Agriculture

Agriculture or farming is the cultivation and breeding of animals, plants and fungi for food, fiber,
biofuel, medicinal plants and other products used to sustain and enhance human life.Agriculture
was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of
domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured the development of civilization. The
study of agriculture is known as agricultural science.

The growth rate for the agriculture and allied sectors is estimated to be 4.1 per cent for 2016-17.

Agriculture Contribution to GDP-16.5%,employed 49% of the total workforce in 2014.

Branches Of Agriculture

• Agronomy: Agronomy is a branch of agricultural that deals with the study of crops &
the soils in which they grow. The work of Agronomists is to build methods that will improve the use
of soil & increase the production of food and fiber crops.

• Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry: Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry is traced
back to the Chemical Section headed by Imperial Agricultural Chemist. Soil Science deals with the
chemical, physical, biological & mineralogical composition of soils as they relate to agriculture.

• Horticulture: Horticulture is the study of plants. Horticulture includes the cultivation of

medicinal plants, fruits, vegetables, herbs, sprouts, nuts, seeds, algae, flowers, mushrooms,
seaweeds and non-food crops such as grass & ornamental trees and plants.

• Agricultural Engineering: Agricultural Engineering is the area of engineering concerned with

the design, construction, agricultural structures, and improvement of farming equipment &
machinery. Agricultural engineers help to integrate technology with farming.

• Agriculture Statistics: Agriculture Statistics Deals with collecting and analyzing data on
various aspects of Indian agriculture with view to assist in policy making of Agriculture.

• Agricultural Economics: Agricultural economics studies the allocation, utilization, and

distribution of farming resources, as well as the commodities produced by farming. Agricultural
economics make graduates especially attractive to agricultural / Environmental-based employers,
such as government ministries, and non-governmental organizations.

• Animal Science: Animal Science program may include microbiology, genetics, animal
behavior, nutrition, physiology, and reproduction. Animal Science Courses in support areas, such as
genetics, soils, agricultural economics & marketing, legal aspects, and the environment also are
offered.

• Plant Breeding and Genetics: Plant breeding is the process by which humans change the
characteristics of plants. Agricultural genetics is the applied study of the effects of genetic variation
& selection used to propagate valuable heritable trait combinations in crop plants and farm animals.

• Plant Pathology: Plant pathology is the scientific study of diseases in plants caused by
pathogens and environmental conditions.
 • Seed Technology: Seed Technology is the science dealing with the methods of improving
physical & genetical characteristics of seed.

• Entomology: Entomology concerned with the harmful and beneficial effects of insects and
agricultural practice.

• Forestry: Forestry is the science, art & practice of understanding, managing and using wisely
the available natural resources associated with, and derived from forest lands. These all resources
include water, fish, wildlife, soil, plants, timber, and recreation.

• Agricultural Biotechnology: Agricultural biotechnology is a collection of scientific techniques

used to improve plants, animals, and microorganisms.

• Plant Physiology: Plant physiology is a subdiscipline of botany concerned with the

functioning, or physiology, of plants.

Scope of Agronomy
 Yield maximization with introduction of new cultivars.
 Reduced cost of production due to proper crop management
 Better water use efficiency due to agronomic knowledge
 Special tillage and intercultural operations for better crop growth and maximizing harvesting
index
 Appropriate soil fertility management can increase crop yields with lesser use of fertilizer for
increased profit
 Reduced post harvest loss due to agronomic knowledge and practices
 Intensive cropping patterns and integrated farming systems for sustainable agricultural
growth and increased food production per unit area to feed teeming millions every year.

Basic Principles of Agronomy

Agronomic principles are the ways and means for the better management of soil, plant and
environment for economically maximum returns per unit area for years.
The Basic Principles of agronomy may be listed below:

1. Planning programming and executing measures for maximum utilization of resources ( land,
sunshine, rain water, temperature, humidity , winds) and inputs( labor, seeds, capital ,
irrigation water, fertilizer/ manures, farm equipment, marketing facilities etc ) for increased
yield and maximum profits
 Choice of proper crop varieties adaptable to the particular agro-climate, land situation , soil
fertility , season and befitting to the cropping systems
 Proper field management by tillage, preparing field channels and bunds for irrigation and
drainage, checking soil erosion, leveling and adopting other suitable land improvement
practices
 Adoption of multiple cropping and also mixed or intercropping to ensure harvest even under
adverse environmental conditions.
 Choice of quality seeds or seed materials and maintenance of requisite plant density per unit
area with healthy and uniform seedlings
 Proper water management /better water use efficiency
 Adoption of adequate plant protection measures.
 Adoption of suitable management ractices/intercultural operations
 Adoption of suitable method of harvesting of crops as well as suitable post harvest
technologies

ROLE OF AGRONOMIST
An Agronomist aims at obtaining maximum production at minimum costs. He makes best use of
knowledge developed by basic and allied applied sciences for increased crop production. In a
broad perspective, an agronomist is concerned with the production of food and fiber to meet the
needs of the growing population.

