PL ) + rg
=
Dr L
The left hand side can be written on differentiating,

d Po - PL
( rtrz ) = r �
� + g �
�
dr � L �
d Po - PL + gL �
( rtrz ) = r �
� �
dr � L �
d �P - gz z =0 - (PL - gz z =L ) �
( rtrz ) = r �o �
dr � L �
d Po - PL �
( rtrz ) = r �
� �� (2)
dr � L �

62
Where,

Po = Po - gz z = 0
PL = PL - gz z = L
Integrating

Po - PL
d(rt
� )= r dr
L �
rz

Po - PL r c1
rtrz = +
L 2 r
c1 = 0, trz ��
Po - PL r
trz = � (3)
L 2

Equation (3) Z-momentum flux distribution at given rachial distance ‘r’.

63
 Figure:
Since the fluid is Bingham fluid which is represented by equation (A) & (B). Insert equation
(A) in equation (3).

dv z (Po - PL )r
to - m o =
dr 2L
dv z (Po - PL )r
-m o = - to
dr 2L

dv z to (Po - PL )r
= - � (C)
dr m o 2Lmo

to (Po - PL )
dv z = - r dr
mo 2Lm o
Integrating,

to P -P
dv
� z = dr - o L �
� r dr
mo 2Lm o
t r (P - PL ) r 2
vz = o - o + c2
mo 2Lm o 2
B.c (2) r = R, U2 = 0

to R (Po - PL ) 2
O= - R + C2
mo 4m o L
(P - PL ) 2 to R
C2 = o R -
4m o L mo

to r (Po - PL ) r 2 (Po - PL )R 2 to R
vz = - + -
mo 2Lm 0 2 4m o L mo
P -P t
v z = o L (R 2 - r 2 ) - o (R - r)
4m o L mo

v 2 >=
(Po - PL ) 2
4m o L ( ( )
R 1- r R
2
) - tmR ( 1 - r R )
o

o
 (4)

This equation is applicable only r > ro

Where,
Ro = radius of the plug flow region
BC (3)

64
vz > = vz < ; r = ro

v z >= v z <; r = r0

( ) ( )
2
(P - P )R 2 � ro 2 � to R r
v z <= o L 1 - R �-
� 1 - o R � (5)
4 o L � � mo
In equation (3)

trz = to ; if r = ro
(P - P )r
to = o L o � (6)
2L
Sub (6) in (5)

4m o L � �
( )
(P - P )R 2 � ro 2 � (Po - PL )ro
v z <= o L 1 - R �-
� 2L ( r
R 1- o R )
(P - P )
= o L �
4m o L � ( )(
r r
�1 - o R 1 + o R - )
(Po - PL )
2L
r
(
Rro 1 - o R �
�
�
)
=
(Po - PL ) 2
2LM o (
r
){ (
r r
R 1- o R 12 1+ o R - o R ) }
(Po - PL ) 2 � ro �1 � ro ro �
= R �1- � � 1+ - �
2LM o � R � 2 � 2R R �

(Po - PL ) 2 � ro ��1 ro �
Vz < = R �1- � � -
2LM o � R� �2 2R �
�

(Po - PL ) 2 � ro �1 � ro �
Vz < = R �1- � 1- R
2LM o � R �2 � �

2
(Po - PL ) 2 � ro �
Vz < = R �1- � � ( 7)
4LM o � R�

Volume rate of flow:

2 R
Q�
�VZ rdrdv
o o

65
 2 R 2 R
Q�
�VZ < rodrdv +Q �
�VZ > rdrdv
o o o o

Since v z is constant, when r < ro the 1st team in above equation can be cancelled.

2 R
Q�
�VZ > rdrdv
o o
R
V r dr
Q 2�Z >
o
u dv

u = vz dv = r 1 2
du = d v dv = rdr

v dv = uv - �
� vdu
R
� r2 � R r2
= 2 �
vz � - � d vz
� 2� o 2
R
r2 d vz
Q = 2 o- � 2
o
R
dv z
r2
Q = - � dr
o
dr

R
dv z
r2
Q = - � >dr
o
dr
r = R; v z

(o) R2
vz -o� -0
2 2

Since there in a velocity gradient only after r > ro , the lower limit shits from o � ro v z becomes v z
>.

rR
dv z
r2
Q = - � > dr
ro
dr

Sub Equation © in Q

R
Q = - �
�T (P P ) g �
r 2 � o - o L dr �
ro �M o 2 LM o �

66
 �To R 2
= - � � r dr -
( Po PL ) R 3 �
r dr �
�M o ro 2 LM o r� o �
R 3 - 3 � ( Po PL ) �R 4
ro
�To � �
4�
= - � � - ro � - � - r �
�
�Mo � 3 �
o
2 LM o �u �
�

=- �
�( R 3 - ro ) to (Po - PL ) 4 4 �
- (R o - ro ) �
� 3m o
� 8mo L �
�
(
�
Q = �
Po - P2 ) (R o4 - ro4 ) to (R o3 - ro3 ) �
�
� 8m o L 3m o �

( )
( P - P ) R �1 - ro �- to R 3 1 - ro 3 �
( )
4 4
�
Q = � o L � R � R �
� 2m o L 4 � � mo 3 �
P -P 2m o L R 4 4
x d �by o L y � , y
2m o L Po - PL 4 R
( P - P ) R4 �
( )
� to R 3 � ro
( ) � Po - PL 2m o L R 4 4 �
4 3
� ro
Q = � o L �1 - R � - �1- R �X 2m L x P - P y 4 , R 4 �
� 2m o L 4 � � mo 3 � � o o L �
( Po - PL ) 4 � ro 4 � 8
( )to L
( )
3
� ro �
Q= R �1 - R �- 1-
� R � � (8)
8mo L � � 3 R(Po - PL ) � �

Equation (3) we can write

(Po - PL )R (P - P ) ro
tR = � (9) & to = o L � (10)
2L 2L
r = R, tr2 = tR r = ro ; t r2 - to

to R o
= � (11)
tR R

Use Equation 9,10,11 in (8).

(Po - PL ) 4 � to
( ) ���- 8 3 R (Pt L- P ) ���1 - ( t t ) ���
4 3
Q= R �1- tR
o o
8m o L � o L
R

1- ( t ) �- 4 3 � t - ( t ) �
4
(Po - PL ) R � t � 4
�t t � 4
Q= �
o o o
8m o L � R� � �R R

- ( t ) + 4 3( t ) �
4
(Po - PL ) R � 4 t t t
4
� 4
Q= 1- 3
� t
o o o
8m o L � R R � R

+( t ) �
4
(Po - PL ) R � 4 t t � 4
Q= 1- 3
� t
o o
8m o L � R � R

67
 ( ) ���� (12)
4
(Po - PL ) R � 4 to t
4
Q= 1- 3
� t + 13 o t
8m o L � R R

Set to = o in (12)

4
(Po - PL ) R
Q= � (13)
8m o L

This is the Hagen poisuillie equation

Po - PL 128 Q mo
=
L  D4

7. Write the equation for max velocity & average velocity for a flow through an annulus?

Consider an incompressible fluid is flowing in steady state in annular region between to

coaxial cylinder of radii kR & R.

Figure:

68
 Consider a shell of thickness Dr between the cylinders and the steady state momentum
balance over the shell becomes,

Rate of momentum in - Rate of momentum out + sum of the forces acting on the system = 0  (1).

Rate of momentum in across

the cylindrical surface due = rtrz r =r 2 L
viscous transport at r = r

Rate of momentum out across

the cylindrical surface due to = rtrz r =r 2 L
viscous transport at r = r + Dr
Rate of momentum in across
2
the annular surface due to = (2 rDr)v z z =0
bulk motion at z = 0

Rate of momentum out

2
Across the annular due = (2rDr)v z z =L
to bulk motion at z = L

Pressure force acting on the

annular surface at z = 0 = Po (2rDr)

Pressure force acting on the

annular surface at z = 0 = -PL (2rDr)

The gravitational force acting

on the cylindrical volume = -(2 rLDr)g

Substitute all the above equations in (1)

rtrz r=r 2L - rtrz r=r+Dr 2L + 2rD 0 r v 2z z = 0

-2 rDr 0 v 2z Z=L + Po (2rDr) - PL (2 rDr)
-(2rLDr)g = 0
rtrz r=r+Dr - rtrz r=r 2L = Po (2 rDr) - PL (2 rDr) - (2 rLDr)g
rtrz r=r+Dr - rtrz 2L = 2rDr[Po - PL - Lg]
r =r

 by 2LDr

69
 rtrz - rt rz r
r + Dr r =r
= (Po - PL ) - rg
Dr L

The left hand side of the above equation can be written as on differentiating

d Po - PL
(rtrz ) = r �
� - g �
�
dr � L �

d P - P - gL �
�
[rtrz ] = r �o L �
dr � L �
d Po + gz z =0 - [PL + gz z =0 ] �
�
[rtrz ] = r � �
dr � L �
d Po - PL �
[rtrz ] = r �
�
dr � L � �
Where

Po = Po + gz z = o
PL = PL z =L
Integration

Po - PL
d(rtrz) =
� rdr
L �
P - PL r 2
rtrz = o + C1
L 2
Po - PL r 2 C1
trz = +
L 2 r

Po and PL represents the combined effect of pressure and gravitational force.

To apply B.C. (i) in;

Po - PL r C1
trz = + � (2)
L 2 r

Here the constant of integration C 1 cannot be determined immediately, since we have no

information on momentum flux at either of fixed surfaces r = kR and r = R. But there will be a
maximum in velocity curve at some unknown plane at which momentum flux is zero.

Let this unknown plane is located at a radial distance r = lR

70
B.C. (1) At r = lR; trz = 0

Apply B.C. (1) in equation (2)

Po - PL C
o= lR + 1
2L lR
� ( P - P ) lR �
C1 = -lR � o L �
� 2L �
(Po - PL )
C1 = - (lR)2 � (3)
2L
Sub (3) in (2)

Po - PL 1 (Po - PL )
trz = r+ �-
� (lR)2 �
�
2L r � 2L �
P -P � (lR)2 �
trz = o L �r-
2L � r � �
P - P � R (lR)2 �
trz == o L � r� -
2L � R r �
�
(Po - PL )R �
�r �- l 2 R �� (4)
trz =
2L
� �
�
�R �
�
( )
r �
�

Sub Newton’s law of viscosity in equation (4), to get differential equation for velocity
distribution.
dv
trz = -m z � (5)
dr

Comparing (4) & (5)

dv ( P - P ) R �r - l 2 R �� (6)
-m z = o L
dr 2L �
�R r �
�
( )
dv z ( P - PL ) R �r - l 2 R �
dr
=- o
2mL �
�R r �
�
( )
Integrating
(Po - PL )R �r
dv
� z
2mL �
=-
�R ( )
- l2 R r �
�( )
dr

(P - P )R 1 r 2
vz = - o L �
2mL � R 2 ( )
- l 2 R ln r �+ C2 � (7)
�

71
We have two boundary conditions for vz

B.C. (2) at r = R; vz = 0

B.C (3) at r = kR; vz = 0

Use, B.C (2) in equation (7)

0=-
(Po - PL )R �
2mL �R
( 2 )
1 R 2 - l 2 R ln R �+ C 2
�
(P - PL )R R
C2 = o � - l 2 R ln R �� (8)
2mL � 2 �

Sub in (8) in (7)

vz = -
(Po - PL )R �
2mL � R ( )
1 r 2 - l 2 R ln r �+ (Po - PL )R �
2 � 2mL
R - l 2 R ln R �
� 2 �
(Po - PL ) � 2
R - l 2 R ln R �2 - r �R + 2 �l 2 R ln r �
vz = R� 2 �
2mL � 2 2R R 2 �
(Po - PL ) R � r2 �
vz = R. �
1 - 2l 2 ln R - 2 + 2l 2 ln r �
2mL 2� R �
(P - P )
( ) ( )
2
v z = o L R 2 [1 - r R + 2l 2 ln r R � (9)
4mL

Value of l:

Apply B.C (iii) equation (7)

72
 (Po - PL )R �k 2 R �
C2 = � - l 2 R ln kR �� (10)
2mL � 2 �
equation (8) - (10)
(Po - PL )R �
R 2 k2R �
0= � 2 - l R ln R - + l 2 R ln kR �
2mL � 2 �
2
0=�
�R - l 2 R ln R - k R + l 2 R ln kR �
2 2 �
� �
0=� R 2 2 1 �
� 2 (1 - K ) - l R(ln k)�
R (1 - R 2 ) = l 2 R (ln 1 )
2 k
1- k 2
l2 =
2 ln 1 k
1
�1 - k 2 �2
l=� � � (1)
�2 ln 1 �
� k�

Expression for momentum flux distribution and velocity distribution:

Sub equation (11) in equation (4) and equation (9)

( Po - PL ) R �r
trz =
2L
( )
�R � ( )
- l 2 R r �� (4)

( Po - PL ) R � 1 - k2 R �
trz =
2L
( )
�
�r-
R 2 ln 1 r �
�
� (12)( )
� k �
(Po - PL )R 2 � r
( ) ( )
2
vz = 1- R + 2l 2 ln r R �� (9)
4mL � �

(Po - PL )R 2 � r 1 - k2 �
( ) ( )
2
vz = 1- R
� + ln r R �� (13)
4mL �
� ln 1 k �
�

v2 max:

B.C. (4) r = l R; vz = vz max

73
 Po - PL 2 � 2 1 - k 2 �
v z max = R �1- l + ln l �
4mL �
� ln 1 R �
�
1
� 2�
Po - PL 2 � 1 - k 2 1 1 - k 2 �1 - k 2 � �
v z max = R 1- + ln � �
4mL � 2 ln 1 2 ln 1 �2 ln 1 � �
� k k � k��

Po - PL 2 � 1 - k2 � �
�1 - k 2 ��
v z max = R �1- 1 - ln �
� �
��
4mL � 2 ln 1 k � �2 ln 1 �
� R�
��
� � ��

Average velocity:

�
�v r dr dq
z
< v z >=
��r dr dq
2 R
v r dr dq
�� z

= 0 kR
2 R
r dr dq
��
0 kR

2 R
C.S. Area = r dr dq
��
0 kR
2 R
r �
= 2 �
� 2�
kR

=R 2 �
1 - R2 �
� �
2 R
v z r dr dq
= ��u
o kR
dv

2
u = vz V = r 2 uv - �
vdu
du = dv 2 dv = r dr

R
= 2 �
v z rdr
kR
R
� r2 r 2 dv z �
= 2 �
vz - � 2 �
� 2 �
kR

2
The 1st term in the above equation v z r 2 = 0 . Since vz = 0 for both r = R, r = kR.

74
 R
-2  � r 2 dv z �dr
2 dr
kR

�d �by dr
dv z
sub equation (6) for
dr
R
� �(Po - PL )R r � �
= - � r2 �-� R (
- l2 R r �dr � )
kR � � 2mL � �
R
(P - PL ) r
= - � o
2mL
( )
R R - l 2 R r = r 2 dr
kR
R
(Po - PL )R � r3 �
= � � - l 2 Rr �dr
2mL kR �
R �
R
(Po - PL )R �
1 r4 2 r2 �
=
2mL �R 4 - l R 2 �
� �
kR

(Po - PL )R �R 3 l2R 3 k4R 3 l 2 k2R 3 �

= �4 - 2 - 4 +
2mL � 2 � �
(Po - PL ) �R 4 l2R 4 2 k4R 4 l2K 2R 4 2 �
= - � - + ��
2mL � �4 2 2 4 2 2�
(Po - PL ) R 4
= 1 - 2l 2 - R 4 + 2l 2 R 2 �
�
� �
2mL 4
(Po - PL )R 4
= [(1 - R 4 ) - 2l 2 [1 - k 2 ]
8mL
(Po - PL )R 4 � 4 2 (1 - K 2 ) �
= �(1 - k ) - (1 - k 2 )�
8mL �
� 2 ln 1 k �
�
(Po - PL )R 4 � (1 - k 2 )2 �
= �(1 - k 4 ) - �
8mL � ln 1 �
� k �
2
� (1 - k 2 ) 2 �
 (Po - PL )R 4 � (1 - k 4 ) - �
� ln 1 �
� k �
8mL
vz =
R [ 1 - k 2 ]
2

(Po - PL )R 2 � (1 - k 2 ) �
vz = (1 - k ) -
� 4
�
8mL �
� ln 1 R � �

Volume rate of flow: Q = avg velocity  C.S.A.

75
 (Po - PL ) 4 � (1 - k 2 )2 �
Q= R �(1 - k 4 ) - �
8mL � ln 1 �
� k �

The force exerted by the fluid on the solid is obtained by summing the forces acting on the
outer surface of the inner cylinder & inner surface of the outer cylinder.

F = tA

Fz = -trz r=kR �A + trz r=R �A

Fz = -trz r=kR (2RRL) + trz r=R (2 RL)

Equation (12)

(Po - PL )R �r 1 - k2 R �
trz =
2L �
( )
�R -
2 ln 1 r �
�
( )
� k �

(Po - PL )R � 2 �
r - 1 - k R � 2RRL
Fz = -
2L
�
�
R 2 ln 1 r
�
( )
� R �
r = kR

(Po - PL )R � 1 - k2 R �
+
2L
r
�R -
� 2 ln 1 R r �
( )
� (2RL)
� �r = R

(Po - PL )R � 1 - k 2 R �
Fz = -
2L
k-
�
� 2 ln 1 ( )
r �2kRL
�
� R �
(Po - PL )R � 1 - k 2 �
+ �1- �2 RL
2L � 2 ln 1 �
� k�
(P - P )R � 1 - k 2 � 1 - k 2 �1 �
Fz = o L �2RL � 1- -�k- . �
-�
2L � 2 ln 1 k � � 2 ln 1 �R �
k � �
�
� �
(Po - PL )R 1 - k2 1 - k2 �
Fz = �2RL �
1- - k2 +
2L � 2 ln 1 2 ln 1 k �
� k �
(P - P )R
Fz = o L �2 RL � �1 - k2 �
�
2L
Fz = (Po - PL )R 2 (1 - R 2 )

76
8. Volume rate of flow through an annulus

A horizontal annulus is 27ft long. The outside radius of inner cylinder is 0.495 in and
inside radius of outer cylinder is 1.1 in A 60% aqueous solution of sucrose is to be pumped to
annulus at 20C at this temperature the fluid density in 80.3 lb/ft 3 and its viscosity is 136.8 ftlbmhr
What is the volume rate of flow when the impressed pressure drop is 5.39 psi.

Ans: 0.108 ft3/sec.

Given data:

L = 27 ft = 27 (0.3048) = 8.2296
KR = 0.495 in = 0.495 (0.0254) = 0.012573
R = 1.1 in = 1.1 (0.0254) = 0.02794
80.3(0.454)
 = 80.3 lb/ft3 = = 1287.43
(0.3048) 3
136.8(0.454)
m = 136.8 lbm/ft hr = = 0.05660
(0.3048)(3600)
DP = 5.39 psi
Q=?

DP = 37143.33.

