Communication Studies

Module 3- Speaking and writing

What is Communication?
Communication is any process in which people share information, ideas and feelings. It involves not only
the spoken word but also body language, personal mannerisms and style- anything that adds meaning to a
message. HYBELS 2001: COMMUNICATING EFFECTIVELY

Communication is a transactional process of sharing meaning with others. ROTHWELL 2001: IN THE
COMPANY OF OTHERS

Communication is a process of people interacting through the use of messages. ZUESCHNER 2003

Communication is a human activity, it is interpersonal, it is purposive and it is a process. MUDD AND

SILLARS 1991

Formal communication is a process with a clear purpose involving the sending and receiving of messages
as a way of sharing ideas and experiences. KATULA 1983

Communication is a continuous transactional process involving participants who occupy different but
overlapping environment and create relationships through exchange of messages many of which are
affected by external physiological and psychological noise. ADLER 2003

Communication is the process of sharing meaning whether the content is informal conversation, group
interaction or public speaking. VERDERBER 1999

Communication is a complex social phenomenon that is vital to human civilisation. Harold M. Lall 2010

ACTIVITY 1: Ask students to identify the common term in the definitions given.

ACTIVITY 2: See activity 1.1 in Study Guide.

THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION

The Elements in the Process of Communication

Sender
This is the person or body responsible for sending the communication. It can be an individual or a
group, such as a company, a department or even a government ministry or political party.The
sender also known as the encoder decides on the message to be sent, the best/most effective way
that it can be sent. All of this is done bearing the receiver in mind. In a word, it is his/her job to
conceptualize.
 The sender may want to ask him/herself questions like: What words will I use? Do I need signs or
pictures?

Message
This is recognized as the information after it has been encoded by the sender.

Medium
It refers to the form of communication that a message takes. It also refers to a larger group of ways of
communication within which the particular communication can be classed. There are four main media:

a) Written Communication: Letters, memos , books, articles, notices, posters

b) Oral Communication: Any method using the spoken word, such as meetings, telephone calls
interviews, lectures, and informal discussions.
c) Visual Communication: A drawing, photograph, or any other means of putting a message in a
pictorial form.
d) Non- Verbal Communication: the combination of gesture, expression, tone of voice, among
others.

Channel
This is the physical means by which the message is conveyed.

For written communication, it might be a notice board, an internal mail service or postal service.
For oral communication, it might be a personal interview, a committee meeting, or public
telephone system.
For visual communication, it might be a computer printer, a printing press or a fax system
 The message, medium and channel are three separate but overlapping ideas. For example, the
message might be an actual letter, the medium is then written communication and the channel is
the post office.

Receiver
This is the person or body that receives the message. It can be an individual or an organization.The
receiver is also responsible for providing feedback to the sender. In a word, it is his/her job to interpret.

Feedback
The receiver is also responsible for providing feedback to the sender. Feedback is the name given to
information that the sender receives from the way in which the receiver accepts the message. A smile or
laugh is a positive feedback; a frown or scowl is a negative feedback. However, feedback only refers to
the immediate reactions and not a more considered response such as a letter in reply to an enquiry.

Context
Communication does not take place in a vacuum. The context of any communication act is the
environment surrounding it. This includes, among other things, place, time, event, and attitudes of sender
and receiver.
Noise
This is the name given to any factors that prevent the proper exchange of information. Noise can be
physical: traffic, typewriters, telephone ringing that interrupts a meeting. Other forms of noise include a
bad telephone connection, poor handwriting in a letter, a computer failure, or even a conflicting message
(if a speaker’s facial expression conveys a different meaning from that being given orally).

Describing the process

Conceptualization
Here the sender defines the information to be sent, by thinking about the aim of the communication and
the content to be conveyed.

Encoding
This is the process of putting the information into the form that is most suitable both to the receiver and to
the aim. In most cases, encoding involves putting an idea into words, pictures or gestures.

Selection of channel and medium

The proper selection of both a channel and medium will be dependent on the aim of the message

Interpretation and Decoding

In this stage, the receiver interprets the message he or she has been given in order to obtain his or her own
ideas of the information it conveys. However, if the sender encodes the idea wrongly , ambiguously , or in
terms that the receiver interprets according to his or her own experience rather than the sender’s , then
distortion is likely to occur and the receiver will gain a different message from that intended.