Field crops can be classified according to their economic importance as

follows:
1-Cereal or grain crops: Cereals are grasses grown for their edible seeds such as wheat,
oats, barley, rye, rice, maize, and grain sorghum,

2- Legumes of seeds such as faba bean, pea nuts, fenugreek, lupine, cowpea,
soybean, chick pea, and lentil.
3- Sugar crops: they include sugar beet and sugar cane.
4- Oil crops: they include: flax, soybean, peanut, sunflower, safflower, sesame,
caster bean and rape.
5- Fiber crops: they include cotton. Flax, jute, sisal, and ramie.
6- Fodder crops: they include alfalfa, Egyptian clover, sorghum, Suddan grass, grass
pea, lablab, Napier grass, millet, white clover, and red clover.
7- Rubber crops: including para rubber, Castilla rubber, and guayule.
8- Tuber crops: such as potatoes and Jerusalem artichoke.
9- Root crops: such as sweet potatoes and sugar beet.
10- Medical plants: such as caster bean and others.
11- Stimulates such as tobacco, tea and coffee.

The Planning Commission has categorised 15 agro-climatic zones in India, taking into

account the physical attributes and socio-economic conditions prevailing in the

regions.

1. Western Himalayan division

2. Eastern Himalayan division
3. Lower Gangetic plain region
4. Middle Gangetic plain region
5. Upper Gangetic plain region
6. Trans-Gangetic plain region
7. Eastern plateau and hill region
8. Central plateau and hill region
9. Western plateau and hill region
10. Southern plateau and hill region
11. East coast plain and hill region
12. West coast plain and hill region
13. Gujarat plain and hill region
14. Western plain and hill region
15. Island region
Cropping System in India

The Kharif crops: The crops grown in rainy season are called as Kharif crops (Paddy, Soya
bean, pigeon pea and maize). They are grown from June to October.

3. The Rabi crops: The crops grown in winter season are called Rabi crops (Wheat, gram, peas,
and mustard). They are grown November to April. Compare Kharif crops and Rabi crops:

. The Crop varietal improvement:

a) Hybridization: It refers to crossing between genetically dissimilar plants;It is all to get higher yield,
improved quality, biotic and abiotic resistance, change in maturity duration, wider adaptability and
desirable agronomic characteristics

S.No Type Context

1 Intervarietal between different varieties

Hybridization

2 Interspecific between different species

Hybridization

3 Intergeneric between different genera

Hybridization

4 Genetically Modified Another way of improving the crop is by introducing

Crops (GMC). a gene that would provide the desired characteristic.

Cropping patterns

Difference between - Inter Cropping & Mixed Cropping

Sr. No Inter Cropping Mixed Cropping

The main object is to utilize the
To get at least one crop under
1 space left between two rows of
favorable conditions
main crop
More emphasis is given to the
2 All crops are cared equally
main crop
There is no competition between There is competition between all
3
both crops crops growing
Inter crops are of short duration &
The crops are almost of the same
4 are harvested much earlier than
duration
main
5 Sowing time may be same or It is same for all crops
 different
Crops are sown in different rows
Either sown in rows or mixed
without affecting the population of
without considering the population
main crop when sown as sole crop
6 of either. Ex. Wheat+ Gram;
Wheat+ Mustard; Wheat+ gram;
Soyabean +
Groundnut+ sunflower.
maize/bajra+Cowpea

Dry farming or Dry Land Farming refers to an improved system of cultivation whereby
maximum amount of water is conserved by soil and water management. It involves efficient system of
soil and crop management in the regions of low land and uneven distributed rainfall.
Importance of Dry land Farming for India
Considering the present rate of development of irrigation facilities and also water potentiality of the
country, it is estimated that at any point of time 50% of cropped area in India will remain under
Rainfed farming system. Such vast areas as of now consume hardly 25% of total fertilizer
consumption of the country. Due to poor level of management, crop productivity is also very low
resulting in socio – economic backwardness of the people.
Dry land farming is different from Rainfed farming. The difference is given in below table:
Constituents Dryland farming Rainfed farming
Rainfall (mm) < 750 >750
Moisture Shortage Enough / Sufficient
Growing regions Arid and Semiarid & up lands of sub humid & humid Humid and slub humid regions.
regions.
Cropping system Single crop or Intercropping or double
cropping.
intercropping
Constraints Wind and water erosion Water erosion.
Characteristics of Dryland Agriculture
Dry land areas may be characterized by the following features:
 Uncertain, ill-.distributed and limited annual rainfall;
 Occurrence of extensive climatic hazards like drought, flood etc;
 Undulating soil surface;
 Occurrence of extensive and large holdings;
 Practice of extensive agriculture i.e. prevalence of mono cropping etc;
 Relatively large size of fields;
 Similarity in types of crops raised by almost all the farmers of a particular region;
 Very low crop yield;
 Poor market facility for the produce;
 Poor economy of the farmers; and
 Poor health of cattle as well as farmers.
Seed Village Concept
A village, wherein trained group of farmers are involved in production of seeds of various