1 lb = 0.454 kg
1 ft = 0.3048 m
1 atm = 14.7 psi
1
atm = 1psi
14.7
= 5.39 psi
1
= 5.39 � �1.013 �10 5 N / m 2
14.7

(Po - PL ) 4 � (1 - k 2 )2 �
Q= R �(1 - k 4 ) - �
8mL � ln 1 �
� K �
kR = 0.12573
k (0.02794) = 0.012573
k = 0.45

77
 37143.3
 �0.05660 �0.02794 4 � (1 - 0.452 )2 �
Q= �� (1 - 0.45 4 ) - �
8 �0.05660 �8.2276 � ln 1
� 0.45 � �
0.6360 �
= 0.01908 �
0.9589-
�
� 0.768 ��
3
= 0.00309 m s
3
Q = 0.1094 ft s

9. Laminar flow in a narrow slit

A viscous fluid is in laminar flow in a shift formed by two parallel wall distance 2B apart
make a differential momentum balance & obtained the expressions for the distributions of
�Po - PL �x.
momentum flux and velocity txz = � �
� L �

�P - P �
(
v z = � o L �B2 1 - x B
� 2mL �
( )
2
)
In which,
P = P - gz

What is the ratio of average to maximum velocity in the slit, obtain the analogue for Hagen
Poisuillie law for the slit
2 2 (Po - PL ) 3
Ans: < v z >= v z max ; Q = BW
3 3 mL

Figure:

78
 Assume small shell of thickness Dx in the fluid flow region at the momentum balance over
this shell,

Rate of momentum in – Rate of momentum out + sum of forces acting on the system = 0

Rate of momentum in
across the surface due = txz x=x (LW)
to viscous transport

Rate of momentum out

across the surface at to = txz x=Dx (LW)
viscous transport at
x = x + Dx

Rate of momentum in
= Av 2
across the surface due to
= (WDx)v 2z z =0
bulk motion at z = 0

Rate of momentum out

2
across the surface due to = (WDx)v 2 z =L
bulk motion at Z = L

Pressure force acting on

FP
P= ; FP = P �A
the system at z = 0 = A
Po (WDx)

Pressure force acting

on the system at Z = L = -PL (W( Dx))

The gravitational force

Fg = mass �all due to gravity
acting on the fluid shell = = �V �g
= (WLDx)g
sub above equations in (1)
txz x = x (LW) - t xz x=x +Dx (LW) + (WDx)v z2 z =0
+(W Dx )v 2z z =L + Po (WDx) - PL (WDx) + (WLDx)g = 0

79
 WLDx

-txz x = x + txz x +Dx

=
( Po - PL ) + g
Dx L
(P - gz z =0 )
txz
x=
x +Dx (
- txz x=x = Po - gz z =0 - ) o

L
Dx

txz x = x +Dx - txz x = x Po - PL

=
Dx L

Differential

d( txz ) Po - PL
=
dx L
P -P
d( txz ) = o L � dx
L
P -P
txz = o L x + C1 � (1)
L

B.C. (1) At x = 0, txz = 0

Sub the B.C

C1 = 0

Po - PL
txz = x � (2)
L

Assume fluid in Newtonian; insert Newton’s law of viscosity in equation (2),

dv z Po - PL
-m = x
dx L
dv z P -P
=- o L x
dx mL

Integrating

(Po - PL )
dv
� x dx
mL �
z =-

(Po - PL ) x 2
vz = - + C2
mL 2

80
B.C. (ii) At = x = Ba/2; vz = 0
B.C (iii) At = x = -B-a/2

(Po - PL ) B2
0=- + C2
mL 2
0=-
(Po - PL ) B2
C2 =
mL 2

Po - PL x 2 Po - PL B2
vz = - +
mL 2 mL 2
P - PL 2
= o �
�B - x2 �
�
2mL
P -P
( )
2
v z = o L B2 � 1- x B �
2mL � �
at x = 0; vz = vz max

(Po - PL )B2
v z max =
2mL
W B
v dx dy
�� z

< v z >= 0 -B
W B
dx dy
��
0 -B
W B B
W
dx dy = �
�� dx(y) o
0 -B -B
B
= W�
dx
-B
B
= W(x)-B
= W(B + B)
= 2BW
W B W B
(Po - PL )B2
( )
2

� � v z dx dy = � � (1 - x B )dx dy
o -B 0 -B
2mL

( ) dx
B
(P - PL )B2
( )
2
= W �o 1- x B
-B
2m L
B
W(Po - PL )B2 � 1 �x 3 �
�
= x- 2 � �
� �
2mL � B �3 � �-B

W(Po - PL )B2 � 1 �B3 B3 �

�
= 2B
� - 2 �
+ � �
2mL � B �3 3 ��

81
 �
W(Po - PL )B 2 �
1 � 2B 3 �
= 2B
� - �- �
�
2mL � B2 � 3 � �
W(Po - PL )B �
2
1 � 3
2B � �
= 2B - 2 � �
� �
2mL � B �3 � �
2
W(Po - PL )B �6B - 2B �
= �
2mL � 3 � �
W(Po - PL )B 2 �4B �
= �
2mL �3 ��
4 W(Po - PL )B3
=
3 2mL

2 2

4 W (Po - PL )B 3
3 2 mL
< v z >=
2 BW
(P - P )B2
= o L
3mL
< v z > (Po - PL )B2 2mL
=
v z max 3mL(Po - PL )B 2

2
< v z >= v z max
3

Q = Avg. velocity  C.S. area

= <vz> X
(Po - PL )B 2
= �2BW
3mL

2 W(Po - PL )B3
Q=
3 mL

DP (Po - PL ) 3mLQ
= =
L L 2WB 3
2 W(Po - PL )B3
Q =
3 mL
2 W (Po - PL )B 3 2
< v z > 2 BW =
3 mL

82
 DP 3m < v z >
=
L B2
DP 3m < v z >
=
L 4 2
B
4
DP 12m < v z >
=
L (2B)2

10. Write the equation for max velocity & Average velocity for annular flow with the inner
cylinder moving axially.

Consider the system shown in figure in which the cylindrical rod is being moved with a
velocity V. A rod and the cylinder are co-axial. Find the steady state velocity distribution and
volume rate of flow. Problems of this kind arrives in describing in performance of wire coating
dice.

u z ln R
=
( )
r
V ln K
R 2 V �(1 - k 2 ) �
Q= � - 2K 2 �
2 � 1 �
�ln K �

Figure:
Assumptions:

1. Fluid in Newtonian with constant density and viscosity.

2. Fluid pressure at the inlet and outlet are the same because of constant cross section and
constant volume rate of flow.
3. Fluid is not influenced by pressure forces and gravitational forces.

83
The steady state momentum balance over a small cylindrical shell of thickness Dr.

Figure:
Rate of momentum in – Rate of momentum out + sum of forces acting on the system = 0  (1)

Rate of momentum in
across the cylindrical
surface due to viscous = (rtrz ) r=r 2L
transport r = r

Rate of momentum out

across the cylindrical = (rtrz ) r=rDr 2L
surface due to viscous
transport of r = r + Dr

Rate of momentum across

2
the annular surface due to = Av 2
2
bulk motion of liquid at = (2 rDr)v 2 z=0
z=0

Rate of momentum out

2
across the annular surface = (2rDr)v 2 z=L
due to bulk motion of
liquid at z = L

No forces are acting on the system

0 0
(rtrz ) r 2L - (rt rz ) r =r +Dr 2L + A v 22 z =0
- A v 22 z =L
=0

vz is same at z = 0, z = L. So 3rd and c1th term neglected

84
 by 2LDr
(rtrz ) r =r - (rtrz ) r =r +Dr
=0
Dr
d(rtrz )
- =0
dr
Integrating

rtrz = C1
C1
trz = � (2)
r

As the fluid is Newtonian, compare it with Newton’s law of viscosity

dv
trz = -m z
dr
dv C
-m z = 1
dr r
C 1
� dv z = 1 �dr
-m r
Integrating
C
v z = - 1 ln r + C 2 � (3)
m
B.C. (i) r = R; v2 = 0
B.C. (ii) r = KR; v2 = V
B.C. (i)
C
0 = - 1 ln R + C 2
m
C
C 2 = 1 ln R � (4)
m
B.C. (ii)
C
V = - 1 ln KR + C 2 � (5)
m

Sub (4) in (5)

85
 C1 C
V=- ln kR + 1 ln R
m m
C
V = - 1 [ ln KR - ln R ]
m
C1 � KR �
V=- ln
m �� R �
�
C
V = - 1 [ln K]
m
Vm
C1 = - � (6)
ln K

Sub (6) in (4)

vm ln R
C2 = -
ln K m
V
C2 = - ln R � (7)
ln K

Sub (6) & (7) in (3)

Vm V
vz = + ln r - ln R
ln Km ln K
v V
vz = ln r - ln R
ln K ln K
v
= [ln r - ln R]
ln K
v r
Vz = [ln ]
ln K R

v z ln R
=
r ( )
V ln K

Volume of flow rate: Q

Q
< v >=
A
2 R

v r dr dq
�� 2

< v >= 0 KR
2 R
r dr dq
��
0 KR

86
 2 R
Q= v r dr dq
�� 2
0 KR
R
V
= 2 � � ln r �r dr
KR
ln K � R �
R R
2V � r ln r dr �
= �� - ln R � r dr �
lnK � KR
V V KR �
u = ln r dv = r dr
1 2
du = v= r 2
r
u dv = uv - �
� v du

( )
R
2 V � r 2 r2 1 � R
dr �- ln R r 2
2
Q= ln
� r - �
ln K � 2 KR 2 r � KR

R
2 V � r 2 1 �r 2 � ln R 2 �
Q= ln
� r - � � -
ln K � 2 2 �2 � 2
( R - (KR)2 ) �
KR �
2 V �R2 (KR) 2 1 ln R 2 �
Q= � ln R - ln KR - (K 2 - (KR) 2 ) - (R - (KR) 2 �
ln K �2 2 4 2 �
2 V �R2 (KR)2 R 2 (KR)2 R 2 ln R (KR)2 ln R �
Q= � ln R - ln KR - + - + �
ln K �2 2 4 2 2 2 �
2 V �R2 2 2 K 2R 2 �
Q= � (K - 1) - (ln KR - ln R) �
ln K �4 2 2 �
2 V R 2 � 2
Q=
ln K 4 �
(
(K - 1) - 2K 2 (ln R K �
� )
(
ln K = - ln 1 K )
2 V R 2
Q=
ln K 4
(
[(K 2 - 1) - 2K 2 ln R K ])

87
 � 2 �
(K - 1) 2K (ln R K ) �
2
2 VR 2 �
Q= -
4 � K
ln ln 1 K �
�
� K �
�
� 2 K �
(K - 1) 2K (ln K ) �
2
R 2 V �
= -
2 � ln k ln K �
� �
R 2 V � (K 2 - 1) �
= -
� - 2K 2 �
2 � 1
� - ln K �
�
R 2 V � (K 2 - 1) �
= -
� - 2K 2 �
2 � 1
� ln K �
�
R 2 V �(1 - K 2 ) �
Q= � - 2K 2 �
2 � 1
�ln K �
�

11. Write the equation for max Velocity & Average velocity for a flow of an falling film an
outside of a circular tube.

In a gas absorption experiment a viscous fluid flows upward to a small circular tube and
then downward of the outside (see figure) set up a momentum balance over a shell of thickness Dr
in the film as shown in figure. Note that, ‘momentum in’ and ‘momentum out’ arrows are always
taken in the positive ‘r’ direction in setting up the balance, Eventhough in this case the momentum
turns out to be flowing in the negative ‘r’ direction.

a) Show that the velocity distribution in the falling film (neglecting end effects)

gR 2
( ) ( )
2
vz = [1 - r R + 2a 2 ln r R ]
4m
b) Obtain an expression for the volume rate of flow in the film.

88
 Figure:

Rate of momentum in – Rate of momentum out + sum of forces acting on the system = 0  (1)

Rate of momentum in
across the surface
due to viscous = (rtrz ) r=r 2 L
transport r = r

Rate of momentum out

across the surface = (rtrz ) r=rDr 2L
due to viscous
transport of r = r + Dr

89
Rate of momentum across
the annular surface due to
2
bulk motion of liquid at = (2 rDr)v 2 z=0
z=0

Rate of momentum out

2
across the annular surface = (2rDr)v 2 z=L
due to bulk motion at z = L

Force due to gravity = (2rDrL)g

Sub above equations in equation (1)

0
rtrz r=r 2 L - rtrz r=r+Dr + (2rDr) v 22 - (2 r Dr )v 22 z=L + (2 rDrL)g = 0
z=0

as vz = same for Z = L & Z = 0

-rtrz r=r+Dr 2L + rtrz r=r 2L = -(2 rDrL)g

�by 2LDr
rtrz r=r+Dr + rtrz r=r
- = -rg
Dr

Lt Dr  0

and differentiating,

d
- (rtrz) = - rg
dr
d(rtrz) = g r dr
Integrating

r2
rtrz = g + C1
2
r C
trz = g + 1
2 r

trz = 0 r = aR

gr
trz =
2

90
Compare it with Newton’s law of viscosity

Integrating

gaR C1
0= +
2 aR
� gaR �
C1 = -aR �
�2 � �
gr aR(gaR)
trz = -
2 2r
2 2
gr a R g
trz = -
2 2r
g � (aR 2 ) �
trz = �r- �
2 � 2r �

Compare with Newton’s law of viscosity

dv z
trz = -m
dr
dv g � (aR)2 �
-m z = r-
dr 2 �
� r ��
g � (aR)2 �
dv 2 = - r- dr
2m �
� r � �
Integrating

g �r2 �
vz = - � - (aR)2 [ln r]�+ C2
2 �2 �
r=R vz = 0
r = kR vz = 0

-g �1 2 2 �
= � (R - r ) - ( aR)2 [ ln R - ln R ]�
2m �2 �
2
-g R 2 � � r� �
= �-1 + 2a R ln R + � �- 2a 2 R ln r �
2

2m 2 � �R � �
2
gR 2 � r� �
= 1 - 2a 2 R ln R - �
�
2
� �+ 2a R ln r �
4m � �R � �

91
 gR 2
( ) ( )
2
vz = 1- r R
� + 2a 2 ln r R �
4m � �
2  aR
Q= v r dr dq
�� z
0 R

gR 4 4
Q= �
�a [4 ln a - 3] + 4a 2 - 1]�
�
8m
2  aR
gR 2
( ) ( )
2
Q= � �4m 1- r R
� + 2a 2 ln r R �r dr dq
� �
0 R
aR
gR 2 � r
( ) ( )
2
= � 1- R + 2a 2 ln r R �r dr(q)02
4m � �
R

aR
gR 2 � 1
= 2 �
4m
r-
� R
3 2
a (r ) + 2a r ln
r �dr
R � ( )
R
aR

( )
2 gR 2 � 2 aR 1 �r 4 � aR �
r 2a 2 [ r ln r - r ln r ] dr �
=
4m
� 2
� R
- 2 � �
R �4 �
+ �
R �
R

aR aR aR
2 gR 2 �(aR)2 R 2 (aR)4 R 4 2 � r2 � � r 2 � �1 r 3 � �
= � - - + + 2a � (ln r. � - � ln R. � + � ��
4m � 2 2 4R 2 R 2 4 � 2� R � 2� R �2R 3 �
R �

u = ln r dv = r dr
1 r2
du = dr v =
r 2

2gR 2 �
(aR)2 R 2 a 4 R 2 R 2 � (aR)2 R2 (aR) 2 R 2 (aR)2 R2 �
1 (aR) 3 1 R 3 �
= � - - + + 2a 2 � ln aR - ln R - + - ln R . + ln R. + - �
�
4m � �2 2 4 4 �2 2 4 4 2 2 2R 3 2 3 ��
�
2gR �
2
aR R aR
2 2 2 4 2
R 2
aR aR
4 2 2 2
�
= � - - + + a 4 R 2 ln aR - a 2 R 2 ln R - + - a 4 R 2 ln R + a 2R 2 ln R �
4m � 2 2 4 4 2 2 �
gR 2 .R 2 �a2 1 a4 1 4 a4 a2 �
= � - - + + a ln aR - + - a 4 ln R �
2m �2 2 4 4 2 2 �
gR 4 � a2 1 a4 a4 2 a2 2 1 4 �
= � - - - � + � - + a 4 � ln a �
2m �2 2 4 2 2 2 2 4 4 �
gR 4
= 2a 2 - a 4 - 2a 4 + 2a 2 - 1 + 4a 4 ln a �
�
2.4m � �
gR 4
= 2a 2 - 3a 4 + 2a 2 - 1 + 4a 4 ln a �
�
8m � �

92
 gR 4 4
Q= �
�a (4 ln a - 3) + 4a 2 - 1�
�
8m
2gR 4 4
M= �
�a (4 ln a - 3) + 4a 2 - 1�
�
8m

12. A test on water in a capillary viscometer let following data,

mm 3
Flow rate = 880
sec
Tube length = 1 m
Tube diam = 0.5 mm
DP = 10 MPa
Determine the viscosity of water and also test whether the flow is in laminar region
DP 32mv z
=
L D2
3
-3 3 m
Q = 880 �(10 )
sec
L = 1m
D = 0.5 �10 -3 m
DP = 10 �106 Pa or N
m2
6 -3
10 �10 32 �m �880 �10
= -3
1 ( 880 �10 ) 2
Q 880 �10 -3 880 �(10 -3 )3
U2 = = =
A  D2  �(0.5 �10 -3 )2
4 4
= 4.48 �10 6 m s
10 �10 6 32 �m �4.48 �6
=
1 (0.5 �10 -3 )2
kg
m = 0.0174
m.s
VD
= NRe
m
1000 �4.48 �0.5 �10 -3
= NRe
0.0174
NRe = 128.56

13. Estimate the viscosity of pure liquid benzene at 293.2 K. For pure liquid benzene
cm 3
V = 89.0 ,Tb = 80.1oC .
gm mole

93
 Nh T
m= exp �
�3.8 b �
�
V � T�
Spherical volume

V = 89.0 �(10 -2 )3
cm 3
= 78 �(10 -3 ) .
kg mole
1
N = 6.023 �10 23
gm.mole
gm(cm)2
h = 6.624 �10 -27
sec
-27 -3kg m 2
-4
= 6.624 �10 �(10 ) �(10 )
sec
Tb = 80.1 + 273 = 353.1 K

V = 0.089
1 gm mole 1
N = 6.023 �10 23 � � � 2 mole
78 gm gm
1
= 7.72 �10 24
kg
kgm 2
h = 6.624 �10 -34
sec
7.72 �10 24 �6.624 �10 -34 35 3.1 �
m= exp �
3.8
� �
0.089 �78 3
� 293 0.2 �
�
-10
= 4.48 �10 �97.15
kg
m = 4.35 �10 -4
ms
m = 0.435 CP
14. Determination of viscosity from terminal velocity of a falling sphere?

Derive a relation that enables one to get the viscosity of the fluid by measuring the steady
state rate of fall of a sphere in the fluid.

Solution:

This sphere is allow to fall from rest to the viscous fluid it will accelerates until it reaches a
constant (a terminal) velocity. When this state has been reached, the sum of all the forces acting

94
on the sphere must be zero. The force of gravity on the solid acts in the direction of wall and the
buoyancy force and the force due to fluid motion act in the opposite direction.

Let

‘R’  radius of falling sphere

s  density of falling sphere
m  viscosity of fluid
VT  terminal settling velocity
f  density of fluid
g  acceleration due to gravity

net force = sum of forces acting on the system.

Fnet = Fgravity - FDrag - FBuoyancy

0
dv
m� = m.g - 6mVt R - f g(vol)
dt
4 4
0 = s R 3g - 6mVt R - f g R
3 3
4 3 4 3
6 mVt R = s R g - f R
3 3
4 2
6 mVt R = R 3 g [ s - f ]
3
2
4 R 2 g(s - f )
m=
3 6 �Vt
3

2 R g(s - f )
2
m=
9 Vt

15. Determine the expression for volumetric flow rate of for adjacent flow of two immiscible
fluids?

Adjacent flow of two immiscible fluids (liquid-liquid boundary)

95
 Figure:

Consider two immiscible incompressible fluids under steady state are flowing through
positive ‘Z’ direction in a horizontal thin slit formed between two large parallel plates. Assume
that the fluid rates are so adjusted in such a way that the shift is half filled by (mover dense) fluid I
(more viscous fluids). And half filled by fluid II (the less dense and less viscous fluid) is desired to
analysis this system in terms of momentum flux and velocity distribution.

Let,
L = length of the shift
2b = gap between plates
W = width of the slit

The thickness 2b is very small and hence the system is neglected fluids are flowing only
under the influence of pressure gradient.

The differential momentum balance over a small liquid film of thickness of Dx in the system
can be written as,

Rate of momentum in – Rate of momentum out + sum of forces acting on the system

96
Rate of momentum in
across the surface due = txz x=x LW
to viscous transport
at x = x

Rate of momentum out

across the surface due to = txz x=x+Dx LW
viscous transport
at x = x + Dx

Rate of momentum in
2
across the surface due to = (WDx)v z z=0
bulk motion of fluid z = 0

Rate of momentum out

2
across the surface due = (WDx)v z L
to bulk motion of fluid
at z = L

The pressure force acting = Po (WDx)

on the surface at z = 0

The pressure force acting

on the surface at z = L = -PL (WDx)

sub all above equation (1)

0
txz x=x LW - t xz x=x+Dx + (WDx) v 22
z =0

0
- (WDx) V22 z =L
+ o (WDx) - PL (WDx) = 0
txz x =x +Dx LW - txz x = x LW = o (WDx) - PL (WDx)
�by LWDx
txz x=x+Dx - txz x = x +Dx (Po - PL )
=
Dx L
Lt
Dx �0

txz x = x +Dx - txz x = x (Po - PL )

=
Lt Dx L
Dx �0

Differentiating

97
 d (P - P )
( txz ) = o L
dx L
(Po - PL )
dtxz = dx
L

Integrating

(Po - PL )
txz = dx + C1  (2).
L
(Po - PL )
Here we have to regions of fluid, txz I at x = 0, txz = 0 B.C (i) txz = dx + C1 I  (3)
L

(Po - PL )(0)
0= + C1
L
C1 = 0
(P - PL )
txz = o x
L

Thus, ‘z’ momentum flux at given radial distance ‘x’.