Feedback
This is the receiver’s first reaction to the message. The audience will provide feedback, as verbal and
nonverbal reactions to a communicated message. Close attention must be paid to this feedback, as it is the
only thing that can give confidence that the audience has understood the message. If there has been a
misunderstanding, at least there is the opportunity to send the message a second time.

Activity: 1.4 and 1.5 in STUDY GUIDE

Revision Activity : 1.3, 1.7, 1.8

FACILITATORS ANDBARRIERS OF COMMUNICATION.

Whatever affects the understanding of the message is known as a BARRIER to communication. Noise is
anything that creates a barrier to communication and impedes successful communication. Noise may not
be aural . DeVito (2006) identified three types of noise: Semantic, physiological and psychological.
Semantic Noise
This stems from barriers in language use. For example, communication maybe hampered when one party
speaks a different language, or uses incomprehensible dialectal meanings or specialized jargon.

Physiological Noise
This may be caused when the speaker or listener has speech or articulation problems, hearing loss
memory loss or visual impairment.

Psychological Noise
Refers to cognitive and mental barriers: for example, prejudice in either the sender or receiver or personal
feelings such as false expectations and extreme emotionalism (anger, love)

Noise can also be environmental, which is external to the communication message but impedes the
process nonetheless. Noise in a classroom, noise from a passing car, or noise from an awful smell or
inadequate ventilation in a room may interfere with the transmission and processing of a message. When
these barriers are eliminated or reduces communication is facilitated.

In the same way that there are BARRIERS to communication there are also FACILITATORS of
communication. They aid in the passing of information and therefore, facilitate a mutual understanding.
Using the appropriate language, using an effective medium, selecting and appropriate channel and using
additional prompts such as visuals are all facilitators of effective communication. Facilitators to
communication may be tangible or intangible. Tangible facilitators include; books, computers or facilities
like a microphone or photocopier. Intangible facilitators include motivators such as the drive to succeed
or positive attitudes in an individual’s relationship with others.

Activity 1.10 in Study Guide

FORMS OF COMMUNICATION
VERBAL COMMUNICATION
This form of communication is characterized by the use of oral and written language. In this form of
communication words are used to bring across a certain message. There are two main ways in which
human beings communicate verbally, that is, through speech and writing. Reading, writing, speaking and
listening are the four ways in which we use this verbal communication. Each of these is a skill, and
effective use of each is necessary for communication to take place.

Your notes, for instance, are in a written format. However until it is read and interpreted by an audience/
receiver (you, the student) no communication has taken place. In addition to this, the entire process is
incomplete unless some feedback, in the form of presentations/periodic tests/assignments, is provided.

Communication via the spoken word takes place on an individual level in face-to-face conversations or on
the telephone, and among groups of people in meetings. This is just as important a form of
communication as the written .
For communication to take place, both writing and reading skills must be employed. Similarly, speech
communication does not end with speaking. For communication to effectively take place, the
receiver/audience must employ listening skills.

It is important, then, for us to be able to not only write and speak effectively, but also to read and listen
effectively.

Written communication has a number of very significant advantages.

 It provides a permanent record of the message, one that can be referred back to and checked.
 Writing allows for more careful compilation of the message, with the opportunity to think it
through, clarify and ensure easier comprehension (particularly for detailed technical matters).
 Written documents can be widely distributed with ease, using printing and copying facilities to
reach those not able to attend personal communications.

On the other hand, it does come with certain disadvantages.

 Producing the quality of written documents to which recipients have become accustomed is not
cheap, and with the temptation to distribute very widely, the costs of printing, paper, postage, etc.
can be high.
 Written communications can tend to be impersonal, and this can have drawbacks where they are
seen as a mechanistic device (the formal "putting it in writing").
 Obscurities and misunderstandings are difficult to clear up – the timescale for feedback can be
quite long (compared with oral communication) and wide distribution and the permanency of the
record can compound problems.

Oral communication has certain specific advantages.

 It is immediate in that information can be provided as and when needed, often in response to
questions.
 The opportunity for immediate feedback and questioning should ensure that understanding is
maximized.
 It is more personal and direct, with the personality and feelings of the participants being allowed
into the communication process.

On the other hand, there are disadvantages.