crops and cater to the needs of themselves, fellow farmers of the village and farmers of

neighbouring villages in appropriate time and at affordable cost is called “a seed village”

Objectives:

• Increasing the seed production

• Increasing the seed replacement rate

• Organizing seed production in cluster (or) compact area replacing existing local

varieties with new high yielding varieties

• Self sufficiency and self reliance of the village

• To meet the local demand, timely supply.

The present programme of seed village scheme is having two phases:

1. Seed production of different crops: The area which is suitable for raising a particular

crop will be selected, and raised with single variety of a kind.

2. Establishing seed processing unit: If the seeds are not processed and handled

properly, all the past efforts in production may be lost. Thus seed processing and

packaging is very important aspect in seed production.

Benefits

• Seed is available at the door steps of farms at an appropriate time.

• Seed availability at affordable cost even lesser than market price.

• Increased confidence among the farmers about the quality because of known source of

production.

• Producer and consumer are mutually benefited.

• Facilitates fast spread of new cultivars of different kinds.

Precision Farming refers to precise application of agricultural inputs based on soil, weather and
crop requirement to maximize sustainable productivity, quality and profitability. It includes the use of
latest technologies such as remote sensing (RS), GPS, and geographical information system (GIS) with an
objective to improve profitability and productivity. Precision Farming gives farmers the ability to use crop
inputs more effectively including fertilizers, pesticides, and tillage and irrigation water. More effective
use of inputs means greater crop yield and/or quality, without much polluting the environment.

Technologies used in Precision Agriculture

 Mapping & Data Collection
 Maps generation is the first step in Precision Farming. The maps measure spatial variability and provide
the basis for controlling spatial variability.
 Mapping is done with data collection in the filed related to various spatial variables such as soil type,
soil nutrition status, crop density, infestations etc.
 The data is collected using soil probes and other such tools. Mapping and data collection can be done
using the RS, GIS and manual inputs.
Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers
 The GPS satellites broadcast the signals that allow the GPS receivers to compute their location. The
information is provided while in motion.
 Having precise location information at any time allows soil and crop measurements to be mapped.
Yield monitoring
 The grain yield monitors measure and record the yield of the crop, which is essential for making sound
management decisions.
 If the yield maps are used properly, they would provide important feedback in determining the inputs
such as fertilizer amendments, seed, pesticides and cultural practices including tillage and irrigation.
Remote sensing
 Remote sensing refers to collection of data from a distance. The data sensors can simply be hand-held
devices, mounted on aircraft or satellite-based. The remote sensing provides information about the
crop health, moisture, nutrients, compaction, crop diseases etc.
 For example, the near infrared images that are highly correlated with healthy plant tissue can be
recorded in the cameras.
 RS also provides information about the in-season variability that affects crop yield and extent of crop
stress.
Geographic information systems (GIS)
 Geographic information systems (GIS) use feature attributes and location data to produce maps.

Lecture-2 Topics
System of Crop Intensification-(SRI)-

SRI is based on improved planting and growing techniques, rather than improved seed varieties and
other inputs. It aims to produce more from less, using fewer seeds and less water, but carefully
managing the relationship between the plant and soil. This low-input approach – and the results it can
achieve – have made it popular among resource-limited farmers.

It uses younger seedlings8-12 Days old instead of 21-30 days(Traditional) singly spaced and typically
hand weeded with special tools.Planted in Square Pattern.

How it Works??

1-Seed Selection.Good Seed Settle at bottom

2-Germinate Seeds.Need Sprouted Seeds(Ankurit)

3-Prepare Seed Bed with Organic Substances and Spread Sprouted seeds.

4-Prepare land for cultivation as used in traditional farming and create square pattern
in field.

5.After 10-12 days remove germinated seed from sea bed and put in corners of
square pattern.

6-Create drain for irrigation.No need to submerge half Seed.As in this technique it
only requires Moisture.