(Po - PL )
txz I = x + C1I � (3)
L
(P -P )
txz II = o L x + CPII � (4)
L
B.C.(i)
x = 0, txzI = txzII

(momentum fluxes are continuous along the interfaces)

Using B.C. (i)

Equation (3) and (4)

txzI = C1I � (5) txzII = C1II � (6)

From (5) and (6) we can write

C1I = C1II = C1

There (3) & (4) becomes

98
 Po - PL
txzI = x + C1 � (7)
L
P -P
txzII = o L x + C1 � (8)
L

Insert Newton’s law of viscosity

dv z
txz = -m
dx
dv z I
P -P dv z II Po - PL
-m1I = o L x + C1 - m1II = x + C1
dx L dx L
dv Iz Po - PL C1 dv IIz P -P C
=- I
x- I = - o II L x - II1
dx Lm m dx Lm m
Integrating

-(Po - PL ) 2 C1 2
v Iz = x - I x + CI2 � (9)
2Lm I m
-(Po - PL ) 2 C1 2
v IIz = - II
x - II x + CI2 � (10)
2Lm m

I II
B.C (2) x = 0 v z = v z

Apply B.C. (2) in equation (9) & (10)

v I2 = C I2 v II2 = C II2
CI2 = CII2 = C 2
v I2 = C 2 v II2 = C 2

Therefore equation (9) &(10) becomes

-P - P C
v I2 = o I L x 2 - I1 x + C2 � (11)
2m L m
-P - P C
v II2 = o II L x2 - II1 x + C2 � (12)
2m L m
B.C. (iii)

I
At x = -b v z = 0

B.C. (iv)

99
 II
x = +b v z = 0

Apply B.C. (3) in (11)

Po - PL 2 C1
0=- b + I b + C2
2m I L m
P -P C
0 = - o II L b2 + II1 b + C 2
2m L m

Po - PL 2 C1
C2 = b - I b � (13)
2m I L m
P -P C
C 2 = o I L b2 - I1 b � (14)
2m L m

Equation (13) – (14)

(Po - PL ) 2 �1 C1 b 1 C1 b �
0= b � I - I - II - II �
2L �m m m m �
C1 b C1 b (Po - PL ) 2 �1 1 �
I
+ II = b � I - II �
m m 2L m m �
�
�1 1 � (P - P )b 2 �1 I �
C1 b � I + II �= o L � I
- II �
�m m � 2L �m m �
�m II + m I � (P - P )b 2 �mII - mI �
C1 b � I II �= o L �m Im II �
�m m � 2L � �
(Po - PL )b �
m II - m I �
C1 = � �
2L m II + m I �
�
m I - m II �
(Po - PL )b �
C1 = - � � (15)
2L m I + m II �
� �
Sub (15) in (13)

(Po - PL )b 2 (Po - PL )b 2 m I - m II �
�
C2 = - �
2m I L 2Lm I mI + m II �
� �

100
 (Po - PL )b 2 � m I - m II �
C2 = 1+ I
� II �
2m I L � m +m �
(Po - PL )b 2 �
m I + m II + m I - m II �
C2 = � �
2m I L � � m I + m II �
�
(Po - PL )b 2 � 2 m �
I

= �I II
�
2 mI L � �m + m �
�
2
(P - PL )b � 1 �
C2 = o � � (16)
L m I + m II �
� �

Expression for momentum flux:

Sub equation (15) in (2)

(Po - PL ) b (Po - PL )b �
m I - m II �
txz = � - �
L b 2L m I + m II �
� �
(Po - PL )b � m I - m II �
x 1 ��
txz = - �I � (17)
L �
b 2�
� m + m II �
�� �

Plane of zero shear stress:

txz = 0 in equ (17)

(Po - PL )b �x 1 ��
m I - mII �
0= - �
L �
�b 2� m I + mII �
�� �
m I - m II �
x 1�
0= - �I
m + m II �
b 2� �
m I - m II �
x 1�
= �I � (18)
m + m II �
b 2� �
m I - m II �
b�
x= .
2�
m I + m II �
� �

Momentum flux at wall surfaces:

txz x=b � in (17)

101
 (Po - PL )b � m I - m II �
b 1� �
txz = � - � I �
II �
L �b 2�
m +m � �
m I - m II �
(Po - PL )b � 1 � �
= 1 -
� �I �
II �
L � 2�m +m � �
(Po - PL )b �
2(m I + m II ) - (m I + m II ) �
= � �
L � 2(m I + m II ) �
2m I + 2m II - m I + m II �
(Po - PL )b �
= � 2(m I + m II ) �
L � �
(Po - PL )b �m I + 3m II �
txz =
2L �m I + m II �� (19)
� �

Sub txz x=- b in (17)

(Po - PL )b �-b 1 �
m I - m II �
�
txz = � - �I �
L �b 2 �m + m II � �
�
Similarly

(Po - PL )b �3m I + m II �
txz = -
2L �m I + m II �� (20)
� �
Expression for velocity distribution:

Sub (15) & (16) in (11)

(Po - PL ) 2 C1x
v Iz = - x - I + C2
2Lm I mx
(Po - PL ) 2 (Po - PL )bx �
m I - mII � (Po - PL )b 2 � 1 �
v =
I
x + � +
m I + m II � �
m I + m II �
2
2Lm I 2LmI � � L � �
(Po - PL )b 2 �- x 2 m I - m II x 1 �
v12 = � + I . + mI I
2Lm I
�b
2
m +m bII
m + m II �
�
(P - PL )b � 2m
2 I I
x m -m II

( )
2�
v I2 = o I � I II
+ I II
- x b �� (21)
2Lm �m +m b m +m �

Sub (15) and (16) in (12)

102
 m I - m II � (Po - PL )b 2
(Po - PL ) 2 (Po - PL )bx � � 1 �
v II2 = - x + +
2m II L 2Lm II � m I + m II �
� � L �
m I + m II �
� �
(Po - PL )b 2 � x 2 x m I - mII 1 �
v II2 = � + + 2m II . I
2Lm II
� m 2 I
b m +m II
m + m II �
�
2
(P - P )b � 2m II
x m -m
I II

( )
2�
v II2 = - o IIL x
2m L �
+
mI + mII b mI + mII
- b �� (22)
� �

Flow through a narrow slit:

2
(Po - PL )B2 � �x ��
vz = 1 -
� � ��
2mL � �B ��
put m I = m II = m in equation (22)
(Po - PL )b 2 �2m x o
( )
2�
v II2 = + - x
2mL �
m + m b 2m b �
� �
(Po - PL )b 2 � x 2 �
=
2mL
1- b
�
( )
�
v z max :
b� m I = m II �
Sub x = � I in equ (22)
2 �m + m II � �

2 2
(Po - PL )b2 � 2m II 1 �mI - mII � �mI - m II �1 �
v 2 max = �I + � -
� � � �
2m II L m + m II 2 �m I + m II � �m I + m II �4 �
�
2
(P - P )b2 � 2m II 1 �mI - mII ��
v z max = o IIL �I + � ��� (23)
2m L m + m II 4 �m I + m II ��
�
Average velocity

I
I �
�v dx dy z
<v z >=
�r dr dz
�
w 0
I
�
�v dx dy z

= 0 -b
w 0

�
�dx dy
0 -b

103
 W 0 2
(Po - PL )b 2 � 2m I x m I - m II �x ��
� � 2LmI �I + - � ��dx dy
m + m II b m I + m II �b ��
�
= 0 -b
W 0
dx dy
��
0 -b
W 0 0
w
dx dy = �
�� dx(y) 0
0 -b -b

= w(x)0-b
= w(0 + b)
= wb

0
(Po - PL )b 2 � 2mI x mI - m II �x �
�
=W� � + -� �
�dx
-b
2LmI I
m +m
�
II I II
b m + m �b � �

o o
W(Po - PL )b 2 � 2mI o l m I - m II �x2 � l �x 3 � �
= �I (x)- b - - � - b 2 �3 � �
2LmI m + mII
� b m I + mII � �2 �
-b � �-b �

W(Po - PL )b2 �2m I b b2 mI - mII b3 �

= � - -
2Lm I �m I + m II 2b m I + m II b 2 3 �
�
3
W(Po - PL )b � 2m I
m -m l l �
I II
= 2 �I - I . -
2Lm I
�m +m II
m + m II 2 3 � �
2
W(Po - PL )b
� 2m I 3
m I - m II l l �
� - . -
I 2Lm I � m I + m II m I + m II 2 3 � �
< v2 > =
Wb
(P - P )b 2 � 2m I m I - m II l l �
< v II2 > = o LI � - . -
2Lm m I + m II m I + m II 2 3 �
� �
wb
II
�
�v dx dy z

< v IIz > = 0 0

w0

�
�dx dy = Wb
0 0
W b b 2
II (Po - PL )b 2 � 2m II x m I - m II �x ��
� � v dx dy = W � II
2 �I + - � ��
0 0 0
2m L �m + mII b m I + mII �b ��
(P - P )b 2 � 2m II b mI - mII b �
=W o IIL b + - �
2m L � m I + m II
� 2 m I + m II 3 �
(Po - PL )b 2 � 2m II m I - m II l l �
< v II2 > = + . -
2Lm II � m I + m II m I + m II 2 3 �
� �

104
 (Po - PL )b2 � 2m II 6 mI - m II 3 l 2 m I - m II �
<v > =
I
�I + - . - . �
m + mII 6 2 ( m I + m II ) 3 3 2 mI + m II �
z
2Lm I �
� �
(Po - PL )b2 �
12m I - 3m I + 3m II - 2m I - 2mII �
= � �
2Lm I �
� 6 ( m I + m II ) �
�
�7 m I + m II �
(Po - PL )b2
= � I �
�
�6 ( m + m II ) �
12Lm I �
2 I II
(P - P )b � 7m + m �
< v Iz > = o IL � ( 24 )
12m L �mI + m II �
�
�
(Po - PL )b 2 �m I + 7m II �
<v > =
II
� ( 25 )
12m II L � II �
z I
�m + m �

Volumetric flow rate :

(Po - PL )b 3 W �7m I + m II �
QI = �m I + mII �
12m I L � �
(Po - PL )b 3 W �m I + 7 m II �
Q II = �m I + m II �
12m II L � �

Velocity at interface

Put x = 0 in equation 21 or 22
I (Po - PL )b 2 � 2m I �
vz = �
2Lm I m I + m II �
� �
(Po - PL )b 2
v IIz =
( mI + mII )
The z-component force are the forces on wall surfaces:
Fz x = b = txz x= b ( Lw ) � ( 19 )
Fz x = b = txz x=- b ( Lw ) � 20
(Po - PL )b �m I + 3m II �
Fz x= b = �m I + m II ��w
2L � �
(Po - PL )bW �m I + 3m II �
= �m I + m II �
2 � �
-(Po - PL )b �3m I + mII �
Fz x =- b = �m I + m II ��Lw
2L � �
1 �3m I + mII �
= - (Po - PL )bW � I II �
2 �m + m �

105
 UNIT – III

PART – A

1. Equation of continuity.

2. Physical significance of Brinkman member?

mn 2 heat productio by incons dissipation

Br = 2 =
P heat transport by conduction
KCTb - To
P2

3. How viscosity varies with temperature for gases.

The viscosity vary with temperature for dilute gases as

In gases the molecular momentum transfer predominates the inter molecular cohesive
forces; cleanse in gases the molecules as widely spaced resulting in negligible intermolecular
action). With increase of temperature the exchange 06 momentum of molecular increases
vigorously and resulting in increases of viscosity of gases.

4. Comparison between furies law & Newton’s law of viscosity.

d nx
The Newton’s law of viscosity in given by, Tyx = -m
dy
dT
The Fourier law of heat conduction in given by, q = -F
dy
m
The momentum diffusivity in given by �= P

IIIrly The thermal diffusivity in given by

 = k PC
p

5. Ergun’s equation.

Ergun’s equation in given by

106
 ( )
2
DP 150mVo 1 - e p l V02 ( 1e )
= + 1.75
L D P2 e 3 DP e3
It in used to determine the pressure drop per unit length when fluid flow through a bed of
particles.

6. Effect of temperature & pressure on viscosity of liquid.

1. If temperature increases the viscosity of the liquid decreases.

2. If pressure increases there in an increases in viscosity.

For Gases:

1. As temperature increases the viscosity of gases increases

2. There would not be any changes approvable.

7. Write about Bingham model.

This 2 parameter model in proposed to describe the defor mation & flowing nature of
Bingham fluids. As substances that follows the model in called Bingham plastics & these types of
fluid can resists a small stores but flow easily somewhat, newt man fluid, under larger shear skess.
At low shear skess, the viscosity in infinity & at higher shear stress viscosity decreases with
increasing shear rate.
dnx
Tyx = -mo + to
dy
dnx
= o if Ty x < To
dy
m o - to = positive.

8. Write about thermal conductivity.

It is the proportionality constant used for the fourier’s law of heat conduction.
dT
q = -k
dz
q
k= �w k
dT(dz )
m

9. Write energy balance equation.

At steady state, the shell energy balance in given by

107
 ( Rate of thermal energy in ) - ( Rate of thermal energy out )
+ ( Rate of thermal energy produced inside the system ) = 0
10. Write Hagen – Poiserules equation.

Hagan – Poiserules equation in given by

Po - PL n
= 32m 22
L p
By knowing flow in lanunar ‘time’ pressure drop, the viscosity can be meascured.

11. Write Stoke’s law.

Stoke’s law:

Stoke’s law can be given as

Fk = 6 mn�R
where
R � Radiuns of non- rotating sphere

12. Mass transfer ration of equimolar counter diffusion.

LA
� C
+ n * �L A = D AB�2 L A + l A - A ( R A + R B )
�t C

For V*=0, the equation for the mass transfer rate for equimolar counter diffusion is
determined.

13. Define skin and form friction.

Rheology:

The subject of Non-Newton flow in actually a sub division of the large science of rheology.
This in the science of deformation and flow include the mechanical properties of gases, liquids,
plastics, asphalts and crystal’s material.

14. Write about Eddy viscosity.

Eddy Viscosity:

108
 ( +) ( t) dn x
One of the easiest proposal Tyx = -m
dy
By analogy with newton’s law of viscosity m(+) in a turbulent co-efficient of viscosity or
eddy viscosity and usual depends strongly on position.
15. Explain mass & Thermal diffusivity.

Mass & Thermal diffusivity:

The mass diffusivity in given by

2
DAB It’s unit in given by m s

dC A
N A = - DAB
dz
moles m3
D AB = �
m 2 S moles
2
unit = m s

2
The thermal diffusivity in given by  its unit in m s

J
 = k pcp = smk
kg
�J kg k
m2
2
unit : m s

109
 PART – B

1. Explain equation of continuity.

Equation of Continuity

This in derived by applying law of conservation of mass over a stationary volume element
Dx DyDz fixed in space through which the fluid in flowing.

Figure:

The law of conservation of mass over the given control volume of unsteady state can be
written as;

Rate of mass in – Rate of mass out = Rate of mass accumulation inside the given
volume.

mass
The rate of mass =
time

density �vol
=
time
length
= den �Area �
time
= l Aq

110
 V
The rate of mass in at x=x, through = l ( Dy Dz ) x x = x

The face AEFC = Dy Dz ( l v x ) / x = x

The rate of mass out at x=x+Dx throu' the face BGHD} = D Dz ( l v x ) / x = x + Dx

The rate of mass in at �
y=y throu' CDHF
�= DxDz l v y / y = y ( )
�
The rate of mass out at �
y=y+Dy throu' ABGE �
�= DxDz l v y / y = y + Dy ( )
The rate of mass in at �
�= DxDy ( l v z ) / z = z
z = z throu', ABCD �

The rate of mass out at �

�= DxDy ( l v 2 ) / 2 = 2 + Dx
z=z+Dx throu' EFGE �
The rate of mass accu- � �
�= ( mass )
mulation inside the sys � � t
�
= ( density �volume )
�t
� l
=V
� t
�l
=Dx Dy Dz
�t

Substituting all the above expressions in equation(1)

l ( Dy Dz ) v x / x = x - D y D2 ( l v x ) / x = x +Dx + Dx Dy v y ( ) / y=y

-Dx Dy l v y ( ) / y = y +Dy
+ DxDy ( l v 2 ) / 2 = 2 - DxDy ( l v 2 ) 2 = 2 + c
�
l
-DxDyDz =0
�t

(
DyDz ( l v x / x - l v x / x +Dx ) + DxDz l v y / y - l v y / y )
�
l
+DxDz ( l v z / z - l v z / z +Dz ) = DxDyDz
�t
�above eq. by DxDyDz

( l v x / x - l v x / x+ox ) + ( l v y / y - l v y / y +Dy ) + ( l v z / z - l v z / z +Dz ) = �l

Dx Dy Dz t
�

111
Taking limits Dx, Dy, Dz = 0

ht
Dx � 0
( lv x/x - l v x / x + l vx / xx ) + Dy � 0 ( l v
Lt y/ y - Klv y / y +Dy )
Dx Dy

+ Dz � 0
( lv
Lt z/z - l v z + Dz
z
) = �l
Dz t
�
� � � �
l
-
x
� y
� �z
(
( l vx ) - l vy - ( l vz ) =
�t
)
�
l �� � � �
�t
= - � ( l vx ) +
x
� y
� �z
(
l vy + ( l vz ) � � ( 2) )
� �

Equation (2) in known as equation of continuity which describes time rate of change of
density resulting pom changes in mass velocity vectors ( l v ) .

Equation (2) in more simplified form can be written as,

�
l
= -Ѯ ( l v ) ( 3)
�t

where �( l v ) in called as divergence of l v, or sometimes written as

�
l
= -div ( l v ) , It has a unit of M-1 or (Length)-1.
�t

Equation (2) in some other form can be obtained by collecting derviations of density on one side.

d dv du
( uv ) = u + v
dx dx dx
�l �� vx �l � vy �l �v �l�
= -� l + vx + l + vy + l 2 + v z �
�t �� x �x y
� �y �z �z�
�l � l �l �l �� vx vy
� �v �
+ vx + vy + vz = -� l +l +l 2 �
�t � x �y z
� �� x �y �z �
�
l �l �l �l �� vy �
vx � v �
+ vx + vy + v2 = -l � + + 2�
�t x
� y
� z
� ��x �y �z�

Left hand side of above equation in known as substantial time derivative, which in the
derivative for a path which in following the fluid motion. Therefore

112
 Dp �v
� vy �
� vz �
= -l � x + + �( 4)
Dt ��x �y z �
�

Equation (4) is the equation of continuity which describes the rate of change in density as
observed by an observer who is floating along the fluid.
Equation in simplified from can be represented b the following vectorial notaytion.

Dl
= -l ( �.v )
Dt

For incompressible fluid ( l = cons tan t )

-l ( �.v ) = 0
�.v = 0
( ie )
vx �
� vy �vz
+ + =0
�x y
� z
�

2. Explain equation of continuity for cylindrical co-ordinate.

Derive the equation of continuity in cylindrical co-ordinate by means of a mass balance,

over a stationary volume element r, Dr, Do, Dz .

B, Develop the equation of continuity in cylindrical co-ordinates from rectangular form, by

the change variable. In this development the following relation legible assumed without proof.

x = r cos q r= x+y 2 v x = v r cos q - v q sin q

y = r sin q q=arctan ( yx ) v y = v r sin q + v q cos q

z=z z=z vz = vz

113
 Figure:
Equation of continuity in obtained by writing the mass balance r Dr Dq Dz. The unsteady
state mass-balance in

[ Rate of mass in ] - [ Rate of mass out ] = [ Rate of mass accumulated] ( 1)

Rate of mass in at r=r�

�= l [ v r ( Dz ) ] r = r
through the face ABCD �

Rate of mass out at r=r+Dr �

�= l [ v r ( Dz r Dq ) ] r =r +Dr
through the face EFGH �
Rate of mass in at q=q �
�= l [ v q ( Dr Dz ) ] q = q
through the face BFHD �

Rate of mass out at q=q+Dq �

�= l [ v q ( DrDz ) ] q=q+Dq
through the face AECG �

Rate of mass in at z=z�

v ( Dr ( l Dq ) ) �
�= l �
through the face CGDH � �z �
z =z

Rate of mass out at z=z+Dz �

v z ( Dr ( rDq ) ) �
�= l �
� �
through the face AEBF �
z = z +Dz

114
 Rate of mass accumulated � �
�= ( mass )
inside the given volume � � t
�
= ( l �volume )
�t
�
= l ( r Dr Dr Dq Dz )
�t
�
= rDrDqDz ( l )
�t
Sub above equation in (1).
l�� v r ( Dz ( rDq ) ) �
�
r =r
-l �
� v r ( Dz ( rDqz ) ) �
�r=r+Dr
+ l [ v q ( DrDz ) ] q = q - l [ v q ( DrDz ) ] q = q + Dq
+ l [ v z ( DrDrDq ) ] z = z - l �
v 2 ( Dr ( rDq ) ) �
� �z = z + D
�
-rDrDqDz ( l ) = 0
�t
�by Dr DqDz
Dz ( rDq ) r =r - Dz ( rDq ) r =r +Dr �
l vr �
� �
DrDqDz
( DrDz ) q=q - ( DrDz ) q=q+Dq �
l vq �
� �
+
DrDqDz
Dr ( rDq ) z = z - Dr ( rDq ) z = z +Dz �
l vz �
� �= rDrDqDz �( l )
+
DrDqDz t
�

Sub limit Dr � o, Dz � o, Dq = o

� � � �
l
- ( l rvr ) - ( l vq ) - ( rl vz ) = r
r
� �q z
� �t
� � � � l
= ( l rvr ) - ( l v q ) - r ( l vz ) = r
�r �q �z � t

1 � 1 � � �l
-�
� ( l rv r ) + ( l v q ) + ( l vz ) = �
r�
� r r�q �z �t��

l vx �
� l vy �l vz �l
(b) + + =
� x � y � z t
�

115
 l Vx �
� l vx � r �l vx �
q � l vz � z
= . + + .
�x � r � x � q �x � z � x
l vy �
� l vy � r � l vy �q �l vy � z
= . + + .
� y � r � y � q �y � z � y
l vz �
� l vz � x �l vz �q � l vz � z
= . + . + .
� z � r � z � q � z �z � z

x = r cos q r = x2 + y 2

y = r sin q q=tan -1 ( yx )
z=z z=z

r sin q �
r = r 2 cos 2 q + r 2 sin 2 q q=tan -1 �
� �
�r cos q �
=r 1
r=r
z=z

l v x �[ l v r cos q - Klv q sin q]

�
=
�r � r
�( l v r )
= cos q
� r
�r � 2 1
= ( x + y2 ) 2
x �
� x
-1
= 1 2 ( x 2 + y 2 ) 2 ( 2x )
x
=
x2 + y2