 It is time-consuming and costly, particularly where a number of people have to be brought
together, and can be difficult to terminate.
 The impermanence of the communication can lead to problems in recall of precisely what
was said, particularly in any technical exchange (although the production of written reports
either before meetings to aid discussion or as records of the communication after the event
can overcome this).
 There may, conversely, be more opportunities for misunderstandings owing to the relative
immediacy of both the communication and the feedback opportunity. Possible problems
include the lack of preparation in dealing with questions (leading to off-the- cuff responses
 which may not be right), overlooking certain items either in the initial message (forgetting to
cover them!) or in responses to questions, probable lack of channels for checking meaning
after the event, and status differentials between manager and subordinate (or even tutor and
student) causing reticence about asking for clarification.

One of the key features of oral communication is that it is invariably two-way. As such, it is worth noting
that it involves more skills than just the presenting of information – it includes the ability to engage in a
dialogue. Thus, effectiveness depends not just on the quality of the spoken word by the transmitter (itself
no mean skill, particularly when addressing a group of people – and even ten people can be quite daunting
to the inexperienced), but also on the quality of listening and the way in which feedback takes place.

 Listening skills are notoriously poor. We allow ourselves to be easily distracted and often
pick up only general impressions of what is said (especially using non-verbal cues to help
identify meaning and significance).
 Feedback – both giving and receiving – is a neglected skill. Problems can arise where the
person giving the feedback has apparently failed to understand, where one of the parties feel
their authority is being challenged, or where criticism has to be dealt with.

NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
This form of communication relies on elements other than speech and writing. Non-verbal
communication is equal in importance to verbal communication. According to Leathers (1992), non-
verbal communication is the use of interacting sets of visual, vocal, and invisible communications
systems to convey and interpret meaning.

Non-verbal actions often tell a different story from the one we are telling with words. For example, if you
are making an apology to someone for a wrong done with a smirk on your face, the person may not
believe that you are serious and genuinely apologetic. Some major categories that fall under non-verbal
communication are paralanguage/vocalic, Space/proxemics, objects/artifacts, posture & movement, time
and the senses. These basic elements of non-verbal communication may be used to enhance
communicative behaviors and can have a significant impact on your total message.

Vocalics/Paralanguage
The use of volume, tone, rate, pitch, and quality of voice to give dimension and meaning to words. This is
also referred to as paralanguage as the voice ‘surrounds’ the words. For example you raise your pitch at
the end of a sentence to indicate that you have completed a thought.

Proxemics
This is the use of space to communicate. For example if someone comes to sit next to you in the library
when the whole table is empty it can communicate a range of things about relations/interests/personality
types.
Artifacts
Artifacts are those items, such as jewelry, clothing or a vehicle that may communicate something about
the type of person you are. If a male wears extremely tight pants or shaves his eyebrows, it may
communicate something about him to others.

Movement
This includes posture, gestures, facial expressions and eye contact. Waving, smiling, gazing at someone,
or slumping at your desk, are all instances of movement. Movement communicates messages.

Time/Chronemics
The way you use time, or chronemics, can communicate attitude or status. For instance, one may
show/communicate respect by being early for an appointment or job interview. Conversely, lack of
respect may be communicated by turning up half-an-hour late for a class.

Senses
Finally, messages can be sent through the five senses – taste, touch, smell etcetera.

FUNCTIONS OF NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

There are also six (6) functions of non-verbal communication. That is, we use non-verbal communication
for six main reasons:

i. Substituting is where we use non-verbal communication to replace verbal communication. Waving

goodbye instead of saying it out loud is one example of this.

ii. Reinforcement. We also use non-verbal communication to reinforce or complement our verbal
communication. Pounding your hand onto a table when arguing may reinforce whatever point you’re
making.

iii. Regulating. The regulating function of non-verbal communication is used mostly in conversation to
control the flow of messages. Raising your hand to answer or ask a question in class helps to regulate the
communication going on in the room.
iv. Contradiction. Sometimes we use non-verbal communication to contradict our verbal communication.
The most common example of this is using vocalic sarcasm – when you say one thing, but your tone of
voice says the opposite.

v. Manage Impressions. We often manage impressions through the use of non-verbal communication.
The way we dress, for example, often coincides with the impression we want others to have of us.

vi. Establish Relationships. Finally, we use non-verbal communication to establish relationships. The
wearing of a wedding band is a non-verbal indication that the person is married.

CONTEXTS OF COMMUNICATION
As stated earlier, the context of communication is its environment. Context is particularly important in
choosing the types of verbal and non-verbal communication we use every day. A doctor does not wear
short pants and slippers at the clinic; this would be inappropriate. A lawyer may choose to speak in simple
language to a client while using more complex language to a colleague. A hip-hop star covers himself in
“bling” and speaks a version of English that is not standard when addressing his fans. All of these are
examples of how communication context influences form of communication.