Ex-Rice

Advantage Over Traditional Farming-

1-Increases Yield by 50%.

2-Reduced Seed Requirement by 70%

3-Less Water Required.

4-No inorganic fertilizer.

5-Little use of Agro chemical Protection.

Soil:
i) Soil is the thin layer of grainy substance covering the surface of the earth.

ii) Soil is made up of organic matter, minerals and weathered rocks found on earth.

iii) Soil profile refers to the layered structure which spreads from the parent rocks to the top soil
surface. (

iv) The four layers of soil profile are: 1st layer-Top soil with humus and vegetation,

2nd layer-Sub soil with sand, silt and clay,

3rd layer-weathered rock material,

4th layer- Parent rock.

Factors of Soil Formation:

1. The major factors of soil formation are the nature of the parent rock
and climatic factors.
2. ii) The other factors of soil formation are the topography, role of
organic material and time taken for composition of soil formation.
3. iii) Parent rock determines the colour, texture, chemical properties,
minerals, content and permeability of the soil.
4. iv) Relief determines the altitude and slope and accumulation of soil.
5. v) Flora, fauna and micro-organism affect the rate of humus formation
in soil.
6. vi) Climate determines temperature and rainfall which influence the
rate of weathering and humus in process of soil formation.
7. (vii) Time determines the sickness of soil profile. It takes hundreds
of years to make just on centimeter of soil.
Temperature and rainfall are the two main climatic factors responsible for Sol formation.

 When the Soil survey of India was established in 1956, they studied soils of India and their
characteristics.
 The National Bureau of Soil Survey and the Land Use Planning, an institute under the
control of Indian Council of Agriculture Research did a lot of studies on Indian soil.
  Alluvial soil [43%]
 Red soil [18.5%]
 Black / regur soil [15%]
 Arid / desert soil
 Laterite soil
 Saline soil
 Peaty / marshy soil
 Forest soil
 Sub-mountain soil
 Snowfields
Alluvial soil:

 Mostly available soil in India (about 43%) which covers an area of 143 sq.km.
 Widespread in northern plains and river valleys.
 Humus, lime and organic matters are present.
 Highly fertile.
 Transported and deposited by rivers, streams etc.
 New alluvium is termed as Khadar and old alluvium is termed as Bhangar.
 Colour: Light Grey to Ash Grey.
 Texture: Sandy to silty loam or clay.
 Rich in: potash
 An Essential Macronutrient
Potassium (K) is one of the three essential macronutrients, along with nitrogen and
phosphorus. Potassium is vital for a plant to resist drought and disease as well as for
promoting healthy growth. Your crops need proper potassium levels to assure quality,
appearance, overall yield and harvest success.

 Poor in: phosphorous.
 Promotes root growth.Deficiency-Stunted growth in Plant,Graying in Leaves
Thus, phosphorus is essential for the general health and vigor of all plants. Some specific growth factors
that have been associated with phosphorus are:

 Stimulated root development

 Increased stalk and stem strength
 Improved flower formation and seed production
 More uniform and earlier crop maturity
 Increased nitrogen N-fixing capacity of legumes
 Improvements in crop quality
 Increased resistance to plant diseases
 Supports development throughout entire life cycle

 Wheat, rice, maize, sugarcane, pulses, oilseed etc are cultivated mainly.
Red soil:
 Seen mainly in low rainfall area.
 Also known as Omnibus group.
 Porous, friable structure.
 Absence of lime, kankar (impure calcium carbonate).
 Deficient in: lime, phosphate, manganese, nitrogen, humus and potash.
 Colour: Red because of Ferric oxide. The lower layer is reddish yellow or yellow.
 Texture: Sandy to clay and loamy.
 Wheat, cotton, pulses, tobacco, oilseeds, potato etc are cultivated.
Black soil / regur soil:
 Regur means cotton – best soil for cotton cultivation.
 Most of the Deccan is occupied by Black soil.
 Mature soil.
 High water retaining capacity.
 Swells and will become sticky when wet and shrink when dried.
 Self-ploughing is a characteristic of the black soil as it develops wide cracks when dried.
 Rich in: Iron, lime, calcium, potassium, aluminum and magnesium.
 Deficient in: Nitrogen, Phosphorous and organic matter.
 Colour: Deep black to light black.
 Texture: Clayey.

Laterite soil:

 Name from Latin word ‘Later’ which means Brick.