116
 l vx
� �
= [ l v r cos q - l v q sin q]
� q �q
� �( l vq ) �
= l v r ( - sin q ) - �l vq cos q + sin q
� � q � �
�
�
q �
x �
=
x (tan x
-y
)
=
1
2 -( y
)
1+ x ( )
y x2

y
=-
x2 �
� y 2�
�
1+ x �( )
�
y
=- 2
x + y2
�l vx �
= [ l vr cos q - l vq sin q]
� z � z
=0
l vx
� �( l vr ) x
= cos q � 2
� x � r x + y2
� �( l vq ) � - y
+� ( l v r sin q ) - l vq cos q + sin q �2 � ( 1)
� � q � � x +y
2

�l vy � l vy � r � l vy �q � l vy � z
= + +
� y � r � y � q � y � z � y
�l vy �
= � l v r sin q + l v gq cos q �
� r �r� �
�( l v r )
= sin q
�r

117
 �r � 2
y �
�
=
y
( x + y2 ) 1 2
( ( zy ) )
-1
= 1 2 x2 + y2 y 2

y
=
x + y2
2

l vy �
�
= [ l v r sin q + l v r cos q ]
�q �q
� �( l vq ) �
= l v r ( cos q ) + �
l v q ( - sin q ) + cos q
� � q � �
�q �
y �
�
=
y (
tan -1 x
y
)
1
= -1 ( )
( )
y
2 x
1+ x

1
=
�x + y 2 � 2
x� 2 �
� x �
x
= 2
x + y2
l vy �
�
= [ l vr sin q + l vq cos q ]
�z �z
=0
l vy
� �( l v r ) y � l ( l vq ) �
= sin q + l v ( cos q ) + l
� v q ( - sin q ) + cos q � ( 2)
q �
r
� y � r x2 + y2 � � �
x
x + y2
2

l vz �
� l vz �
z � l vz �
q � l vz �
z
= + +
� z � z �z � q �z � z �z
l vz �
�
= [ l vz ]
� z � z
lv � 2
�
= ( x + y2 ) 1 2
�z � r
=0
q
�
=0
z
�

118
l vz �( l vz )
�
= � ( 3)
� z �z
l �( l vx ) �( l vy ) �( l vr )
�
= + + � ( A)
�t x
� � y � z
�l x cos q �( l v r ) y � l vq
�
= + l v sin q + sin q
2 � r
+ l vq cos q �
�
dt x +y
2 2 � r x +y �
2
� q �
y sin q �( l v r ) ( �l vq )
+ + q + cos q - l vq sin q
x2 + y2 � r � q

x r cos q
=
x +y2 2
r cos2 q + sin 2 qr 2
2

x
= cos q
x2 + y 2
y r sin q
2 2
=
x +y r2
sin q
=
r
y x cos q
= sin q, 2 2
=
x2 + y 2 x +y r
�( l v r ) sin q � �l vq
cos 2 q + l v r sin q + sin q
� + l v q cos q �
�
� r r � � q �
�( l vr ) cos q � �( l vq ) �� l vz �l
+ sin 2 q + =� l vr cos q + cos q - l vq sin q �+ =
� r r�z � � q � � z t
�

�( l v r ) 2 2 l v r sin 2 q sin 2 q �
l vq sin q cos q l vr
cos
�
� q + sin q �
�+ + vq
+� + cos 2 q +
� z r r � q r r
1 �( l vq ) l vq sin q cos q � l vz � l
cos 2 q - + =
r � q r � z �t
�( l vr ) l vr
�
� cos 2 q + sin sin 2 q�� + �
�sin 2 q + cos 2 q�
�
� z r
1 �( l vq ) � l vz � l
+
r � q
( sin 2 q + cos 2 q ) +
� z
=
� t

119
 �( l vr ) l vr 1 �( l vq ) �( l vz ) �l
+ + + = � ( 4)
� q r r � q � z t
�
1 ��r l vr � 1 ��( l vr ) �r�
� �= �r + l vr �
r�r �a r � r � � r �r�
1 �� l ( vr ) l vr �
= � r +
r� � r r ��
�( l vr ) l vr
= +
� r r

1 � 1 �( l vq ) �( l vz ) �l
( l rvr ) + + = � ( 5)
r�r r � q z t
�

3. Explain equation of motion.

Equation of motion:

Equation of motion in developed by writing the momentum balance over a stationary

volume balance over a stationary volume clement Dx, Dy, Dz which is fixed in space through
which a fluid in flowing with all the six faces.

The unsteady state momentum balance over the volume element can be written as,

[ Rate of momentum in ] + [ Rate of moment out ] -

[ sum of forces acting on system ] - [ Rate of momentum accumulated ]

Momentum Transfer:

(1) Viscosity (because of fluid property) and it occurs in direction 1rd to fluid, flow.
(2) Because of bulk motion of fluid and in occurs in the direction of fluid flour.

The momentum gain by a fluid molecular will also impart some of this momentum to its
adjacent fluid layers (i.e) the x-component momentum will also transfer its momentum with y and
z direction also.

The x-component momentum balance:

(i) Due to viscous transport

120
 Figure:

Rate of x momentum in @ x=x} = txx x= x ( DyDz )

Rate of x momentum out @ x=x+Dx} = txx x = x +Dx ( DyDz )
Rate of x momentum in @ y=y} = t yx y=y ( DxDz )
Rate of x momentum out @ y=y+Dy} = t yx y = y +Dz ( DxDy )
Rate of x momentum in @ z=z} = tzx / z = z ( DxDy )
Rate of x momentum out @ z=z+Dz} = t zx / z = z ( DxDy )

Rate of ‘x’ component

= txx x ( DyDz ) - txx / x +Dx ( DyDz ) +

tyx / y ( DxDz ) - t y x / y +Dy ( DxDz ) + t zx / z ( DxDy ) - t zx ( DxDy )
z +Dz

= DyDz �
txx x -txx
� �+ DxDz �
x +Dx � � �+ DxDy [ tzx / z - tzx / z +Dz ]
t yx / y - t yx / y + Dy �

�by Dx Dy Dz
txx x -txx / x +Dx tyx / y - tyx / y +Dy
= +
Dx Dy
t -t
+ zx / z zx / z +Dz
Dz
Lt Dx � 0, Dy � 0, Dz � 0
Lt txx / x - txx / x +Dx t yzD - tyx / y + Dy
Dx � 0 + Dy � 0
Dx Dy
Lt t -t
Dz � 0 zx / z zx / z +Dz
Dz
�� t �tyx � t �
- � xx + + zx �� ( 2 )
�� x �y � z �

121
 The rate of x momentum due to bulk motion of fluid

The rate of x momentum in @ x=x} = ( l DyDz mass rate of fluid ) v x / x / = x

The rate of x momentum out @ x=x+Dx} = ( l v x DyDz ) v x / x = x +Dx
The rate of x momentum in @ y=y} = l v y DxDz v x / y = y ( )
The rate of x momentum out @ y=y +Dy} = ( l vyDxDz ) D x / y = +Dy
The rate of x momentum in @ z=z} ( l v z DxDy ) vlx / z = z
The rate of x momentum out @ z=z+Dz} = ( l v z DxDy ) v x / z = z +Dz

The net rate of ‘x’ momentum due to bulk motion of fluid,

= DyDzvxl ( v x / x - v x / x +Dx ) +

(
DxDzvyl v x / y - v x / y + Dy + )
DxDyvzl ( v x / z - v x / z + Dz )

By D x D y D z and limit D x  0, D z  0

Lt
Dx � 0
v xl ( v x / x - v x / x +Dx ) Lt
+ Dy � 0
(
vy v x / y - v x / y + 0 y )
Dx Dy
Lt v zl ( v x / z - v x / z +Dz )
+ Dz � 0
Dz
(
- ���
� x( x ) x
l v v + �� ) � (lv ) v �
y ( l vy ) vx + �
z z x
�
� ( 3)

Forces acting on the system when the fluid moves in ‘x’ direction.

The forces acting on the system are those that arises from the fluid pressure and the
gravitational force.

Pressure force:

Pressure force acting on the system at x = x = Px / x = x ( DyDz )

The pressure force acting on the system at x=x+Dx} = -Px / x +Dx ( DyDz )

Therefore the net ‘x’ component pressure force acting on the system

122
 = Px / x - x DyDz - Px / x = x +Dx
= by Dx Dy Dz
P - Px / x +Dx
= x/x
Dx
Lt P - Px / x +Dx
= Dx � 0 x / x
Dx
= -� P
�x � ( 4)

Gravitational force:

Gravitational force acting �

�
on the volume element when �= l ( DxDyDz ) l x
the fluid moves in 'x' direction �
�
�by Dx Dy Dz
=l g x � ( 5 )

The rate of 'x' momentum �

� �
accumulation inside the give �= ( momentum )
� � t
volume �
�
= ( mass �velocity )
� t
�
= ( l �v �D )
�t
�
= ( l xDxDyDzxvx )
�t
�( v x )
= DxDyzDz
�t
�by DxDyDz
�( l v x )
= � ( 6)
� t

Therefore the net ‘x’ component momentum balance in the form equation (1) can be written
as,
Sub quantities (2), (3), (4), (5) & (6) in equation (1)

123
 ��t � t yx � t �
- � xx + + zx �-
�� x � y � z �
�� � � �� P �( l vx )
� ( l v x ) v x + ( l vy ) v x + ( l v z ) v x �- + l gx = �( 7)
��x y
� �z �� x � t
Similarly the momentum balances for ‘y’ and ‘z’ directions are written as follows,

For ‘y’ direction:-

txy �
�� t yy �tzy � �� � � �� P �l v y ( )
-� +
x y
+ �- � ( Pv x ) v y +
z � �� x y z
( )
Pv y v y + ( l v z ) v y �- + l gy =
t
� ( 8)
�� � � � � � �y �

For ‘z’ direction

��
t tyz �
� t � �� � � �� P �( Pv z )
- � xz + + zz �- � ( l v x ) v z + ( l vy ) v z + ( l v z ) v z �- + Pg z = � ( 9)
��x �y � z � ��x y
� �z �� z �t

Therefore the overall momentum balance can be written as, by adding equation (7), (8) & (9)

�
��txx �t yx �t � �dt xy �t yy � t zy � �� t yz �
txz � t ��
-�
� + + zx �+ � + + �+ � + + zz �
�
��
� x �y � z � �� x � y �z � �� x �y � z �
�
�
���l v v + � l v v + � l v v + �� l vx � � � �
-�
� �
��x�
( x) x
� y
y x
z
�
( ) �� x � �y z
�
(
( z ) z � ( ) �v y + l v y v y + ( l v z ) v y � )
� �
�� � � �� �P � P �P�
+ � ( l vx ) vz +
x y
( )
l v y v z + ( l v z ) v z �- � +
z x �
+ �
y �z�
�� � � �� �
�� l v + � l vy + � l v � � 10
+P �
gx + g y + gz �
� �= � ( x) ( ) ( z)� ( )
�� tt � lt �

Equation (10) in simplified can be written as,

d
- [ �.t] - �. ( l vv ) - �.P + l g = ( l v) � ( 11)
dt

where,

�.t = stress tensor of the rate of momentum gain by bulk viscosity of fluid, per unit volume.

124
�( l vv ) = convective momentum transfer due to bulk motion of lfuid per unit volume.
�.P = gradient of pressure (grad P ) and in the pressure force acting on the fluid element
per unit volume.
l g=gravitational force acting per unit volume.
d mass velocity
( l v) = times the ( accelaration )
dt um + volume time
Equation (10) & (11) represents the rate of momentum gain in a given volume w.r.t changes in the
quantities t, l vv, Pg This in an equation of motion.

Equation (10) in some other form can be simplified as follows,

Rearrange equation (7) and collect derivatives of l v x in one side

� �t t yx �
� t �
- � xx + + zx �-
��x �y � z �
� � v �l vx vy
� l vx
� �v l vx � �
� P �
�l vx z + v x + l vx + vy + l vx z + vz �- + l gx = ( l vx )
� � x � x �y � y �z � z �� x �t
��t �tyx � t �� � v
� vy �
� v ��� P �
- � xx + + zx �- � l vx � x + + z� �- + pg x = ( l v x )
�� x � y �z �� � �� x �y �z� ��
� x �t
� l vx �l vx � l vx
+vx + vy + vz
� x � y � z
��
t tyx �
� t � � �� v vy �
� ��
v � P � Pvx � �
� l vx l vx �
�
- � xx + l vx � x +
+ zx �- � + z��- + l g x = ( l vx ) + vx +
� vy + vz �
��x �y � z � � �� x �y �z �
�� x �t �x � � y �z �

��t tyx �
� t � � �� v � vy � ��
v � P D
- � xx + l vx � x +
+ zx �- � + z��- + l gx = ( l vx ) � ( 12 )
�� x �y � z � � ��x y
� �z �
� x
� Dt

Equation (12) for incompressible fluid can be simplified by the use of the equation of
continuity [ �.v = 0 ]

�t
� tyx �
� t � � P D
- � xx + + zx �- = ( l vx ) � ( 13 )
��x �y �y � �x + l g x Dt

Similarly for ‘y’ + ‘z’ directions

125
 �txy �
� tyy �tzy � �P D
-� +
dx �
+
�z
�-
�
+ l gy =
Dt
(
l vy) � ( 14 )
� y � y
�t
� tyz �
� t �� P D
- � xz + + zz �- + l gz = ( l vz ) � ( 15 )
��x �y �z � � z Dt

Equation of motion in its complete form can be written by adding equation (13) + (14) &
(15) and for simplicity the resulting equation can be represented by the following pictorial
notation.
D
- ( �.t ) - �.P + l g = ( l v) � ( 16 )
Dt
Where,
�.t � shear force acting on the element per unit volume
Ѯ .P pressure force acting on the element per unit volume

pg  gravitational force acting on the element per unit volume

D
( l .v ) � The net rate of momentum increased inside the given volume (or)
Dt

mass
time acceleration
unit volume

Equation (16) in called as equation of motion.

Which describes the rate of change of momentum when the fluid flows in a given volume,
as absorbed by an absorber who in floating along the fluid.

4. Explain about Tangential annular flow for a Newtonian fluid.

Tangential annular flow for a Newtonian fluid

Determine the velocity and shear stress for the tangential laminar flow of a incompressible
fluid b/w two vertical co axial cylinders, the outer one of which in rotating with an angular,
velocity Wo end effects may be neglected.

126
 Figure:
Data given:
1. Laminar flow
2. Steady state
3. Fluid in incompressible
4. Cylindrical co-ordinates

vo = f ( r ) ; vr + v z = 0

Equation of continuity:

Cylindrical co-ordinates (r, 0, z)

P 1 �
� 1 � �
+ ( l vr ) + ( l vq ) + ( l vz ) = 0
�t r�
r r�q �z

1 d
( l vq ) = 0
r dq
dv q
l =0
dq
dv q
=0 � ( 1)
dq

Equation of motion:

q - component (In terms of velocity gradient)

127
 ��vq �vq vq �vq vr vq ( ) �v �
l � + vr
�� t
( )
�r
+
r �q
+
r
+ ( vz ) q �
�z �
� �
1� p �� 2 � v �2 v q �
- +m� 2 + 2 r + + l gq
r� q �q r �
� q � z2 ��
�d �1 d �
�
0 = m � � ( rvq ) �
�
�dr �r dr �
�

On integrating 1st

1 d
C1 = ( rvq )
r dr
d
C1r = ( rvq )
dr
On integ 2nd
r2
C 2 + C1 = rvq
2
v q = C1 r 2 + C 2 r � ( 2)

B.C ( i ) r = kR vq=0 ( Wi kR )
B.C ( ii ) r = R vq=W0 R ( o )

Use boundary. C ® in Equation (2)

K R C2
O = C1 +
2 kR
C2 C KR
=- 1
kR 2
K2R 2
C 2 = - C1 � ( 3)
2
Sab (3) in (4)
C 1R C 1 k 2 R
W0 R = - 2
2 R
2Wo
C1 = � ( 5)
1 - k2

Sub (5) in (3)

128
 R C1ky 2
Wo R = C1 -
2 R2
2Wo
C1 = � ( 5)
1 - k2

Sub (5) in (3)

2 Wo k 2 R 2
C2 = -
1 - k2 2
W0 k 2 R 2
C2 = � ( 6)
1 - k2

Sub (5) & (6) equation (2)

2 W0 r W0 k 2 R 2
vq = -
1 - k2 2 ( 1 - k2 ) r

�rk1 k 2 R 2 �
W0
= � �
1 - k2
�kR r �
WR r
vq = 0 2 �
1- k � 12 - k2 R r �
�( )
W0 k R �r kR �
= � R - �
1 - k2 � k r �
-W0 R �kR r �
= -
( 1 - k ) �r kR �
2 �
�
k
W0 R �k R r �
= 2 �r - k R �
( k - 1) � �
k
�kR r �
vq = � - R � � ( 7)
�r k �

Shear stress distribution table

� ��v q � 1 �� �
vo �
r � �+ � r �
trq = tqr = -m � �
��r �r � r ��q ��

129
 d �vq �
Trq = -mr � � � ( 8)
dr �r �
sub ( 7 ) in ( 8 )
� �
d � Wo R �k R r �
�
Trq = -m r - R�
dr �k - 1 �
� k �
r( k �
�
� )
0
-mrWo R d �kR 1 �
= � - R �
(
k - 1 k dr �r
2
) k �

-m r Wo R 2
= KR � �- 3� �
(
k - 1k �r �)
mWo R 2k R
=
� 1 �r2
�k - �
� k�
2mWoo kR 2
= 2
r k -1 k ( )
2mW0 R 2 1
=
r 2
k - 1k 1k ( )
2mWo k 2 R 2
trq = 2
r ( 1 - k2 )

The torque (Tr) required to turn the outer shaft may be calculated as the protect of the force
times the lever arms.

Tr = shear force �lever arm

( 2 RL ) R
=-trq r= R �R r �
2mW0 k 2
= 2 R 2 L
( 1 - k 2
)
4mW0 k 2 R 2 L
Tr =
1 - k2

5. Velocity distribution in a stormer viscometer.

Velocity distribution in a stormer viscometer.

As stormed viscometer consists essentially of two concentric cylinders, the inner of which
rotates while the outer in held stationary viscosity in determined by measuring the rate of rotation

130
of the inner cylinder under the application of a known (T r). Develop an expression for the velocity
distribution to thin kind of apparatus, as a function of applied T r for laminar flow of a Newtonian
fluid.

Data Given:
1. Laminar flow
2. Steady state
3. Steady state
4. Incompressible
5. Cylindrical co-ordinate

Equation of continuity:

Cylindrical co-ordinates (r, o, z)

� l 1 � 1 � �
+ ( l rvr ) + ( l vq ) + ( l vz ) = 0
� t r� r r l�
q �z
1 d
( l vq ) = 0
r dq
d
l vq = 0
dq
dv q
=0
dq

Figure:
Equation of notion:

Velocity gradient

q-component

131
 ��vq �vq v q � vq vr �v �
l � + vr + + vq + v z q �
�dt �r r �q r � z �
1� P ���1 �1 � 1 �2 v q 2 � v r �2 v q �
��
=- + m � � � ( rv q ) + 2 2
+ 2
+ 2 ���+ l g q
r� q ��r ��r �r �r r � q r �q � z � ��
d �1 d �
m � ( rv q ) �= 0
dr �r dr �
1st integral
1 d
d ( rv q ) = C,
r dr
d
rc1 = ( rv q )
dr
2nd integral
r2
C 2 + C1 rq
2
Cr C
vq = 1 + 2 � ( 2 )
2 r
B.C ( i ) r = Rvq = W; k R
( ii ) r = R v q = 0

Sub B.C (i) in (2)

C1 k R C 2
Wi k R = + R
2 k
Wi k R
B.C (ii)
C1 R C 2
O= +
2 R
CR C
- 1 = 2
2 R
C R2
C2 = 1
2

132
 C 1 k R C1 R 2
Wi k R = -
2 2 kR
CR R
Wi k R = 1 � k- �
2 � k�
� �
Wi k R 2
= c,
� R�
k� k- �
� k�
Wi k 2
c1 =
� R
�k- � �
� k�
- C 1R 2
C2 =
2
-Wi k 2 R 2
=
� 1
�k- � �2
� k�
CR
=- 1
2k
Wi k2R -Wi kR 2
=- =
( ) 1
2
k - 1k k �
�k- � �
� k�
Wi R
=-
( k-1
k )
Cr C
vq = 1 + 2
2 r
Wk 2 r Wi R 2 k
= i -
1 �2
( )
2
�k - k - 1
� � k
� k�
Wi k �d R2 �
= r -
� 1 � R r �
�k- � �� �
� k�
Wi kR r
vq � -R � � ( A)
� 1 ��R r�
�k- �
� k�

133
 � d �v q � 1 � vr �
trq = tm �r � �+
�dr �r � r � r ��
d vq �
trq = mr � � �
dr �r �
d Wi k R �r R �
trq = mr - �
dr � 1 ���R r�
�k- �
� k�
mr - Wi k R d �1 R �
= - 2�
1 dr � � R r �
k-
k
mrWi k R � 2 �
= +R 3 �
� 1 ��
� r �
� k- �
� k �
2mWi kR 2
trq =
1
r2 �
�k- � �
� k�
Tr = ( trq ) ( 2 kRL ) ( KR )
r = kR

=
2
-2mWi kR 2
k R �2 �
k- �
1�
2 k 2 R 2 L ( )
� k�
-4 mWi kR 2 L
Tr =
�k - 1 �
� �
� k�

Wi kR
Tr = -4 mLR
� 1
� k- � �
� R�
Wi kR Tr
=- � ( B)
� 1 � 4 mLR
�k- �
� k�
use ( B ) in ( 4 )

134
 -Tr
Vq = (
4 mLR R
r -R
r )
Tr
Vq = (
4 mLR r
R -r
R )
Tr � r �
Vq = � - R2 �
4 mL �r �
Tr �1 1
Vq = � - 2�
4 mL �r R �
2
�
Vq Tr �1 1 �
= - .
r 4mL �
r R2 �
�2
�

6. Problem: Tr required to turn a friction bearing calculate the required T r lbf ft and power
consumption in horse power to turn the shaft in the friction bearing as shown in fig, you may
assume that the length of the varying surface on the shaft in 2 inches. The shaft in running at
-3
200 rpm, that the viscosity of lubricant is 200 cp and that the fluid density in 50 lb m ft .