When deciding on which form of communication to use, always ask yourself these questions:

* Who am I communicating with?

* What is the attitude of my audience?

* Where is this communication act taking place?

Usually, communication contexts occur along a scale from formal to informal. Formal contexts require
certain types of communication and communicative behaviours; informal contexts require others. A
conversation between employer and employee, for example, is not the same as one between friends, even
if the subject matter under discussion is the same.
Basically, a formal situation is one where behaviour is dictated by social norms and patterns, and an
informal situation is one where there are no constraints on behaviour and communication.

Communication Settings

Intrapersonal
This means communicating within yourself. When you think, daydream and solve problems that is seen
as intrapersonal communication. Hunger, pain and pleasure are said to be physical feedback
mechanisms.Intrapersonal communication can also be referred to as inner speech, self- talk or interior
monologue. When we talk to or have ‘conversations’ with ourselves, we are communicating
interpersonally. In these conversations we reflect on our experiences, express our plans and aspirations,
rationalize and evaluate situations and problem solve. We conceptualize and encode messages that help us
to prepare for interpersonal communication in a extrapersonal (with other people) context. Johnson (1984)
as cited in Wolvin and Croakley(1993), notes : “ inner speech is used to encode ,decode and store
symbolic meanings that are used to make associations between or among concepts.

Interpersonal
This form of communication refers to the interactions of two or more people. All communication
involving other people and oneself is seen as interpersonal. It is characterized by oneself being in direct
contact with one other person or a few other people. Interviews, conversations and intimate
communication are all examples of this type of communication.

Small Group
This form of communication is characterized by leadership, a somewhat equal sharing of ideas, peer
pressure, roles and norms, and focus on a common goal, usually in face-to-face interaction. The small
group is one of the most important communication settings. Examples of small groups include the family,
interview teams, roommates, workgroups, legislative subcommittees and military and business groups.

Public Communication
This occurs where one person talks to several others and is the dominant focus of the communication in a
public setting. It is characterized by having a speaker and an audience. Here, the speaker is the primary
sender of messages, while others function primarily as receivers of those messages. The number of the
audience is not important here.

Mass Communication
This occurs where a message needs help to get from point A to point B – from its source/sender to its
destination/receiver. Some form of mechanism is needed to connect the sender to the receivers. These
include print (newspapers or magazines), electrical (radio, television or video), or electronic (computer
modems). There is usually some delay in sending and receiving. There is also some delay in the
feedback, if any, that the sender gets from the receiver.

Organizational Communication
This is a very specialized area that focuses on interpersonal, small-group, public and mass communication
as they interact in a complex, multi-group setting. It is especially important to business, government, and
educational institutions. It accounts for what happens to messages as they travel up, down and around a
large collection of individuals.
Academic Communication
Academic writing is a more specialized type of writing that is geared for an audience that has expertise in
the field of study and who can therefore critically assimilate and evaluate it.

Intercultural Communication
Otherwise known as cross-cultural communication, it describes what happens when the sender of a
message is from a different cultural background than the intended receiver. It may be found in any other
context of communication whenever one individual speaks to another individual from another country. It
is important to take into consideration the differences in cultures in order to ensure successful cross-
cultural communication.

MASS MEDIA, CHANNELS AND TECHNOLOGIES

Mass media is media that has the capacity to reach large audiences,- it is a one to many’ form of
communication. It is regarded as ‘mainstream media’ because coverage is usually of general interest to
national and/ or international audiences. Print media refers to newspapers and magazines, while electronic
media includes broadcast media such as television and radio. The internet can be considered as mass
media as it reaches audiences the world over.

Business organisations and social groups use mass media to advertise and market products and services,
and for public relations. Political organisations also access mass media for public relations and political
communication.

Mass media provides entertainment through music, sporting, acting and reading programming. Video and
computer games also belong to this category. Public service announcement are a social responsibility of
the mass media.

Radio, television and the cinema, as earlier technologies of mass media, influenced culture, politics
education and lifestyle. Today, internet technologies such infrared, Bluetooth and WiFi areplaying a
major role in reaching individuals and communities who are physically removed from the source of the
communication. The new technologies are advancing democracy in the world by affording people
access to information they would not have previously had, by connecting people in remote places, and by
networking with people in similar interest groups. At the same time, however, they create a situation of
global capitalism and dominance by those who control these technologies.