 Become so soft when wet and so hard when dried.
 In the areas of high temperature and high rainfall.
 Formed as a result of high leaching.
 Lime and silica will be leached away from the soil.
 Organic matters of the soil will be removed fast by the bacteria as it is high temperature and
humus will be taken quickly by the trees and other plants. Thus, humus content is low.
 Rich in: Iron and Aluminum
 Deficient in: Nitrogen, Potash, Potassium, Lime, Humus
 Colour: Red colour due to iron oxide.
 Rice, Ragi, Sugarcane and Cashew nuts are cultivated mainly.

Desert / arid soil:

 Seen under Arid and Semi-Arid conditions.

 Deposited mainly by wind activities.
 High salt content.
 Lack of moisture and Humus.
 Kankar or Impure Calcium carbonate content is high which restricts the infiltration of water.
 Nitrogen is insufficient and Phosphate is normal.
 Texture: Sandy
 Colour: Red to Brown.
Peaty / marshy soil:

 Areas of heavy rainfall and high humidity.

 Growth of vegetation is very less.
 A large quantity of dead organic matter/humus which makes the soil alkaline.
  Heavy soil with black colour.
Forest soil:

 Regions of high rainfall.

 Humus content is less and thus the soil is acidic.
Mountain soil:

 In the mountain regions of the country.

 Immature soil with low humus and acidic.

Types of Soils States where found Rich in: Lacks in: Crops grown

Large variety of rabi and

Mainly found in the plains of kharif crops such as wheat,
Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana, UP, rice, sugarcane, cotton, jute
Alluvial Bihar, Jharkhand etc. Potash and Lime Nitrogen and Phosphorous etc.

Deccan plateau- Maharashtra,

Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra
Pradesh,Tamil Nadu, Valleys of Lime, Iron, Magnesia Phosphorous, Nitrogen and Cotton, sugarcane, jowar,
Black (Regur soil) Krishna and Godavari. and Alumina, Potash organic matter tobacco, wheat, rice etc.

Eastern and southern part of the

deccan plateau, Orissa,
Chattisgarh and southern parts of Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Wheat, rice, cotton,
Red the middle Ganga plain. Iron and Potash humus. sugarcane and pulses

Karnataka, Kerala, Tamilnadu,

Madhya Pradesh, Assam and Organic matter, Nitrogen, Cashewnuts, tea, coffee,
Laterite Orissa hills. Iron oxide and potash Phosphate and Calcium rubber

Only drought resistant and

salt tolerant crops such as
Western Rajastan, north Gujarat barley, rape, cotton, millets
Arid and Desert and southern Punjab Soluble salts, phosphate Humus, Nitrogen maize and pulses

Western Gujarat, deltas of eastern

coast, Sunderban areas of West Sodium, Potassium,
Saline and Alkaline Bengal, Punjab and Haryana Magnesium Nitrogen and Calcium
Types of Fertilizers-

1-Organic

2-Inorganic(Chemaical)-N,P,K

Nitrogen-Based Fertilizer
Nitrogen plays a vital role in the protein formation process of plants. It supports overall plant
growth and the development of healthy leaves. Nitrogen fertilizer refers to one of the most
common categories of fertilizers produced out of nitrogen chemical combinations. Most of l
nitrogen based fertilizers are made from the ammonia (NH3), which is produced by the haber-
bosch process. Readily soluble in water and quickly available to plants. Sodium nitrate (16%
N), Calcium nitrate (15.50% N); Potassium nitrate (13% N) are used worldwide.

Phosphorus-Based Fertilizer
Phosphorous aids in root and flower development and increases the rate of growth. It is used
by plants to store and transfer energy. Single superphosphate (SSP: 16-18% phosphate);
Double super phosphate (DSP: 32% phosphate); Triple super phosphate (TSP: 42%
phosphate).

Potassium-Based Fertilizer
Fruit trees, potatoes and chilies need a potassium-releasing fertilizer.

Potassium sulphate (50% K20), and the muriate of potash (60% K2O). NPK are complex
fertilizers designed to supply all the three primary nutrients; are marked in different grades
indicating the respective percentage of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P 2O5), and potash (K2O) e.g.,
NPK 15-15-15 grade means that the fertiliser contains 15 percent each of N, P2O5 and K2O.

Soil erosion is defined as the wearing away of topsoil. Topsoil is the top layer of soil and is the
most fertile because it contains the most organic, nutrient-rich materials. Therefore, this is the layer
that farmers want to protect for growing their crops and want to protect for growing grasses for
their cattle to graze on.

Factors Leading to Soil Erosion-

1-Human Factor
2-Natural Agents(Rivers)
3-Deforestation
4-Mining
5-Overgrazing
6-Farming

Soil conservation is the prevention of soil loss from erosion or reduced fertility caused by over
usage, acidification, salinization or other chemical soil contamination. Slash-and-burn and
other unsustainable methods of subsistence farming are practiced in some lesser developed
areas.