200
Wi = 200rpm = rps = 3 : 33
60
2 2
k R = 2 inch = = 1 inches = 2.54 �10 -m
2
0.002 + 2.00
R= = 1.002 inchs = 0.02545m
2
ks
m =200cP=200 �10-3
ms
L = 2 in = 0.0508 m

Figure:

135
 ihp = 746 watts
k ( 0.0254 ) = 2.54 �10
k = 0.998m

1 inch = 2.54 �10 -2 m

-4 mWi kR 2 L kgm kg 2
Tr = m
� 1 � MSM s
� k - �
� k�
2
-4 � �200 �10 -3 �( 0.0254 ) �0.0508 �3.33
=
� 1 �
� 0.998 - �
� 0.998 �
-0.000082
= = 0.0212 �3.33Nm.
-0.0039

Tr = 0.0305 Nm lbf ft
1 1 12 b = 4.44Nb
= 0.0705 � �
4.44 0.3028 1ft =0.3025m
= 0.0574 lbf ft.

P = Tr �annular velocity
=0.0705 �3.33
Nm
=0.233
s
1hp = 744 watt
=3.15 �10 -4
= 0.003 hp.

7. Problem: Velocity distribution between two co-axial cylinders determine vq ( r ) between two
co-axial cylinders of radic Rand kR rotating at annular velocity W0 and Wi respectively. Assume
that the space b / w cylinders in filled with an incompressible isothermal fluid in laminar flow.
1 �
� k2R 4 �
�
vq = 2 �
�
R ( 1 - k2 ) �
r ( Wo R 2
- Wi k 2 2
R ) -
r
( Wo - Wi ) �
�
� �
�

Data Given:
1. Laminar flow
2. Steady state
3. incompressible

136
 4. cylindrical co-ordinates

Equation of continuity:-

Cylindrical co-ordinates (r, o, z),

� P 1� 1 � �
+ ( l rv r ) + ( l vq ) + ( l v z ) = 0
� t r� r r�q �z
1 d
( l vq ) = 0
r dq
dvq
l =0
dq
dvq
=0
dq

Equation of motion:-

Velocity gradient:-
�vq � vq vq �vq v r vq vq �
�
l�
� + vr + + + v2 �
�� t �r r �q r �z �
1� P �� 1 �� 1 �2 vq 2 �v �2 v q �
=- + m� �� � ( rvq ) + + + 2 �+ pgq
r� q r �r �
�� r� r2 �q2 r 2 �
q � �
d �1 d �
m � ( r1vq ) �= 0
dr �r dr �

1st integral
1d
( rvq ) = C1
r dr
d
( rvq ) = C1r
dr

2nd integral
r2
rvq = C1 + C2
2
Cr C
vq = 1 + 2 � ( 1)
2 r

B.C. ( i ) r=R vq=Wo R

B.C ( ii ) r=kR vq=Wi kR

Sub B.C (i) in (1)

137
 C 1R C 2
Wo R = +
2 R
C 1R C 2
Wo R - =
2 R
C2 C
= R�� Wo - 1 ��
R � 2 �
C
C2 = R 2 �� Wo - 1 � �
� 2 �
Sub B.C (ii) in (1)
C kR C kR C
Wi kR = 1 + 1 + R2
2 2 k
C
R2 �� Wo - 1 �
�
Ck R
2 �
Wi k R = 1 + � R
2 k
C C
kR �� Wi - 1 � 2 �
�= R � Wo - 1 �
�
� 2 � � 2 �
( KR ) 2 C1
R 2 C1
( KR ) 2 Wi - = R 2 Wo -
2 2
2
-R 2 C1 ( KR ) C1
( K ) Wi - R Wo = 2 + 2
R 2 2

�k 2 1 �
R 2 ( k 2 Wi - W0 ) = C1R 2 � - �
�2 2 �
�k 2 - 1 �
R 2 ( k 2 Wi - Wo ) = C1R 2 � �
� 2 �
R 2 ( k 2 Wi - Wo )
2

= C1
R 2 ( k 2 - 1)
2 ( k 2 Wi - W0 )
C1 =
(k 2
- 1)
2 ( W0 - Wi k 2 )
C1 =
( 1- k ) 2

138
 C
C2 = R 2 �
�W0 - 1 � �
� 2 �

=R �
2
�
W -2 2
( k 2 Wi - W0 ) �
�
�0
� ( k - 172 ) �
�
� ( k Wi - Wo ) �
2

C2 = R 2 �W - �
�0
� ( k 2
- 1 ) �
�

C2 = R 2 ((k 2
- 1) Wo - k 2 Wi + Wo )
(k 2
- 1)

C2 = R 2 (W k
o
2
- Wo - k 2 Wi + Wo )
(k 2
- 1)
R 2 ( k 2 ( Wo - Wi ) ) k 2 R 2 ( Wi - R o )
C2 = C2 =
(k 2
- 1) ( 1- k ) 2

c 1r c 2
vq = +
2 r
2 ( Wo - Wi k 2 ) r R 2 R 2 k 2 R 2 R 2 ( Wi - Wo )
vq = +
( 1 - k2 ) 2 R 2 R 2 ( 1 - k2 )
1 � k2R 4 �
2 �(
vq = 2 r Wo R - Wi k R ) -
2 2 2
( Woi ) �.
R ( 1- k ) � r �

8. Problem: Shape of the surface of the rotating liquid

Fluid of constant l and m is in a cylindrical container of radians ‘R’, as shown in fig. The
container in cause to rotate about its own axis at an angular velocityW. The cylinder axis is vertical
so that g r = g q = 0 and g z = -g. Find the shape of the free surface when steady state has been
established.

139
 Figure:
Given Data:

1. Steady state
2. Incompressible fluid
3. cylindrical co-ordinates
4. q - direction

vq = f ( r ) , v r = v z = 0

r  centrifugal force
z  I gravitational force P = P ( r, z ) q � velocity

In terms of velocity gradients for a Newtonian fluid with constant p andm.

Equation of motion in cylindrical co-ordinates.

R – Component

140
 �� v �v v � vr vq2 v �
�
l � r + vr r + q - + v 2 r �=
�� t �r r � q r �z�

�P �� 1 � 2 o
�+ 1 � v r - 2 � vq �
-
�r
+m� ��
r r�
� r
r v (
r �
� r �
2) q 2 2
r �zo
�+ pg r
� �
� �
�

O – Component

� o o o o �
��vq �vq v q � v oq v r v q �vq �
l + vr + + + v2 =
�� t � r r � q r �2 �
� �
1� P �� �� 1 �2 v q �2 vq �
- +m� � �1 r � ( rvq ) + 2 + 2 �+ pg q o
r �q � � � r� r � v2 r �
2 2
z �
�

Z-Component

�v2 v 2 vq �
� v2 �v
l�
� + vr + + v2 2 ��= -
�� t dr r � q �2 �
�P �
1 � � v 2 � 1 �2 v 2 �2 v z �
�
+m� r�r �+ 2 + + l g2
�2 �
r � �� r � r � q2 � z2 �
�

R – Component

l v q2 P
�
+ =+ � ( 1)
r �r

q - Component
�d � d �
�
o = m � �1 r ( rv q ) �
� � ( 2)
�dr � dr �
�

Z – Component

P + pg
O=� � ( 3)
z
� z

In Z-Component
P
�
O=- -lg � ( 4)
�z
Equation (2)

141
 d �1 d �
� ( rvq ) �= 0
dr �r dr �
1d
( rvq ) = C1
r dr
d ( rv ) = C r
d r
q 1

r2
rv q = C1 + c 2
2
r c
v q = c1 + 2 � ( 5)
2 r

B.C (i) @ r = O, vq   \ set c2 = 0

r
v q = c1 � ( 6)
2

B.C (ii) @ r = R, v q = -WR

C 1R
WR =
2
C1 = 2 W
Wr
vq = 2
2
v q = Wr � ( 7)

Sub Equation (7) in (1)

W2r2 � P
l =
r �r
� P
l W2 r = � ( 8)
� r
also from equation ( 4 )
� P
= -pg � ( 9)
� z
Pressure dependence:-

The pressure P will defend upon r because of the centrifugal force and depend upon z
became of gravitational force. Therefore P = P ( r, z ) .
By using chain-rule, thin functionality can be written as

142
 p
� P
�
dP = dr + dz � ( 10 )
�r �z

Sub Equation (8) & (9) in (10)

dp = ( l W 2  ) dr + ( -l g ) dz
r2
p = l W2 - l gz
2
( Wr ) 2
� �
p=l � - gz �+ c 3 � ( 11)
� 2 �

B.C (iii) r = o, z = zo; P = PO

sub B.C ( iii ) in equation ( 11)

l W2 ( o )
Po = - l gz o + c 3
2
Po + l gzo = C 3

l W2r2
P= - l gz + Po + l gz o
2
l W2r2
P - Po = - pg ( z - z o ) � ( 12 )
2

Equation (12) represents the variation of pressure at pt within the fluid to that of the atm
pressure.

Equation for foce surface:-

At free surface,
P=Po � use in equation ( 12 )
l W2 r 2
Po - Po = - l g ( z - zo )
2
l W2r2
= l g ( z - z0 )
2
W2 r 2
= ( z - zo ) � ( 13 )
2g
y 2 = mx + x
Equation (13) represents the parabolic nature; \ the free surface of the rotating liquid follows a
parabolic path.
9. Radial flow b/w coaxial cylinders.

143
Radial flow between co-axial cylinders:-

Consider an isothermal incompressible fluid flowing radically between two porous

cylindrical shells. Assume steady, axis symmetric, laminar flow and neglect end effects.

(a) S.T by means of the equation of continuity that rv r = f , where f= constant.

(b) Simplify the equations of motion to obtain the following expressing for pressure
P
� �v
P, = -l v r r
� �
distribution in terms of quantity
�P � P
= =0
�q � z

P 1
�
( )
2
(c) Integrate the expression for in ( b ) to obtain P - PR = l v r2 1- R r �
�
�r 2
r =R
� �

Data given:-

(1) Steady state

(2) Incompressible fluid
(3) Cylindrical co-ordinary
(4) Or-component, v q , v 2 = 0 v r = f ( r )

(a) r-Component

v
�� �v v � vr vq �vr �
l � r + vr r + q - + v2 �=
��t �r r �
q r �2 �
PO
� �� 1 1
+m� � ( �
)
� O
- � rv q ��+
�r �r �r �
� r ��
1 �2 v r O v O �2 v 2 � O
2 �
- 2 q + �+ l g r
r2 � r2 r � q � z2 �
dv r
vr =0
dr
rv r = f � ( 1)

(b) r – Component

144
 dv r -dP �d 1O �
l vr = + m� ( rv r ) �
dr dr �dr r �
�P �v
= -l v r r � ( 2)
dr �r

Q – Component t

�� vqO v qO v q �
� vq vr vq �v �
l� + vr + + + v2 q �
�� z �
� t �r 5 � q r � �
-1 � P �� 1 � 1 ��vq 2 �
2
v r �2 v q �
= +m� � � ( t) �v + � 2 + + +
r � q ��r �r �r r 2 �� q r 2 �2 � z2 � �
� P
=q � ( 3)
� q

Z- Component

�vz v2 vq �
� v2 �v
l�
� + vq + + v2 z �
�=
�� t �r r �
q �z �
PO
� �1 � r�v 2 � 1 �2 v 2 �2 v z �
- + m� � � �+ 2
+ + l g2 �
�z �r �
r ��r � rz � v �z �

(C)
P
� �v
= -l v r r � ( 5)
�r �r

Equation of continuity

�
( rv r ) = o � ( 1)
�r
� v �r
r r + vr =0
� r �r
� v
r r = -v r
� r
�vr -v r
= � ( 6)
�r �

Sub (6) in (5)

145
 P
� -v r �
= -l v r �
� �
�r �r �
P -l vr 2
�
= � ( 7)
�r r

By rotation continuity (or) from result A

rv r = Rv R = cons tan t � ( 8 )
Rv R
vr =
r

Sub (8) in

2
� P Rv R �1
=l�� �
� r � r �r
� P R 2 vR 2
=l
� r r3
PR R
�P 2 2 dr
� = l R v R �3
Pr
m r
r

( )
R
PR - Pr = l R 2 vR2 - 1 2 r 2

PR - Pr =
l R 2 v R2
2
(
-1 2+1 2
R r )
Pr - PR =
l R 2 vR 2 1
2 R2( -1 2
r )
l R 2 v R2 �r 2 - R 2 �
= � �
2 �r 2 R 2 �
l v2
(
Pr - PR = R 1 - R r
2
2
( ) )
10. Problem: Prediction of vortex depth in an agitated tank. It is desired to predict vortex depth
for steady to predict vortex depth for steady state flow in a large unbaffelled tank of oil as
shown in fig as a function of agitators speed. We proposed to do this by means of a model
study in a smaller cyeoncentrically similar tanks latermine the conditions index which the
model study mum-be carried out to provide a valid means of prediction.

146
 Figure:

The flow pattern in the system in too complex to predict hence the methods of
dimensionless analysis will be used. The vortex shape will be the same for each tank if the
dimensionless differential equations and the dimensionless boundary conditions describing the
flow are same. The differential equations are obtain from equations of continuity and equations of
motion.

Boundary conditions for this system are

Large tank Small tank

 
v = oEr = r=
2 2
for o < z < H1 for 0<z<H 2
at z = o at Z=0
 - T
for - 2 < r < for <r< 2
2 2 2
P = PO - atimpress free at s 2 ( r, z )
surface on vortax at s1 ( r, 2 )

Take the impeller diameter D as reference length and DN, the impeller diameter times the
rate of impeller rotation per unit time as one reference velocity.

Then the Reynolds no & founds No. becomes

147
 l vD
Re = v=ND
m
l ND2
Re = � ( 1)
m
v 2 N2 D2
Fr = =
gD gD
N2 D
Fr = � ( 2)
g

The B.C in dimension less form can be obtained by dividing it by reference length D.

Large tank Small tank

T T2
v* = 0 at, * = 1 at r*=
2p1 2D 2
H H
for 0<*< 1 for 0<2*< 2
P1 D2
-T1 T -T2 T
for <, < 1 for <r< 2
2P1 2P1 2D2 2D2
�r z � �r z �
P* = 0 at 5* 1 � , � at s *2 � , �
�p1 p1 � �D 2 D 2 �

Where, v* = dimensionless

It can be seen that for flow pattern in two tanks can be similar the following equalities must
exits.

T1 T T T �
= 2 ; 1 = 2 � ( 3 ) � represents geomentry similarity
2D1 2D2 D1 D2 �
H1 H 2
= � ( 4)
D1 D 2

(1 1
)
�r 2 �
S1 * r D , 2 D = S 2 * � , �
�D 2 D 2 �
� ( 5)

From equation (1)

l 1N1 D12 l 2 N2 D22 �

= � ( 6 ) �represents dynamic similarity
m1 m2 �

148
From equation (2)

N R2 D12 N 22 D 2
= � ( 7)
g g

From equation (7)

N2 D1
=
N1 D2
1
N 2 �D1 �2
=� � � ( 8) .
N1 �D 2 �

Use equation (8) in (6)

m 2 m1 N 2 D22
=
P2 l 1 N1 D12
1 2
m 2 m1 �D1 �2 �D2 �
= � �� �
l 2 l 1 �D 2 � �D1 �
� �
2
m 2 m1 � 1 �
�D2 �
= � 1 �� �
l 2 l 1 �D 2
� D
� ( 1
2 �D
�2�
�
� )
3
m 2 m1 �D 2 �2
= � �
l 2 l 1 �D1 �
3
�D2 �2
g 2 = g1 � � � ( 9)
�D1 �
If g 2 = g 1
2
3
� D1 �2
g 2 = g1 � �
�2 D1 �
� �
g
g2 = 1
5

From Equation (9) it in clear that similar vortices in this example cannot be achieved if the
same fluid used in both tanks. Therefore a less viscous fluid must be used in smaller tank.

149
 For example if the smaller tank is to here half the linear dimensions of the large then
substitute
D
D 2 = 2 in ( 9 )
2
g1
g2 = � ( 10 )
8

1
Therefore for same vorticis the g of liquid in tank 2 must be 8 times that of the oil in the
large tank.

If the same fluid were used in the both the tanks, then the vortex would be proportionally
deeper as shown in Fig.

150
 UNIT – IV

PART – A

1. Write the equations for three phase models for non-newton fluids?

Elli’s model:

-dv x � �-1
f1 + f1 t yx �
=�
dy �
tyx

Where, f0, f1,  are three adjustable positive parameter.

Reiner – Phillippoff model:

� �
� �
� �
-dv x � 1 �
=� t
dy m o - m � �yx
� mo + 2 �
� �t yx ��
� 1 + �t ��
� � s ��
Where, m0, m, ts are three adjustable parameter.

2. Write about conduction & convection?

When the liquid is held between two plates one side of the plate is exposed to heat source,
the type of heat transfer takes place between plates as,

Conduction
Convection

Conduction:

Without the displacement of molecules transfer of heat from solid to liquid is defined by
Fourier law of heat conduction.

151
 dT
q = -k
dx

Convection:

With displacement of molecules transfer of heat from liquid to liquid is defined by

Newton’s law of convection.

dv x
t = -m
dy

3. Write about Boundary layer?

The boundary layer thickness vary with distance from the leading edge of the flat plate
across the fluid flow, is defined as the thickness measured from solid body in the direction
perpendicular to the fluid flow where the fluid velocity approximately equals to 0.99 times of free
stream velocity ‘v’. S1 & S2 are boundary layer thickness at a given distance x 1 and x2 from the
leading edge respectively edge is given by

n
cx �m �
S= n
= cx � �
(Re x ) �vx �

c, n  constant determined experimentally

Rex  local Reynolds number.

4. Difference between laminar & Turbulent flow?

Laminar flow Turbulent flow

Maximum velocity
vz
( )
1
g cos/3 S 2 = 1- r R
7
;
Vx max =
2m v z max
Average velocity
< vz > 4
=
g cos bS 2 v z , max 5
< v z >=
3m
vz
v z1 max ( 1 - ( r R ) ) <v v > = 21
2
2

z1 max

152
5. Boundary layer separation

A boundary layer is defined as the path of moving fluid in which fluid motion is influenced
by the presence of a solid body, the effect of shear stress or shear force are confined to this path of
fluid.
6. Biot number?

hL
Biot Number =
k
Internal thermal resistance
Bi =
Boundary layer thermal resistance

7. Prandtl’s mixing length

dv x dv x
tyx( t) = L2
dy dy

By assuming that eddies move around in a fluid very much as a molecule moving about in
gas. Prandtl developed an expression for momentum flux in a liquid in which mixing length
plays a major role.

In above equation l is the prandtl mixing length and is a function of position (ie  = fly)
where y is distance from solid surface).

8. Write the heat transfer in cylindrical wall?

The heat transfer rate in the cylindrical wall is give by

Ser
qv =
�

9. Diltus – Boetus equation?

0.14
hD �mK �
N Nu = = 0.026(NRe )0.33 � �
K �m p �
� �
Where,

h = heat transfer co-efficient

K = thermal conductivity

153
10. Schimidit Number

hD
The Schmidt Number can be given as Nsh = . Its units can be given by
K
w �m
m2k = Dimensionless
w / mK

Where,

h = heat transfer co-efficient

K = thermal conductivity.

11. Reynold’s number for laminar & turbulent fluid

If the Reynold’s number is less than 2100, the flow is laminar.

If the Reynold’s number is greater than 4000. The flow is turbulent.

Between 2100 to 4000, the flow is transistion.

12. Define Newton’s second law of motion?

The sum of all forces acting on the control volume must equal the net rate at which
momentum leaves the control volume.

13. Write centre shell energy balance?

At steady state the shell energy balance over a slab of thickness, the surface of which are
normal to direction.
�Rate of thermal �
�Rate of thermal � �Rate of thermal � � �
� energy in �- � energy out �+ � energy produced �= 0
� �� ��
�inside the system �
�

14. Grashoft number

buoyance force 2bgDTb 3

Ngr = =
viscous force m2
Ngr = Dimensionless

154
15. Write about Isothermal & Non Isothermal system?

If a system is considered, the temperature is maintained constant then the system is called
isothermal system.
If a system is not maintained as constant then the system is called non-isothermal system.
PART – B

1. Explain velocity distribution in turbulent flow.

Velocity distribution in turbulent flow:

In the previous chapters we are concerned with expressions for the velocity distribution
and avg velocity etc.