Running water which is a natural agent cuts through the clayey soils and make deep channels called
gullies and this type of erosion is called gully erosion.

In certain areas, the top soil is washed layer by layer. This type of soil erosion is called Sheet erosion.

Soil Conservation Measures-

1-Countour Ploughing

2-Terracing

3-Strip Cropping

4-Afforestation

Countour Ploughing

Terracing
Watershed Management- जल ग्रहण क्षेत्र प्रबंधन
A area of Land where water drains to one point.Rainfall,snowmelt,precipitation into Lake river or stream.

Comes under Water Harvesting-Paaani ka sahi Upyog

is basically when water flowing in a particular geographical area drains/ meets into lake, river or any
other water body. Management of this water is known as water shed management.It includes the
overall planning & proper utilization of watersheds. There are various agencies which run different
watershed management programs. These programs aimed at protecting and restoring water quality,
controlling water pollution and ensuring adequate water supplies
Growing more trees in watershed areas increases retention of more rain water and protection of soil
from erosion. Therefore, watershed management develops the primary resources of land and water. It
enhances the evelopment of secondary resources of plants, animals and other biota. The enhanced
productivity increases the income of watershed community. There are fewer droughts and floods
downstream. Silting of downstream dams and reservoirs is also reduced. .
More to Learn-https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZzLF9lQ4ocw

Lec-3
Water resources are sources of water that are potentially useful. Uses of water
include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities. The majority
of human uses require fresh water.
97% of the water on the Earth is salt water and only three percent is fresh water; slightly over two
thirds of this is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps. The remaining unfrozen freshwater is found
mainly as groundwater, with only a small fraction present above ground or in the air.
(0.3%) of the Earth's total freshwater reserves.

Irrigation is the artificial exploitation and distribution of water at project level aiming
at application of water at field level to agricultural crops in dry areas or in periods of
scarce rainfall to assure or improve crop production.

Methods of Irrigation-
1)Traditional-Time consuming,Less effective,More Labour but Cheap.Uses More water.

2)Modern-Save time,More effective,Less Labour,Effective,Costly but uses less Water.

The various traditional method of irrigation are

1)Moat(pulley system)

2)Chain pump

3)Dhekli

4)Rahat(lever system)

The two main modern methods of irrigation are:

1)Sprinkler system:A main pipeline is laid in the field.Perpendicular pipes having

rotating nozzles at the top are joined to the main pipelines at regular intervals.

Advantages

1)It is more useful for the uneven land where sufficient water is not available.

2-Drip system

There is network of narrow pipes with small holes in the fields.When water flows
through the narrow pipes,it fall drop by drop at the position of roots of the
plants.This water is absorbed by the soil in the root zone of the plants and utilised
by the plant.There is no wastage of irrigation of water.
Advantages

1)It provides water to plants drop by drop.So water is not wasted at all.

The major objective of PMKSY is to achieve convergence of investments in

irrigation at the field level, expand cultivable area under assured irrigation,
improve on-farm water use efficiency to reduce wastage of water, enhance the
adoption of precision-irrigation and other water saving technologies (More crop
per drop), enhance recharge of aquifers and introduce sustainable water
conservation practices by exploring the feasibility of reusing treated municipal
waste water for peri-urban agriculture and attract greater private investment in
precision irrigation system. The decision was taken on 1 July 2015 at the meeting of
Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs

For 2015-16, an outlay of Rs.5300 crore has been made which includes Rs. 1800
crore for DAC; Rs. 1500 crore for DoLR; Rs. 2000 c rore for MoWR(Rs. 1000 crore for
AIBP; Rs. 1000 crores for PMKSY).

currently, the scheme is being implemented under Water Resources Ministry.

Centre- States will be 75: 25 per cent. In case of north-eastern region and hilly states it will be 90:10.
The PMKSY has following four components:
 Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme of the Ministry of Water Resources
 Integrated Watershed Management Programme of the Ministry of Rural Development
 Farm water management component of the National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture.

The crop water Requirement is defined as the depth (or amount) of water needed to
meet the water loss through evapotranspiration. In other words, it is the amount of water
needed by the various crops to grow optimally.

The crop water need always refers to a crop grown under optimal conditions, i.e. a uniform
crop, actively growing, completely shading the ground, free of diseases, and favourable soil
conditions (including fertility and water). The crop thus reaches its full production potential
under the given environment.

The crop water need mainly depends on:

 the climate: in a sunny and hot climate crops need more water per day than in a cloudy
and cool climate

 the crop type: crops like maize or sugarcane need more water than crops like millet or
sorghum

 the growth stage of the crop; fully grown crops need more water than crops that have just
been planted.

a)Transpiration loss through leaves(T)

b)Evaporation loss (E)

c) amount of weather(WP)

d)Percolation loss(WL)

e)Water for other purposes(WSP)

WR(WATER REQUIREMENT) SUM OF ALL THESE.

The Centrally sponsored Command Area Development (CAD) Programme was

launched in 1974-75 with the main objectives of improving the utilization of created irrigation potential
and optimizing agriculture production and productivity from irrigated agriculture through a multi-

disciplinary team under an Area Development Authority. Min of Water

A Command Area Development Authority was established to maximize the productivity in the
irrigation command areas .
 Construction of field channels and field drains
 Land shaping wherever necessary
 Introduction of rotational supply of water


 But the CAD Programme was not particularly successful because of three constraints:
 The water supply at the outlet was unreliable. Soil and topographical surveys help in carrying out OFD
works more systematically. Soil surveys aim at assessing the physical and chemical properties of the soil
in order to plan proper soil, water and crop management.
 The available technology was could not be adopted properly
 Farmers particularly did not participate in the scheme.

This programme was restructured and renamed as Command Area Development and Water
Management Programme (CADWMP) since April 1, 2004. The scheme was further restructured
and was thrown to states to implement in 2008-09.
Currently, Command Area Development Programme has also been amalgamated with the
Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP) AIBP to reduce the gap between irrigation
potential that has been created and that is utilized.

Lec-4 Water Conservation

Water conservation includes all the policies, strategies and activities made
to sustainably manage the natural resource fresh water, to protect the water environment, and to
meet the current and future human demand. Population, household size, and growth and
affluence all affect how much water is used.

Commercial applications
Many water-saving devices (such as low-flush toilets) that are useful in homes can also be useful
for business water saving. Other water-saving technology for businesses includes:

 Waterless urinals
 Waterless car washes
 Infrared or foot-operated taps, which can save water by using short bursts of water for rinsing
in a kitchen or bathroom
 Rain water harvesting

Agriculture-
1-Drip Irrigation

2-Sprinkler Irrigation

3-Ponds

4-Lakes

Contour trenching
Contour trenching is an agricultural technique that can be easily applied in arid sub-
Sahara areas to allow for water, and soil conservation, and to increase agricultural production.
Trenches can be artificially dug along the contour lines. Water flowing down the hill is retained by
the trench, and is infiltrating the soil below.
Between two trenches crops can benefit during the growing season (when there is less rain) from
the subsoil water reserve gathered during the rainy season.
Advantages
Immediate advantages are the following:

 The rain water does not immediately run off the hill,
 Water does not evaporate uselessly
 The water balance is enhanced
 Crops do not suffer later on from water shortage,
 Fertile soil particles are not lost by water and wind erosion.


The Union Cabinet also gave its approval for declaring the year 2013 as
“Water Conservation Year 2013. A number of mass awareness activities will
be undertaken during Water Conservation Year 2013 with emphasis on
sensitizing the masses on water related issues, encourage them to conserve
and use it judiciously.

World Water Day is an annual event celebrated on 22 March 2017

2017 – Why Waste Water?
Drip, or Micro-Irrigation
Drip irrigation delivers water (and fertilizer) either on the soil surface or directly to the roots
of plants through systems of plastic tubing with small holes and other restrictive outlets. By
distributing these inputs slowly and regularly, drip irrigation conserves 50 to 70 percent more
water than traditional methods while increasing crop production by 20 to 90 percent. The
water and fertilizer are also more easily absorbed by the soil and plants, reducing the risks of
erosion and nutrient depletion.

Types of Irrigation Pumps-

A pump is a device that moves fluids from one place to other.

Floating Pumps

Booster Pumps

Turbine/Jet Pumps

Submersible Pumps

Centrifugal Pumps

Major,Minor,Medium Irrigation-

1. Major Irrigation:

Culturable command area (CCA) more than 10,000 hectares.

2. Medium Irrigation:
Culturable command area more than 2,000 hectares but less than 10,000 hectares.

3. Minor Irrigation:

Culturable command area up to 2,000 hectares.

Ground water schemes comprise of dug wells, deepening of dug wells, dug-cum-bore wells,
borings, private shallow tubewells, filter points and deep tubewells. The command area of
private ground water schemes varies from 1 to 5 hectares. The State Governments provide
assistance in installation of such schemes which confines mainly to technical guidance,
custom service for boring and arrangements for credit facilities at reasonable rates of
interest. The subsidies are also made available for installation of these schemes to weaker
sections of farmers.
http://www.india-
wris.nrsc.gov.in/wrpinfo/index.php?title=Major_%26_Medium_Irrigation_Projects

The dam holds excess waters during the monsoon and provides a regulated release during the
year . It also prevents damage due to monsoon floods. The dam provides irrigation to 10 million
acres (40,000 km²) of fields in Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan.