For an incompressible fluid flowing in a circular under laminar conditions we have

V2
( )
2
1- r R �
=�
V2 max � �
Vz 1
=
Vz max 2

And also the expression for pressure drop per umnit length

DP 32m < v 2 >

=
L D2
DP 128mQ
=
L D 4
is DP �Q

In turbulent flow, it has been shown experimentally that the time smoothed quantities.

Vz , Vz > are given roughly

1
2
� �r � �7
Vz = �
1 - � ��
� �R ��
Vz
= 45
V z max

Pressure drop

155
 7
DP �Q 4

These expression are valid for Reynolds no ranging from 10,000-100000. The laminar and
turbulent profiles are compared in the following figure.

Figure:

For circular tubes, the flow in in laminar region when NRC < 2100. When it is > 2100
laminar motion is temporally obtained if the tubes are very smooth and free from vibrations. But
if the system in disturbed or if there is a any appreciable surface roughness the laminar motion
becomes turbulent flow at the unke of the tube and the velocity fluxuations are almost completely
random.

However in the immediate neighbourhood surfaces the fluxuations in axial direction are
grater than those in radial direction and all the fluxuations approaches to zero at wall surfaces.

Hence it in apparent that there in a marked change in the physical behaviour with radial
distance.

2. Explain time smoothing of equations of change for an incompressible fluid.

Time smoothing of equations of change for an incompressible fluid

The smoothing of equations of change are obtained by replacing the instantaneous velocity

156
v in the previous chapter by the sum of the time smoothing velocity and fluxuation velocity
( V + v ) and pressure P by ( P1 + P ) we known that the equation of continuity.
�v = 0
�vx � vy � vz
+ + =0 � ( 3)
�x � y � z
Equation of motion
l vx
� P ��
� lv v l vyvx �
� l vz vx �
=- -� x x + + �
�t �x � �x �y �z �
��
t ty x �
� t �
- � xx + + zx �+ l g x � ( 4)
��x �y � z �

Rewrite equation (3) + (4) for fine smoothing quantities

�( v x + v x ' ) �( vy + vy' ) �( v z + v z ' )

+ + =0 � ( 5)
x
� y
� z
�
l ( vx + vx ')
� -� P �� l ( vx + vx ') �
t
� �
=
x �
-�
� x
�
�
( vx + vx ')
� �
�l � P
+
y
�
( )
vy + vy ' ( vx + vx ') +
�z
( vz + vz ') ( vx + v x ) f
��
t tyx �
� t �
- � xx + + zx �+ l g x � ( 6)
��x �y � z �

Take the time average of equation 95) & (6) according to equation n(1). The time smooth
equation of continuity becomes.

�v x �v y �v z
+ + =0 � ( 7)
x
� y
� z
�

Time smooth equation of motion,

157
 �l vx �P �� l vx vx � l v y vy � l vx vx �
=- -� + + �
�t �x � � x � y � z �
�� l v' v' � l vy ' vx ' � l v2 ' vx ' �
-� x x + + �
� � �
� x �y � z �
�� t �tyx � t �
- � xx + + zx �+ l g x � ( 8)
� �x �y � z �

Equation (7) in the time smooth equation of, continuity and equation (8) in the ‘x’
component time smooth equation of motion when comparing equation (7) & (8) in previous
chapter the equation of continuity in the same a we hand previous by, except that time smooth
‘velocity6 component replaced the instantaneous velocity component.
In equation of motion ( equation 8 ) vx, vy. vz and v are everywhere replaced by
v x , v y , v z and v by in addition a new term arise (dashed underline) which are associated with
the turbulent velocity fluxuations.
( t)
txx = l v x ' v x
For convince introduce the notations ( t)
tyx = l v y ' v x ... etc
(t) = turbulent

These terms are the components of the turbulent momentum flux they are usually refers to
as Reynolds stresses. ( l �fluxuation velocity )

In summary we unit the time smoothed equation of continuity and motion notations as
follows .
Time smoothed equation of continuity ( �.v ) = 0 � ( 9 )
D
Time smoothed equation of motion P
Dt
( v)
D
l
Dt
( v ) = - ( �.P ) - �
�
( t)
�.t �- �
��
( l)
�.t �+ l g
�
� ( 10 )

Here we have indicated with a dashed underline the additional term that arises as result of
time smoothing. The quantity t( l ) in given by the expressions except that, small v in everywhere
placed v.

3. Fluxuations and time smooth quantities.

Fluxuations and time smooth quantities velocity distributions for turbulent flow in fluids
(region near the wall)

158
 Figure:
When a fluid in flowing turbulently in a pipe 3 arbitrary zones appears with in the tube.

Viscous sub layer in which Newtons law of viscosity in used to describe the flow (ie) he viscosity
of greater important in this zone.

Buffer zone in which both laminar and turbulent flow are involved.

The region of fully developed turbulence in which viscous effects are importance.

Velocity fluctuation and time smoothed velocity

Figure:
Where,

Vz - instantaneous velocity
vz - time averaged velocity or time smoothed velocity

159
 v'z - the fluxation velocity.

We defined time smoothed velocity v z by taking a time averaged of vz (instantaneous

velocity) over a time interval to

tt+
1 0

vz = �v dt z � ( 1)
t0 t

The instantaneous velocity vz may then be written as

v z = v z + v'z � ( 2)

4. Semi empirical expressions for the Reynolds stresses.

1. Boussiensq’s Eddy viscosity

( t) dv x
tyx = -m( t )
dy

This is analogy with Newton’s law of viscosity where m( t ) is turbulent co-efficient of

viscosity or eddy viscosity and it in strongly depends upon position.

2. Pradtl’s mixing length

By assuming that eddics move around in a fluid very much as a molecule more about in a
gas, prandth developed an expression for momentum transfer in a fluid in which the mixing
length plays a role analoges to that of the mean free path in a gas kinetic theory.

( t) dv x dv x
tyx = -l l 2
dy dy
Where,

L = mixing length, l = f ( y ) where, y in the distance measured from solid surface.

3. Von-karman similarity hypothesis

On the basis of dimensional considerisation von-karman suggested that the Reynolds skess

160
 ( dv / dy )
3
( t) 2
x dv x
in have the form, tyx = -l k
(d v )
2
2 2 2 dy
x / dy
Where,
K2 = universal constant, whose value is given as 0.4 by some scientist and 0.36 by
some others.

4. Derissler’s empirical formula for the region near wall:

Derissler proposed the following empirical expression for used in the neighbour-hood of
the solid surfaces where the von-karman equation and prandtt equation are in adequate.

( t) � �-n 2 v x y ��dv x
tyx = -l n x v x y �
1 - exp � ��
� � v �dy
In which ‘n’ in a constant determine empirically by Derissler as 0.124 from the tube flow
velocity distributions.

5. Problem: For the turbulent flow in a smooth circular tubes the curve-fit function.

vz
( )
1
= 1- r R
m
in sometimes useful near.
v z max

NRR = 4 �10 3 , n = b and near

NRR = 1.1 �10 5 , n=7 and near
NRR = 3.2 �10 6 , n=10

Show that the ratio of average to max velocity in

161
 vz 2n 2
=
v max ( n + 1) ( 2n + 1)
vz
( )
1
= 1- r R
2

v z max
2 R

�
�v rdrdq z

vz = 0 0
2 R

�
�rdrdq
0 0
2 R

( )
1
v z m max 1 - r R
2
�
� rdrdq
= 0 0
2 R

�
�rdrdq
0 0

2 R

( 1- rR)
1
n
�
� rdrdq
vz
= 0 0
2 R
v z,max
�
�rdrdq
0 0
2 R R
2
�
� rdr ( q )
rdrdq = � 0
0 0 0

( )
2 R
= 2 r 2
0

162
 R2
= 2
2
= R 2
1
� r 2 �2
R
dr ( q ) 0
2
= ��r - �
� R �
0 � �
1
�
�r 2 3 �2 �
r
= 2 �
� - � �
�2
� 3R ��
�
� ��
2 R

( 1- r R)
1
n
�
� rdrdq R 1
2
0 0
2 R =
R
(
�1 - 1 R ) n
rdr
�
�rdrdq 0

0 0
R
2
( 1- r R)
1
n
= � rdr
R2 0

Let t = 1- r R t-1=- r R
dr
dt=- r=R ( 1-t )
R
dt
= - 1R dr=-Rdt
dr
r=0 t=1
r=R t=0

2 � R ( 1- t) �
0
= 2� � 1- �R ( 1 - t ) ( -Rdt )
R 1� R �
1
2 1
= 2 � 1 - 1 + ( t ) 2 R 2 ( 1 - t ) dt
R 0
1
1 dt
( 1 - tt)
= 2� 2

0
1 1
� 1 1 -1 �
= 2�
� t 2
dtt- � n
dt �
�
0 0 �
1
� 1 � 1+ n ��
�t ( n + 1) � �t n + 1 ��
� 1
= 2�
� �- ��
� 1 + 1 � �1 + n
�
� n �0 � + 1 ��
�
� �n �
0��

163
 � �
� 1 1 �
= 2� - �
�( 1 + n )
1+ n
+ 1�
� n n �
� �
� 1 1 �
= 2� -
1 + 2n �
�( 1 + n ) �
� n n �
�n ( 1 + 2n ) - n ( n + 1) �
= 2� �
� ( n + 1) ( 1 + 2n ) �
�n + 2n 2 - n 2 - n �
= 2� �
�( n + 1) ( 1 + 2n ) �
� n2 �
= 2� ( 2n + 1) �
�( n + 1) �
vz 2n 2
=
v z max ( n + 1) ( 2n + 1)

6. Problem: For turbulent flow in a smooth circular pipe for which NRR = 1,10,000 the velocity
ub
( )
1
profile u = m max 1 - r R . Find the value of , wher ub in the bulk average velocity.
7
u max

2 R

�
�urdrdq
ub = 0 0
2 R

�
�rdrdq
0 0
2 R

( )
1
u max 1 - r R
7
�
� rdrq
ub = 0 0
2 R

�
�rdrdq
0 0
2 R

( 1- r R)
1
7
�
� rdrdq
ub
= 0 0
2 R
u max
�
�rdrdq
0 0

By solving

164
 ub � n2 �
= 2� �
u max � ( n + 1) ( 2n + 1) �
� 72 �
= 2� �
� ( 7 + 1) ( 12 �7 ) + 1 �
ub
= 49 60
u max

7. Interface transport in isothermal system.

Many engineering flow problems fall into following two broad categories

(i) Flow in channels:-

Ex:- Pumping of oils in pipes flow of water in open channel flow of fluids through

(ii) Flow around submerged objects:-

Ex:- Motion air around aeroplane wings, motion of fluid around in a particles
undergoing sedimentation.
st
The 1 case in desired to obtain the relationship between pressure drop and volume rate of
flow.

In the 2nd case it in the relationship between the velocity of approaching fluid and the drag
force.

For the system involving complex seamen tires, these estimation are complex and very
difficult to accomplish by using some experimental data or correlations.

Thus to make this complexity somewhat easier we need a term called friction factor‘t’.

2 tw wall
Definition of function factor ‘f’:- = 2
f=
lv wt den �velocity of head

Consider a steady flow of a fluid of constant density in one of the following two system.

(i) The fluid flow in a straight conduit of uniform cross section.

(ii) The fluid flow around a submerged object which has of velocity of approaching fluid.

The fluid will exert a force ‘F’ on the solid fluid interface and this force includes.

165
 (a) Fs  Force exerted by the fluid when it in at rest.
(b) Fk  Force associated with the kinetic behaviour of fluid.
st
The 1 case, during calculations the velocity in the Reynolds number (average velocity) <v>.

The 2nd case, velocity is denoted by V which is the approaching.

Velocity measured at large distance from the submerged object.

For the both the system the magnitude of force F k may be expressed as the product of
characteristic area ‘A’ and characteristic kinetic energy per unit volume k, and a dimensionless
quantity (f) known as friction factor.
mv 2
Fk = AKf � ( 1) k=
v
1gm 1gm kg �m 2
= 2 =
S2 S m 3S 2

‘f’ is not define until K and A are specified and thus friction factor is a function of N RE of NRE and
system shape.

8. Friction factor for flow in tubes.

Friction factor for flow in tubes

For flow in circular tubes A is taken to the wetted surface and

mv 2
k = 12
vol
k = 1 2 l v3 k
k = 12l v
2

For circular tube of radius Rand length L. We define friction factor

1
( )
2
Fk = 2 RL
2
l < v >2 �
+
� R = RL L l v 2 �� ( 2 )
f�

Fk can also been be obtained by writing a force balance on the system which is mainly due
to pressure different and elevated difference.

166
 Figure:

Fk = force due to pressure force due to difference + elevation difference.

Fk = ( P0 R 2 - P2 R 2 ) + ( l gh o - l gh 2 ) R 2
= R 2 ( Po - P2 + l gh o - l gh 2 )
( Po + l gh1 ) - ( P2 + l gh 2 ) �
= R 2 �
� �
Fk = R 2 ( Po - P2 ) � ( 3)

Equation (2) & (3)

RLl < v > 2 f = R 2 ( P0 - PL )

Po - PL � R
f=�
� � ( 4)
� L �
2
�l < v >

(or)

Po - PL � D
f=�
� � ( 5)
� L � �2l < v > 2

Case (ii):

Flow around submerged objects

167
 Figure:

For this case the characteristic area, ‘A’ is obtained by projecting this solid body onto plane
to the flow direction.

k = 1 2 l v�
2
Where v � = velocity of approaching fluid measuring at large distance from the
solid body.

From Equation (1)

Fk = AKf
Fk = R 2 1 2 l f v �
2
f � ( 6)

R  radians of the spherical solid particle.

Force balance over the sphere is mainly due differences in gravitational force and buoyancy
force.

Fk = Fg - FB
= m.g - l f g ( volume )
4
= l p r 3g - l f g 4 3 R 3
3
(
Fk = 4 3 R 3g l p - l f ) � ( 7)

168
 Equating equation (6) & (7)

 R 2 1 2 l f v 2�f = 4 3  R 2 g ( l P - l f )
8Rg ( l P - l f )
f= � ( 8)
3v 2�l f
8 Rg ( l P - l f )
f= 2
3 v� lf
l p -l f �
4 Dg �
f= � � � ( 9)
3 v�
2
� lf �

Equations (4) or (5) and (8) or (9) are sometimes called as the expression for the dragged
force.

Value of friction factor in circular tubes

Figure:

Consider the flow of the fluid in a circular tube of diameter D, and length L and p o in the
pressure and z = o, P L in he pressure Z = L. We known that the expression for friction factor the
fluid flows in a circular tube equation (5).

PO - PL � D
f=�
�
� L � �2l < v > 2

When the flow in the tube belongs to laminar flow legion, the pressure drop in described by
Hagen posuile’s equation.

DP 32m < v >

= � ( 10 )
L D2

169
Sub (10) in (5)

16
32 m < v > D
f=
D2
2l < v >2
m 16
= 16 =
l <v>D l <v>D
m
16
f= � ( 11)
NRR

For turbulent conditions the value of friction factor f in given as Belasis equation

0.0799
f= � ( 12 )
N0.25
RR

The above equation in applicable for Reynold’s No ranging from 2100 to 10,00,00 or the
value of f can also calculated from moody’s chart.

Figure:

k
- ranghness
D
k - roughness

170
9. Problem: Pressure drop required for a given flow rate:-

DP
What ( C0 H5 NC2 H5 ) 2 �
in required to canse N-N diethyl anicin �
� �to flow in a horizontal
L
circular tube Df inside dia 3cm at a volumetric flow rate of 1.1 lit sec at 20 C @ this dianthus
o

gm
online l = 0.935 m-195cp.
cm 3

R = D L , R= 3 2
�P 32m < v >
= Q=1.1 lit sec
L D2
Dvl Q
NRR = A=v
m
1.1 �10-3
NRR = 3 �10 -2 �1.556 = 1.556 m s
( 3 �10 -2
2 )
�0.935 �10 -3
1.95 �10 -3 �10 -6
NRR = 22382.4 Turbulent flow
DP D
f=
L 2l < v > 2

0.0799 0.0799
f= = 0.25 = 6.532 �10 -3
0.25
NRR ( 22382.4 )
DP f2 l < v > 2
=
L D
2
6.532 �10 -3 �0.935 �10 -3 �( 1.556 )
=
10 -6 �3 �10 -2
DP
= 985.79 N 3
L m

10. Problem: Friction Factor for laminar slit flow S.T for laminar flow in a think slit of width
12 2Bl < v >
‘2B’ the f = if Reynolds no is defined as
NRR m

2Bl < v >

NRR =
m
12
If f = for laminar flow
N RR

171
W.K.t
F = AKf
F = ( 2BL ) 1 2 l < v > 2 f

Force Balance

Fk = ( 2BL ) ( Po - PL )
2

( 2BL ) ( Po - PL ) = ( 2BL ) 1 2 l < v > 2 f

2

1
Po - PL = l < v >2 f
2
Equation (1)
1
FL = 2 ( LW ) l < v > 2 f � ( 1)
2
FL = [ Po ( 2BW ) - PL ( 2BW ) ] + ( l gh o ( 2BW ) - l gh L ) ( 2BW )
Fk = ( PO - PL ) 2BW � ( 2)

Equation (1) & (2)

1
( PO - PL ) 2BW = 2 ( LW ) l < v >2 f
2
PO - PL l < v > 2 f
=
L B
( P -P ) B
f= O L � ( 3)
L l < v >2

1st not 2nd unit

Laminar flow through a harrow slit.

Pro 2 EL
Po - PL B2
V2 = � ( 4)
m 3

Haranguing equation (4)

l O - PL 3 v m
= � ( 5)
L B2

172
Sub equation (5) in (3)

3 < v > m 2B
f=
B2 P < v >2
6m 2
f= �
Bl < v > 2
12m 12
f= =
l <v> B l <v>2
2

m
f = 12 N
RR

11. Problem:

DP required for a given flow rate with fittings

What DP in required to pump water at 20oC two’ a pipe 25cm dia & length 1234 m at a rate
3
of 1.97 m sec the pipe in horizontal and contains 4 std 90 o elbows and two 45oC elbows [ a std 90o
elbow is roughly equal to resistance offered to a pipe of length 32 dia & 45 elbow in 15 times dia.

Given data,
Dia = 25 cm
Long = 1234 m
3
Rate = 1.97 m sec
L = 1234 + 4 ( 32 �25 �10 ) + ( 12 �2.5 �10 -2 )
-2

= 1273.5
kg
Fk = RLl < v > 2 + m =ICP=10 -3
m sec

Fk = R 2 ( PO - PL )
R �PO - PL �
f= � �
l < v >2 � L �
D �PO - pl �
f= 2 � �
2l < v > � l �
Q 1.97
< V >= = = 40.13
A  25 �10 -2 2
4
( )

173
 l < v > D 1000 �40.13 �25 �10 -2
NRR = =
m 10 -3
= 10.32500
0.0799
f=
NRR 0.25
0.0799
= 0.25 = 1.41 �10 -3
( 10032500 )

D �PO - PL �
f=
2l < v > � L �
2 �
�
-3 25 �10 -2 Po - PL �
�
1.41 �10 = 2 �
2 �1000 �( 40.13 ) �1273.3 ��
PO - PL = 23133767.6
= 23.13 �106 Pa
= 23.13 MPa

12. Problem: Pressure drop required for the given flow rate with elevation change.

What at 68oF is to be pumped to through 95 ft of standard pipe of inside dia 3.06 inches into
an overhead reservoir as shown in fig. What pressure gradient in needed for the pump to supply
water to the over head reservoirs at a rate of 18 gallops/min.

Figure:

Given data:-

D = 3.06 inch = 3.06 x 2.54 x 10-2 = 7.7724 m x 10-2

L = 95 ft = 95 x 0.3028 = 28 1m

174
 18 gallons 18 �3.785 lit
Q= = = 1.13
min 60 sec
1 gallons = 3.725 lit

Q 1.13 �10 -3
v = =
A  7.7724 �10 -2 2
4
( )
= 0.237e m s .

l <v>D
NRR =
m
1000 �0.237 �7.7724 �10 -2
=
1 �10 -3
0.0799
NRR = 18480.38, 478 ( turbulent ) + =
NRR 0.25
0.0799
= = 0.00685
( 18480.38.478 ) 0.25
D � PO PL �
+=
2l <v> � L �
2 �
�

7.7724 �10 -2 PO - PL
0.00685 = 2 �
2 �1000 �( 0.237 ) 28.95
PO - PL = 284

Si n 45=h 50 �0.3028

50
h= �0.3028
2
h = 10.705m ( elevation )
Fk = Akf A � Wetted surface area characteristic ( or ) area
=2RL 1 2 ( l < v > 2 ) f � ( 1)

( )
Fk = ( Po - PL ) R 2 + l g h oo - pgh L R 2 � ( 2)
h - hL - ho

Equating (1) & (2)

175
 2 RL 1 l < v > 2 f = ( PO - PL ) R 2 - l gh L R 2
2
 R Ll < v > 2 f =  R 2 �
�( PO - PL ) + l gh �
�
Ll < v > f
2
( PO - PL ) = - l gh
R
28.95 �1000 �0.237 2 �0.00685
=
�7.7724 �10 -2 �
� 2 �
� �
( PO - PL ) = -104729.42 N m 2 ( vacuumpressure )

13. Expression for friction factor ‘through’ non-circular channels.

Expression for friction factor ‘through’ non-circular channels:-

Flow through circular

P -P D
1. f = o L , 2 � ( 5) channels.
L 2P r

2. Exp for friction factor when the flow takes place over a submerged object

Dg �
P - f �
f = 43 2 � �� ( 9 )
V� � f �

If the channels are not circular in shape then the empirical term is called hydralyic radius R h
replaces D in equ (5) & (9)

The hydralyic radius R is defined as the ratio of C.S available for flow divided by the
wetted perimeter.
c.s available for flow
Rh =
wetted perimeter

For turbulent flow in circular pipes the hydraulic radius is given by

2
R 2  D 4
Rh = =
2 R D
Rh = D/4

D = 4Rh
 (13)

176
Therefore for turbulent flow in a circular tube friction factor is given by, in equation (5)

Sub D = 4 Rh

Po - PL 4R
1. f = � h 2
L 2f v

Po - PL 2R h
f= ‫׮‬ 2 ( 14 )
L f v

14. Problem

Pressure drop required for Laminar – turbulent transitions:-

A fluid with viscosity 18.3 cp and density 1.32 gm/cm 3 in flowing through a horizontal tube
of radius 0.21 inches. For what pressure gradient (expressed in PSI / ft), will the flow become
turbulent.

DP PSi
= 0.622 t R = D2
L f
R = 0.21 x 2.54 x 10-2
= 0.00553

Hagen poiswillis equat D = 2 x 0.0055

= 0.010668

DP 32m v 1.32 �10 -3

= =
L D2 ( 10 )
-2 3

 v D
= 2100 = =1320
m
1320 �v �0.010668
= 2100 =
18.3 �10 -3
<v> = 2.729 m/s.

177
 D 32m v
=
L D2
D 32 �18.3 �10 -3 �2.729
= 1 ft = 0.3028 m
L ( 0.010668 ) 2
D
= 14042.31 N m
L
14042.31 �2.03 1
== ft = 1m 1m = 3.3028.
3.3028 0.3028

1 atm = 14.7 psi = 0.614 psi / ft

1 atm pr = 1.013 x 105 n/m2 14.7 psi.

14.7
14042.31 = �14042 = 2.03 �15psi
1.013 �10 5

15. Problem

Estimation of void fraction of a packed bed :-

A column of 146 inc2 c.s. and 73 inch ht is packet with spherical particles of dia 2 mm. When
a pressure diff of 158 psi in maintained across the bed, a 60% aqueous across solution at 20 oC
lb
flows through the bed at a rate of 244 at this temp the viscosity of solution in m = 56.5 cp. And
min
its density  = 1.28, what is the void fraction of the bed.

 = 0.30 mb = 0.454 kg

1146
Given data :- v=
Area

A = 146 inc2 = 146 x 2.54 x 10-2 = 3.7084 m time, 0.5

H = 73 inc = 73 x 2.54x10-2 = 1.8542 M
D = 2 mm = 2 x 10=3 m.
P = 158/ psi = 108, 802.72 n/m2
lb kg
V = 244 = 450.48
min sec
kg
m = 56.5 cP = 56.5 x 10-3
sec
kg
P = 1.2865 gm/cm3 = 1286.5 3
m

178
Kozency carman equation

2
DP 150mn o ( 1 - e )
= � 3
L DP2 e
Burke – plummer equation
DP n ( 1 - e )
= 1.75 o
L DP e3

1.013 x 105 N/m2 = 14.7 PSi

1.013 �10 5 N
= 1 Psi
14.7 m2

? = 158 Psi

1.013 �10 5
158 Psi = �158
14.7

= 1088802.72 N/m2
= 1088.80 KN/m2

1 lb = 0.454 kg

244 lb = 244 x 0.454 = 110.776

1 min = 60 sec.

110.776 kg
244 lb/min = = 1.84459
60 sec

gm 1.2865 �10 -3
1.2865 = = 1286.5
( 10-2 )
3
cm 2

kg kg
Q = 1.84459 / 1286.5
sec m3

m3
Q = 1.433 x 10-3
sec

179
  n D
NR e =
m

Q
n =
A
2
1.433 �10 -3 m 3/
= 2
3.7084 sec �m /
m 2/
= 0.015
sec
1286.5 �0.015 �2 �10 -3
=
56.5 �10 -3
= 4.300
n o = 0.0944
2
D 150mn o ( 1 - e )
=
L D2 e3
1088.80
108,802.72 �10 3 150 �56.5 �10 -3 �0.0944 15 1 - e 2
= � 3
( 2 �10-3 )
2
1.8542 e

( 1 - e)
5867906 = 200010 �
e3
e 3 = 58679.06 = 20010 - 200010e
58679.06e 3 + 200010e - 200010 = 0

Put e = 0.5

= 63562.5 pa

Put e = 0.3

2
150 �56.5 �10 -3 �0.0944 17 ( 1 - 03 )
�
( 2 �10-3 )
2 3
( 0.3 )
=
= 576.77kPa
e = 0.3

Hence void trac in,

DP
= 583158.52Pa
L

180
So let us find the particle Reynold’s no.

y o DP
= ( 1 - e ) -1
m
n D -1
= o P ( 1 - e)
m
-1
1286.5 �0.0523 �2 �10 -3 ( 1 - 0.3 )
=
56.5 �10 - 3

= 0.99 < 10.

16. Boundary layer theory or flow over a fiat surface.

Boundary layer theory or flow over a flat surface:-

As an object moves through a fluid or a fluid moves part an object the molecules of the fluid
near the object are distributed and move around the object.

The concept of boundary layer or boundary layer theory was 1 st introduced by L Prandth in
1904 and since then it has been applied for several fluid flow problems.

According to this theory, except for fluids having low velocities or the fluids possessing
high viscosity, the effect of solid boundary in confined to a layer of fluid where viscous effects are
playing a major role.

Thus the boundary layer is defined as the path of the moving fluid in which a fluid motion
in influenced by the presence of a solid body.

The effect of shear stress or shear force are confined to this part of the fluid.

The consider the flow of a fluid over a thin smooth flat plat with tree stream velocity ‘P”. A
plat in located parallel to the direction of fluid flow.

181
 As the fluid passes through the plate, the velocity of the particle on the surface of plate
becomes zero, but at a distance away from the solid body the fluid in having certain velocity thus
d ( n)
a velocity gradient in set up in fluid near a surface of the plate. This velocity gradient
dy
� dn �
develops the shear force �t=m �which retards the fluid.
� dy �

Thus a boundary layer begins at leading edge of the fluid and this boundary layer increases
as the length of the plate increases. The velocity of the fluid outside the boundary layer is constant
and this equals to the free stream velocity ‘n’, as there is no variation in velocity in this region,
dn
= 0 and hence ‘t’ is neglible or zero.
dy

Definition for boundary layer thickness:-

It is defined as the thickness measured from solid body in the direction  rd to fluid flow
where the fluid velocity approximately equals to 0.99 times of free stream velocity ‘n’. In figure d1
and d2 are boundary layer thicknesses at a given distance x1 and x2 from the leading edge
respectively.

The boundary layer thickness at a distance x’ from the leading edge is given by

h
cx �m �
d= n = cx �
( R ex ) nx �
� �

Where C, h are constant which should be determined experimentally.

Rex in the local reynold’s no = -

182
Factors affecting boundary layer thickness:-
The boundary layer thickness is very much affect by the following parameter:-
1. The thickness d increases with an increase in viscousity.
2. The thickness decreases with increasing free stream velocity and increasing  (density).
3. The boundary layer thickness increases with increasing ‘x’ from the leading edge.
�DP �
4. d in very much affect by pressure gradient � �in the direction of flow
�L �
(
dp
)
dx , but in
case of boundary layer formed on flat surface the pressure gradient in always consider
uniform ( dp
)
dx = 0
Laminar and turbulent boundary layer:

Laminar boundary layer

In the above figure near the leading edge of plate the boundary layer thickness in small and
the flow within the B.L in laminar though the main flow turbulent. The layer of fluid in said to be
laminar boundary layer (line AB), and length of the plate from the leading edge upto which
laminar B.L exist is called laminar zone (length AE)

The distance AE from leading edge in obtained from local Reynolds’s no. equals to 5 x 10 5
for a plat because upto this local Reynolds no. the B.L. in laminar and this local Reynolds no in
vx vx
defined by e x = = � ( 1)
m g

Where,

n = free stream velocity m/s

X = Distance from the leading edge of plate ‘m’
m2
g = kinematic viscosity of fluid
s

183
 The length of the plate upto which the laminar zone exist can be calculated by settling the
local no:- equals to 5  105

Vx
Re x =
g
Vx
5 �10 5 =
g
5 �10 5 g
x= � (2)
V
Transition boundary layer:

If the length of the plate is more than x given in equation (2), the B.C. will go on increase
and laminar B.C. becomes unstable and the motion of fluid within, it or highly disturbed and are
irregular in motion, which leads to a transition from laminar to turbulent (line BC), and is called
the transition B.L. The length of the plate upto which transition B.L. exist is called as transition
zone, (Length EF)

The local reynold’s number:- during which the boundary changes from laminar to turbulent
remains in range of <Re> 5  105

7 <Rex> 5  105

Turbulent boundary layer:

After the transmission zone, the boundary becomes turbulent and continues to grow in
thickness and this layer of boundary is known as turbulent boundary layer (line CD) and this zone
is called as turbulent zone (length FG).

Laminar Sub layer:

In turbulent boundary layer, a small layer near the plate still remains in laminar form and
this thickness layer is known laminar sub layer denoted by ‘s’. As the thickness of laminar sub
layer is very small, the velocity distribution is this layer is substitute as linear.

17. Concept of displacement, momentum and energy thickness

Displacement thickness:

It can be viewed as the imaginary increase if the thickness of B.L has seen by an observer

184
standing outside the B.L.

Figure:
The actual mass flow through the boundary along the ‘x’ direction at section A – A for unit
width of plate perpendicular to paper is given by

mass flow = VA

s
=�
dy (1) v x 
0
d
M1 = �
v x dy � (1)
0

Equation (1) is written by considering an element ‘dy’ at a distance ‘y’ to which the velocity of
fluid flowing through boundary between would be free stream velocity ‘V’, then the ideal mass
flow through the thickness

d
m2 = �
Vdy � (2)
0

Therefore the loss in fluid due to formation of boundary is given by

Equation (2) – (1)

d
M 2 - M1 = �
(V - Vx )dy � (3)
0

If this loss in mass is represented by a thickness d* (displacement thickness) through which

the fluid is flowing with velocity V (free stream velocity), then we can write down as

185
 d
v(d �1) = �
*
 (v - v x )dy
0
d
� v
d* = �1- x �
� dy � (4)
�
0�
v �

Momentum thickness:

The momentum of mass flowing in the boundary through section A – A

Momentum flow =(VA)V

d
dy(1)v 2x
=�
0
d
v x2 dy � (5)
M1 = �
0

The fluid has no viscosity then the velocity of fluid flowing through the boundary would be
�d �
free stream velocity ‘V’ and the momentum of this mass �� vdy �would be given by,
�0 �

d
M2 = �
Vx V dy � (6)
0

The loss of momentum of fluid passing through boundary is given by

Equation (6) – (5)

s
M 2 - M1 = �
(V - v x )v x dy � (7)
0

If this loss in momentum is represented by this momentum of fluid passing through

thickness of 0* (momentum thickness) with a free stream velocity V, then we can write down as,

d
((q * �1)V )V = �
 (V - v x )v xdy
0
d
v v
q*= �x �1- x �
� dy � (8)
�
0
V� V�

186
Energy thickness:

The mass of fluid passing through an element area (dy  1) has shown in figure (dy  1) has
shown in figure (dy  1) vx and its energy is given by

d
v 3xdy � (9)
E1 = �
0

If the fluid is non-viscous, then the velocity of the mass passing through section A – A, in
�d �
the boundary would be free stream velocity, then the energy of the mass �� Vdy �is given by
�0 �
d
v x v 2dy � (10)
E2 = �
0

The loss of energy of fluid passing through boundary at section A – A, is given by

Equation (10) – (9)

d
(v 2 - v x2 )v x dy � (11)
E 2 - E1 = �
0

If this loss of energy in represented by the energy of fluid passing through a thickness d**
(energy thickness) with a free stream velocity V, then we can write down as,

d
� 1 �
(�d * * �1) v � V 2 = � (v 2 - v x2 )v xdy �
� 2 0 �
d
v � v 2x �
d**= �x �1- � dy � (12)
0
v � v �

187
 UNIT – V

PART – A

1. Write a note on Reynold’s stress?

txx( t) = v x , v x
txx( t) = v x , v x .......etc
(t) = turbulent

These terms are the components of the turbulent momentum flux they are usually refers to
as Reynolds stresses (density  fluctuation velocity)

Reynolds stress = density  fluctuation velocity.

2. Write note on Reynolds Analogy?

Reynold’s analogy relates momentum of heat transfer.

 Fluid is transferred from outside boundary to surface without intermediate mixing.

 Fluid is brought to rest at the surface,

h t
Heat transfer = CpG = 2
hp t
Mass transfer = m = 2

188
 hp = mass transfer co-efficient

3. Momentum transport analogy of heat source?

Energy transport is the analogy for momentum transfer.

4. Prove Prandtl number is dimensionless?

kg J
mC P ms . Kg K
NPr = = = Dimensionless
K J
SMK

5. Colburn analogy?

The colburn analogy can be given by S + Pr 0.67 = J4 factor = 0.0023 Re-0.2 = 7 2 . Similarly mass
transfer

S + Se 0.67 = 0.023Re -0.2 = 7 2 = J D factor

6. Define Mass transfer coefficient?

If the diffusion occurring in solid, it may happen that at a solid surface the substance lost,
its surrounding fluid and according to the relation.

N A0 = K c (C A0 - C AF )

Where,

Kc = mass transfer co-efficient.

7. Momentum balance for equation of motion?

The equation of motion is developed by writing momentum balance over a stationary

volume Dx Dy Dy, the balance is given by

189
 (Rate of momentum in) - (Rate of momentum out)
Rate of momentum accumulation �
�
+ (sum of all forces acting on the system) - � �= 0
� in the system �
8. Mass transfer rate of counter diffusion?

DAB Pt
N Ax = ( A1 - A 2 )
RTz
where,
NAz = molar flux
DAB = diffusivity
t = total pressure

9. Define thermal diffusivity?

The thermal diffusion term describe the tendency of species to diffuse under the system of
temperature gradient. This effect is quite small but devices can be arranged to produce very steep
temperature gradient so that separation of mixture are affected.
10. Define Stoke’s law

� �R
FK = 6 m V

It is applicable in the region valid upto reynold’s number (based on dia of sphere).

11. Explain Colburn factor?

The convection heat transfer to fluid flowing in a tube, Chilton, collision equation as,

Nu = 0.023 Re 0.8 Pr 0.33

N Nu
= 0.23 Re -0.2 Pr -0.67
Re .Pr
Nu
= st
Re Pr

st Pr 0.67 = J H factor

Over a range Reynold’s number:

5000-20,000 for a flow in smooth pipe, empirical equation is

190
 f = 0.046 Re -0.2
f = 0.023 Re -0.2 = J H = St.Pr 0.67
2

12. Write about diffusion controlled chemical reaction?

Although the chemical rxn occurs instantaneously at catalyst surface. The conversion of A to
A2 processes at a first rate because of the diffusion process which is in series with the reaction
process. hence we speak of conversion of A to A2 as diffusion controlled.

13. Define Raoults law?

According to Raoult’s law, vapour pressure of pure substance in the ratio between mole
fraction & partial pressure.

PA = x A PA

14. Explain fanning friction factor

Fanning friction factor is given as

D Do - DL
f=
2L j < v 2 > 2

15. Define kinematic viscosity?

Kinematic viscosity is defined as the ratio of the viscosity of the fluid to the density of the
fluid.

191
 PART – B

1. Explain about thermal conductivity & Mechanism of energy transport?

Energy Transport:

Here we are restricted to study H.T. by conduction alone.

Thermal conductivity and Mechanism of Energy Transport:

Fourier’s law of heat conduction:

192
 Figure:

Consider a slab of material of area ‘A’ contained between two large parallel plates which
are everywhere separated by a uniform distance Y.

Imagine that initially (t < 0) this slab having a temp T o throughout the material at time small
‘t’ = 0 the lower plate is suddenly brought the temp T1 which is slightly higher that To.

As time proceeds a temperature profile is established, the positive ‘y’ direction and at larger
time a steady state temperature profile is obtained as shown in figure.

When the steady state has been establish then a constant rate of heat flow (Q) is required to
maintain the temperature difference (T1 – T0) in the +ve ‘y’ direction, (ie)

Heat flow per unit area  Temperature gradient.

Q dT
�
A dy
dT
q�
dy
dT
q=k � (1)
dy
Where,

watt
K = Thermal conductivity of slab
m.K

193
 w J
q = heat flux 2
or
m sm 2

For this particular case equ (1) can be written as,

dT
q y = -K � (2)
dy
Where,

qy – heat flux in ‘y’ direction.

-ve sign = decrease in temp with increase in distance ‘y’.

In vectorial notation, the Fourier’s law of heat conduction can be written as

q = [�,T]  (3)

In addition to thermal conductivity one more quantity called thermal diffusivity (), is also
used in the study of heat transfer.

K m2
�=
C p s
Where,
m2
 = thermal diffusivity
s
w
K = thermal conductivity
mK
kg
 = density of material 3
m
J
Cp = specific heat at constant pressure
kg K
2. A plastic panel of area ‘A’ = 1 ft2 and thickness Y = 0.252 inch was found to conduct a heat at a
rate of 3 watts at steady state with temperature of T o = 24 & T1 = 26C, on two main surfaces.
What is the Thermal conductivity of the plastic panel.

Q dT
�
A dy

Given data:

194
 A = 1ft 2 = 1 �(0.3048)2 = 0.0929
J
Q = 3w = 3 �
S
kg m kgm 2
= 3� 2 M = 3� 3
s �s s

T0 = 24oC = 24 + 273 = 297K

T1 = 26oC = 26 + 273 = 299K
y = 0.252 inch = 0.252 �2.54 �10 -2 = 0.0064

3 (299 - 297)
=K
0.0929 0.0064
3
= K(312.46)
0.0929
K = 0.1033 w mK

3. Thermal conductivity of monoatomic & polyatomic gases?

Consider a pure gas composed of smooth, rigid, spherical and non-attracting molecules of
diameter ‘d’ and mass ‘m’ present in concentration ‘n’ number of molecules per unit volume. The
gas as a whole is assumed to be rest (V = 0) but molecular motion is taken into account.

In such a gas the average molecular speed is according to kinetic theory of gas is given by;

8KT
u= � (1)
m
Where,

u = average molecular speed m S

Kgm 2
K = Boltman constant 2
sK
T = local temperature K
m = mass of the gas molecules kg.

The frequency of molecular collision on one side of any stationary surface exposed to the
gas per unit area is given by,

Z = 1 4 nu � (2)

195
Where,

Z = wall collision frequency 1 m 2 s

or
collision flux.
n = molecular concentration 1 m 3
u = average molecular speed m s

The average distance traveled by a molecule between successive collisions is the mean free
path given by,

1 1
l= � (3)
2 d 2 n

Where,
l - mean free path ‘m’
d – diameter of gas molecule ‘m’
n – molecular concentration 1 m 3

The molecules leaching a plane on the average had, their last collision at a distance ‘a’ from
the plane where
2
a = l � (4)
3
Where,

a – distance between plates ‘m’

l - mean free path ‘m’

196
 Figure:

Molecular transport of energy from plane at (y-a) to plane at y.

The only form of energy that can be exchanged during collision by smooth rigid spheres is
the translation energy. The mean translation energy per molecules under equilibrium condition
can be given by

1 3
mu 2 = KT � (5)
2 2

For such gases the heat capacity per mole at constant volume is given by

d �1 2� 3
Cv = N � mu �= R � (6)
dT �2 � 2
Where,
J
Cv = specific heat constant volume
kgK
1
N = avagadro’s number
gm mole
J
R = gas constant
mol K
Equation (6) is satisfactory for mono atomic gases upto temperatures of several 1000.

197
 To determine thermal conductivity consider the behaviour of gas under a temperature
gradient dV
dx . The heat flux qy across any plane of kinetic energies of molecules that cross the plate

per unit time in the +ve, y – direction and substracting the kinetic energy of equal number of
molecules in the –ve y – direction.

(
q y = x 1 2 mu 2 ) y -a
(
- z 1 2 mu 2 ) y -c
 (7)

Substituting equation (5) in equation (7)

3 � �3
qy = z � �
� KTy -a �- z � KTy +a �
�2 � �2 �
3
(
q y = ZK T y-a - T y-a � (8)
2
)
The expressions for T y-a & T y-a are given below

2 dT
T y-a = Ty - l
3 dy
 (9)
2 dT
T y+a = Ty + l
3 dy

Sub equation (9) in equation (8)

3 � 2 dT 2 dT �
qy = KZ �
Ty - l - Ty - l �
2 � 3 dy 3 dy �
3 � 4 dT �
= KZ �- l �
2 � 3 dy �
dT
q y = -2 ZKl � (10)
dy

Sub equation (2) in (10)

1 dT
q y = -2 nuKl
4 dy
1 dT
q y = - nuKl � (11)
2 dy

198
 Equation (11) corresponds to Fourier law of heat conduction given by

dT
q y = -k � (12)
dy

Comparing (11) & (12)

dT -1 dT
-k = nukl
dy 2 dy
1
k= nukl � (13)
2
or
1
k = C v ul � (14)
3

Where,

 = nm is the mass density

Sub equation (1), (3) in (13)

1 8KT 1 1
k= n K
2 m 2 d 2 n
1 KT 1 1
= 2 2 K2 .
2 m 2 2 d 2

1 K 3T
k= � (15)
d2 3 m

Equation (15) represents thermal conductivity of dilute gas composed of rigid spherical gas
molecules.

Equation (15) predicts that thermal conductivity ‘k’ is independent of pressure. For more
accurate treatment of the monoatomic gas at low density at temperature T is k = 1.9891  10-4
T/M
� (16) .
 2 WK

Equation (16) is known as Chapman – Enskog equation

199
Where,

k = thermal conductivity w/mK

T = temp in K
M = molecular weight of gas kg/kg mole
 = numerical value or Lennard Jones constant value.
WK = collision integral.

And is identical with Wm that appeared in theory of viscosity of liquids, and is also noted
that Wm = WK.

Thermal conductivity for polyatomic gases

A simple semi emprical method of handling energy exchange in polyatomic gases was
developed by Eucken and given by

5R�
k=�
Cp +
� m � (17)
�
� 4 M�

4. Compute the thermal conductivity of neon at 1 atm pressure and at 373.2 K.

Given data:

e
= 35.7 oC = 35.7 + 273
K
 = 2.789o A =2.789 �10 -10 m

W k = Wm = 0.821

T
K = 1.981 �10 -4 M
2 m k

Molecular wt of neon = 20.183

373.2
K = 1.989 �10 -4 20.183
(2.789 �10 -10 ) �0.821
w
K = 1.33 �10 -4
mK

200
5. Temperature distribution in solids and in laminar flow

Shell energy balance:

A steady state the shell energy balance over a slab of small thickness, the surface of which
are normal to the direction of heat conduction can be written as follows,

� rate of thermal �
The rate of thermal � � The rate of
� �� �
� �-� �+�energy protection �= 0 � (1)
� energy in ��thermal energy out �
�inside the system �
� �

The thermal energy may enter the system or leave the system by two ways

1. By the mechanism of Heat conduction.

2. By virtue of overall fluid motion and thus type of transport is sometime referred to as
convective transport.

General procedure for solving temperature distribution in laminar flow:

Step 1:

A small shell of thickness is considered in the system over which the shell energy balance in
the form of equation (1) is written.

Step 2:

The thickness of the slab or shell may be allowed to approach zero.

Step 3:

When the thickness approaches to zero, then it leads to a first order differential equation for
temperature distribution.

Step 4:

The differential equation in integrated for entire system and the expression for temperature
distribution is obtained.

201
Step 5:

The constants of integration which appears during integration are evaluated by the use of
boundary condition.

MOST COMMONLY USED BOUNDARY CONDUCTS FOR SOLVING HEAT CONDUCTION:

(i) The temperature at the surface may be specified for ex: T = T0

(ii) The heat flux at any surface may be given as q = q0
(iii) At solid-fluid interphase the heat flux may related to a difference between the
temperature at the interphase and that in the fluid.

q = h(Tint - Tfluid )

The above equation is also called as Newton’s law of cooling.

(iv) At solid-solid interface the continuity of temp and the normal component of heat flux
may be the same.

6. Heat conduction with an electrical heat source?

Consider a electrical wire of radius R and length L, with electrical conductivity Ke (W-1 m-1)
through which a current intensity Ie in following in the given axial direction, during this flow of
current electricity some of the electrical energy is converted into thermal energy through electrical
dissipation. The net rate of heat production per unit volume of wire is given by

I2
Se =
Ke
Where,

Se = source term for the electrical heat conduction, which gives the net rate of heat
production per unit volume.

amp
I=
m2

202
 Figure:

Expressions for the heat flux and temperature distribution:

Assumptions made:

1. The outside temp of electrical wire is maintained at a uniform constant temp T0.
2. The electrical conductivity Ke and thermal conductivity k are assumed to be constant. The
steady state shell energy balance over a small shell of thickness Dr can be written as

�net rate of thermal �

Rate of thermal � �
� Rate of thermal � � �
� energy in �- � energy out �+ �energy production �= 0
� �� ��
�inside the system � �

The rate of thermal energy

in across the cylindrical surface
Energy Area
surface through heat conduction = �
time Area
@r=r
= Energy flux �Area S.A
= q r r=r (2 rL)
= [q r (2 rL)] r=r

203
The rate of thermal energy
out across the cylindrical = [q r (2 rL)] r=r+Dr
surface @ r = r + Dr

The net rate of thermal

energy production inside = energy production volume  volume
the given system = S e (2 rDrL)

Substituting the expressions in equation (1)

(2rL)q r r=r - (2 rL)q r r=r+Dr + Se(2rDrL) = 0

�2DrL
rq r r=r - rq r r =r +Dr
+ Ser = 0
Dr

Taking the limit Dr  0

rq r r =r - rq r r =r +Dr
Lt + S er = 0
Dr �0 Dr

d
- (rq r ) = - S e r -6/fd
dr

On integration

r2
rq r = Se + C1
2
r C
q r = Se + 1 � (2)
2 r

B.C. (1) qr   @ r = 0. So C1 = 0

204
 Figure:

r
q r = Se � (3)
2

Equation (3) says that heat flux qr in the linear function of radial function r. Substitute
Fourier law of heat conduction in equation (3).

dT
q r = -K � (4)
dr

Comparing (3) & (4)

dT r
-K = Se
dr 2
dT Se
=- r dr
dr 2k
On integration

Se r 2
T=- + C2
2K 2
Se 2
T=- r + C 2 � (5)
4K
B.C. (ii) r = R, T = T0

Se 2
T0 = - R + C2
4K
Se 2
C 2 = To + R � (6)
4K

205
Sub (6) in (5)

Se 2 Se R 2
T=- r + To +
4K 4K
Se
= T0 + �
� -r 2 + R 2 �
�
4K
Se
T = T0 + �
�R 2 - r2 �
�
4K
Se 2 � r 2 �
T = T0 +
4K
R 1- R
� �
( )
� (7)

Se 2 � r 2 �
T - T0 =
4K
R 1- R
� � ( )
Equation (7) is the expression for temp distribution and it follows the parabolic path with
increasing radial distance from the wire axis.

Maximum average temp distribution:

B.C. (iii) T = Tmax @ r = 0

SeR 2
Tmax - To = � (8)
4K

Average temperature distribution:

2 R

�
�(T - T )r dr dqo

< T > -T0 = 0 0

2 R

�
�r dr dq
0 0

( ) r dr
R
2 Se 2
( )
2
= R 1- r R
R 2 �
0
4K
R
=
2 Se 2
2 �
R 0 4K
(
R r - r 3 1 R r dr( ))
R
2 Se
= 2 � (R r2 - Rr 3 )dr
R 0 4K

206
 R
Se � R 2r 2 r 4 �
= - �
2KR 2 �
�2 4�
4
Se � R R�
= -
2KR �2 4 �
2 �
�
Se � R4 �
=
2KR 2 �
�4 �
�

SeR 4
=
8KR 2

SeR 2
< T > - T0 = � (9)
8K

7. Voltage required for a given temp rise in a wire heated by a electric current?

A copper wire has a radius of 2 mm and length 5m for what voltage drop would the temp
rise and wire axis be 10C, if the surface temp of wire is 20C. The Lorenz number of copper

( K
)
KeTo = 2.23 �10
-8 volts 2
K2

The current density related to the voltage drop ‘E’ over a length ‘L’ is given by the following
expression,

E
I = Ke
L

Given data:

r = 2 mm = 2  10-3 m
L=5m
TN =

SeR 2
Tmax - To =
4K

I2R 2
=
4K Ke
Ke 2 E 2 R 2
= 2
L 4KK e

207
 KeE 2 R 2 To
Tmax - To = �
4L2 K To
KeTo E 2 R 2
Tmax - To = .
K 4L2 To
1 E2R 2
Tmax - To = �
2.23 �10 -8 4L2 To
1 2 (2 �10 -3 )2
10 = �E �
2.23 �10 -8 4 �52 �293
10 = 6.121 �10-3 �E 2
E 2 = 1661.85 volt 2
E = 40.416 volts

8. Heat conduction with a nuclear heat source?

Figure:

208
 Consider a nuclear fuel element of spherical form as shown in figure. It consist of a sphere
of frictionable material the radius R(F) surrounded by a spherical shell of aluminium cladding with
outer radius R(c). Inside the fluid element friction fragments are produced which have very high
kinetics energy. Collision between these fragments and the atoms of frictionable material provide
the major source of thermal energy in the reactor, such a volume source of thermal energy
( )
2
1 + b r R (F) �� (1) .
resulting from nuclear fission is denoted here as, ‘Sn’ and given as, S n = S no �
� �

This shows will not be uniform throughout the sphere of frictionable material, it will be
smallest at the centre of sphere. In equation (1) S n is the source term due to nuclear heat source
J
per unit volume. m 3 s and Sno is the volume rate of heat production at the centre of the sphere (
J (F) (F)
m 3 s ), b – Dimensionless constant between 0  1, r  varying radial distance 0  R (or) R 
R(C).

Expressions for heat flux of temperature distribution: The frictionable materials.

Consider a spherical shell of thickness Dr within the sphere of frictional material and
thermal energy balance over this shell is,

�net rate of thermal �

Rate of thermal � �
� Rate of thermal � � �
� energy in �- � energy out �+ � energy production �= 0 � (2)
� �� ��
�inside the system � �

Rate of thermal energy

in across the spherical = heat flux  S.A
surface r = r = �
�q (c) 2
r 4 r ��r =r

Rate of thermal energy

out across the spherical q (c)
= �
�
2
r 4 r ��r =r +Dr
surface @ r = r + Dr

substituting above equation in (2)

q (c)
�
�
2
r 4 r � q (c)
�r =r - �
�
2
r 4 r ��r =r +Dr = 0

209
�4 Dr

r 2 q (c) 2 ( c)
r r = r - r q r r = r +Dr = 0

Take,

Lt
Dr �0

Lt r 2q (c) 2 (c)
r r = r - r q r r = r +Dr = 0
Dr �0

Diff

d 2 (c)
dr
( r qr ) = 0
r 2 q (c)
r = C2

C2
q (c)
r = � (6)
r2

B.C. (ii)

@ r =R (F) , q (c) r = qr
(F)

C2
q (F)
r r =R( F ) = 2
R (F)
�r b r3 � C
Sn o � + (F)2 . � = (F)2 2
�3 R 5�r =R( F ) k
3
�
R (F) b R (F) � (F)2
Sn o � + (F)2 . �R = C2 .
�3 R 5 �

Thus C2,
3
� R (F) b (F)3 �
C 2 = Sn o � + R �
�3 5 �
1 b�
3 �
C 2 = Sn o R (F) � + �� (7)
3 5�
�

Sub (7) in (6)

1 b �1
(F)3 �
q (c)
r = Sn o R � + � (8)
3 5�
� �r
2

210
Expression for temp rise distribution the sphere of Al cladding:

The Fourier law of conduction, for sphere of Al cladding is written

dT
q (rt) = -K c � (9)
dr

Compare equation (8) & (9)

dT 1 b�
�
-K c = Sn o R (T) � + �1 2
dr 3 5� r
�
3
dT (c) Sn o R (F) � 3 1
-K c
= 1 + 6�
� �
dr 3 � 5 �r 2

(3)
dTc(r) Sn o R (F) � 3 � �- 1 �+ C
= 1 + 6�
� � � 3
dr 3K (c)
� 5 � �r�
( 3)
Sn R (F) 3
T (c)
= o (c) �
3K
1 + 6 1 r + C3 �
�
� 5 �
�
� (10) ( )
B.C.(iii) R(C), T(C) = T0

3
T - Sn o R (F) � 3 ��1 �
C3 = o 1 + b � (c) �� (11)
+�
3.PL � 5 � R �
��

Sub (11) in (10)

) ( 1R )
3 3
Sn R (F) � 3 1 Sn R (F) �
T (c)
= o (c) �
3K
( )
1 + 6 r + To - o c �+ 1 + 3 5 b ( (c)
� 5 3R �
3
Sn R ( F) R (F) R (F) �
T (c)

3K
�
�r
(
- To = o (c) 1 + 3 5 b � - (c) �� (12)
R �
)
Expression for temp rise distribution inside the sphere of frictionable material

�r b r3 �
q(F) = Sn o � + 2 . � (5)
3 R (F) 5 �
r
� �
The Fourier law of heat conduction

211
 dT(F)(F) (F)
q = -K r� (13)
dr
Compare (13) & (5)

dT(F) �r b r3 �
-K (F) = Sn o � + (F)2 . �
dr �3 R 5�
-Sn � r2 b r4 �
T(F) = ( F)o � + (F)2 . �+ C 4 � (14)
K �6 R 20 �

B.C.(4) r = R (F) ; T (F) = T (C) r =R ( F )

Sub B.C. (4) in (14)

2 2

(c) -Sn � R (F) b R ( F) �

T r =R( F )
= (F)o � + (F)2 �+ C 4
K �6 R 20 �
2 2 2
Sn R (F) �R (F) R (F) � Sn � R (F) bR (F) �
C 4 = T0 + o c
3K
(
1 + 3 5 b � - (C) �+ (F)o �
�r R � K �6
) +
20 �
�r = R
(F)2

2 2
(F) 2
Sn o R (F) R (F)
R (F)
Sn �R (F)
bR �
C 4 = T0 +
3K c
�
(
�R
�
R � K �6
)
1 + 3 5 b � (F) - (C) �+ (F) �
o
+
20 �
�
2 2 2
Sn o R (F) � R (F) � Sn o � R (F) bR (F) �
C 4 = T0 +
3K c
3
1+ 5 b � (
1 - (C) �+ (F) �
� R � K �6
) +
20 �
�� (15)

2 2 2

(F)
� -Sn
R (F) r 2 b r 4 R (F) � R (F) � 3 �� R (F) �
T = (F)o
� (F)2 + � 2 �+ To + Sn o 1+ b � 1- �
K 6 R (F) 20 R (F) � 3K (C) �
� 5 � �� R (C) �
2

�R
2
Sn o �R (F) b 2 6�
+ (F) � ( F) + R (F) � �
K � �K 20 6�
�

( )
2 2

(F) Sn o R (F) � r 2
3 � r � R (F) � 3 � �
� R (F) �
T - To = �1 - + b 1
� - �+ Sn 1
� + b �1 - (c) �
� �� (16)
6K (F) R (F)
10 � R �(F) o (c)
3K � 5 � � R �
� �

Maximum temperature rise:

T(F) = Tmax @ r = 0
sub in (16)
2 2
Sn o R (F) � 3b � Sn o R (F) � 3 �� R (F) �
Tmax - To = 1+ + 1+ b �
1- �
6K (F) � � 10 �
� 3K
(c) �
� 5 �
�� R ( c) �

212
9. Heat conduction with a viscous heat source.

Figure:

In most flow problems viscous heating is not important. However this heating effect is
important the which the large velocity changes occurs over share distances.

Eg:-1 Flow of a lubricant between fast moving parts

Eg:-2 Flow of a plastics through dyes in high speed extrusion.

Consider the flow of a Newtonian incompressible fluid between two co-axial cylinders in
which the outer one rotates with an angular velocityW. As the outer cylinder rotates, each
cylindrical shell of fluids rubs against an adjacent shell of fluids. Thin rubbing action of adjacent
layers of fluid produces heat (i.e.) the mechanical energy in steadily degraded into thermal energy
in volume heat source resulting from viscous dissipation in designated here as S v. The
temperatures of inner of inner cylinder & outer cylinder maintain at temp’s T = T o & T = Tv
respectively.

213
 If the gap ‘b’ between the cylinders in very small with respect to the outer cylinder radius
‘R’, then the system may be curvature effects are in figure in which the curvature effects are
neglected and the problem is simplified by using partician co-ordinates.

�dv z �
The volume heat source for viscous heat dissipation is given as, S v = -txz � �� (1) W.K.T
�dx �
dv
from Newton’s law of viscosity txz = -m z � (2) (for Newtonian fluid) sub (2) in (1) then
dx
�dv �
S v = m � z �� (3) . From figure:- 2 for linear velocity profile we can waite difference Eq:- (4) with
�dx �
respect to ‘x’.

dv x v
= � (5) sub (5) in (3)
dx b
2
�V�
S v = m � �� (6)
�b �

The energy balance for a rectangular slab of thickness Dx, length L, width W can be written as
follows

�Rate of thermal �
Rate of thermal � �
� Rate of thermal � � �
� energy in �- � energy out �+ � energy production �= 0 � (7)
� �� ��
�inside the system �
�

Rate of thermal energy in

across the rectangular = q x x = x (LW)
surface @ x = x

Rate of thermal energy

out across the rectangular = q x x = x +Dx (LW)
surface @ x = x

Rate of thermal energy

production inside the = Sv  volume
= S v �LWDx.
give system from equation 6
( )
2
= m v b �LWDx

214
10. Use of Navier stoke equation to step-up a simple problem?

Use of Navier-stoke equation for constant density to obtain the differential equations for
velocity distribution.

a) For the flow of velocity distribution.

b) For 2 phase flow of an isothermal film.
c) For axial flow in annular with moving boundary.
d) Laminar flow in a narrow slit.

Solution:

(a) For the flow of an isothermal film

1) Steady flow
2) Incompressible fluid ( = constant)
3) Rectangular co-ordinates
4) Vz = f(x) and Vy and Vx = 0

From equation of Continuity

0 0
d d d d
+ 0
(v x ) + (v y ) + ( v z ) = 0
dt dx dy dy
From (2)  from (4)

d
( v z ) = 0
dz
dv
 z =0
dz
dv z
= 0 � (1)
dz

Velocity distribution:

From equation of motion:

215
 from (1) 0 from (4) 0 0 from (1)
�dv dv dv �
dv
� z + vx z + vy z + vz z
�
� dt dx dy �
dz
� �
d �dv 0 from (4) dv 0 dv 0 from (1) �
= - + m� z + z
+ z
�+ g z
dz �d x dy dz �
� �

w.k.t in falling film

g z = g cos b

0
-dp d2 v z
0= + g cos b + m
dz dx 2
dp
Since there is no pressure force =0
dz

d2 v z
0 = g cos b + m
dx 2
2
d vz
-m = g cosb
dx 2
d2 v z g cosb
=-
dx 2
m
d �dv z � g cosb
� �= -
dx �dx � m
dv z g cosb
=- x + c1
dx m

Integrating,

x 2 cos b
v z = -g + c 2 � (2)
2m

B.C. (1)

At x = s vz = 0

gs 2 cos b
C2 =
2m
Sub c2 in (2)

216
 vz =
g cos b 2
2m ( ( )
S 1- xs
2
)
(b) For the two phase flow in horizontal slip:
1) Steady flow
2) Incompressible fluid  = constant
3) Rectangular co-ordinates
4) Vz = f(x) and vy, vx = 0

From equation of continuity,

0
d d 0 from (4) d 0 d
+ (v x ) + (v y ) + ( v z ) = 0
dt dx dy dz
dv z
= 0 � (1)
dz

From equation of motion,

0 0
�dv z 0 0 dv z 0 dv z dv z � -dP �d 2 v d2 v z d2 v z �
� + vx + vy + vz �= + m � z
+ + �+ gz
� dt dx dy dz �
� � dz �dx 2
�
dy 2 dz 2 �
�
1 d � dv z �
� � dP
-m � � r � �= - dz + g z
r dr � dr �
� �
1 d � dv z �
� � Po - PL
-m � � r �= L
�
r dr � dr �
� �
�d dv z � Po - PL
-m � � �
r
� ��= L (r)
�dr � dr
��
dv P - P r2
-mrr z = o L + c1
dr L 2

The fluid pressure at inlet and outlet are the same because of constant cross-sectional and
constant volume rate of flow.

Fluid is not influenced by pressure force.

�Po - PL r 2 �
Hence � �= 0
� L 2�

217
 dv z
-mr = C1
dr
dv z C
=- 1
dr mr

(d) Laminar flow in a narrow slit:

1. Steady flow
2. Fluid in incompressible  = constant
3. Rectangular co-ordinates
4. vz = f(x) vy, vx = 0

Equation of continuity,

0 from (1)
dp d 0 from (4) d 0 d
+ (v x ) + (v y ) + (v z ) = 0
dt dx dy dz
dv
 z =0
dz
dv z
= 0 � (1)
dz

Equation of motion:

218
 �dv 0 dv z
0 from (4)
dv dv �
� z
+ vx + v y z + v z z �=
� dt dx dy dz �
� �
0 from (4)
dp �d 2 v d2 v z d2 v z �
- + m� 2 + z
+ �+ g z
dz �dx dy 2 dz 2 �
� �
dp �d v �
2
0=- + m � 2z �+ g z
dz �dx �
�d 2 v z � dp
-m � 2 �= - + g z
�dx � dz
d �dv z � Po - PL
-m � �=
dx �dx � L
dv z � Po - PL
- m�
� �= (x) + C1
�dx � L
dv z (P - PL ) x - c1
=- o
dx mL m
*****************

219