Major irrigation projects of India

Name River State CCA, ha Completion Year

 Bhakra Nangal
Sutlej Punjab and Himachal Pradesh 40,00,000 1963
Project

Beas Project Beas River Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan 21,00,000 1974

Indira Gandhi
Harike (Satlej and Beas) Punjab 5, 28,000 1965
Canal

Koshi Project Kosi River Bihar and Nepal 8.48,000 1954

Hirakund
Mahanadi Orisa 10,00,000 1957
Project

Tungabhadra
Tungbhadra -Krishna AP-Karnataka 5,74,000 1953
project

Nagarjuna Sagar
Krishna AP 13,13,000 1960
Project

Chambal Project Chambal Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh 5,15,000 1960

Damodar valley
Damodar Jharkhand, West Bengal 8,23,700 1948
project

Gandak project Gandak Bihar-UP 16,51,700 1970

Farm and Agri Engineering

SCOPE OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING

 Jobs in tractor-manufactures, irrigation companies, fertiliser and seed companies, and dairy
firms.
 State agriculture departments recruit Agriculture Engineers at district and sub-district levels for
processing, farm mechanisation etc.

SOURCES OF FARM POWER A farm power for various agricultural operations can be broadly
classified as:

(1) Tractive work such as seed bed preparation, cultivation, harvesting and transportation, and

(2) Stationary work like silage cutting, feed grinding, threshing, winnowing and lifting of irrigation
water. These operations are done by different sources of power, namely human, animal, oil engine,
tractor, power tiller, electricity and renewable energy (biogas, solar and wind).
HUMAN POWER -Human beings are the main source of power for operating small tools and
implements. They are also employed for doing stationary work like threshing, winnowing, chaff
cutting and lifting irrigation Water. It is generally believed that there is surplus human power
available for agricultural operations in India. According to 2001 census figures, the total Indian rural
population is about 74 crores.

ANIMAL POWER The most important source of power on the farm all over the world and particularly
in India is animal. It is estimated that nearly 80 per cent of the total draft power used in agriculture
throughout the world is still provided by animals, although the number of agricultural tractors has
become double after every ten years since 1930. India with its 22.68 crore cattle possesses the
largest number of cattle in the world.

Advantages: Easily available, Used for all types of work, Low initial investment,

Disadvantages: Not very efficient, Seasons and weather affect the efficiency, Cannot work at a
stretch, Require full maintenance when there is no farm work.

MECHANICAL POWER The third important source of farm power is mechanical power that is
available through tractors and oil engines. The oil engine is a highly efficient device for converting
fuel into useful work. The efficiency of diesel engine varies between 32 and 38 per cent, whereas
that of the carburettor engine is in the range of 25 and 32 per cent. In recent years, diesel engines
and tractors have gained considerable popularity in agricultural operations.

Advantages: Efficiency is high; not affected by weather; can run at a stretch;

Disadvantages: Initial capital investment is high; fuel is costly and repairs and maintenance needs
technical knowledge.

ELECTRICAL POWER Now-a-days electricity has become a very important source of power on farms
in various states of the country. It is steadily becoming more and more available with the increase of
various river valley projects and thermal stations. On an average about 1/10th of the total electrical
power generated in India, is consumed for the farm work. The largest use of electric power in the
rural areas is for irrigation and domestic water supply. Besides this, the use of electric power in dairy
industry, cold storage, fruit processing and cattle feed grinding has tremendously increased.

Advantages: Very cheap form of power; high efficiency; can work at a stretch; maintenance and
operating cost is very low and not affected by weather conditions.
Disadvantages: Initial capital investment is high; require good amount of technical knowledge and it
causes great danger, if handled without care.

WIND POWER The availability of wind power for farm work is quite limited. Where the wind velocity
is more than 32 kmph, wind mills can be used for lifting water. Even today in India the wind power
has not been fully harnessed. The most important reason is its uncertainty.

Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy, Govt. of India have been making efforts to popularise the
wind mill for power generation and water lifting in rural areas. But this source could not become
attractive due to the following limitations of the system :
• Initial investment is high,
• Repair facilities are not available in rural areas,
• Even the matching pump sets and electric generators are not readily available in the country,
• It not suitable for all situations in the country. For the present, the wind mills have limited scope of
the use in the country.
India is the world’s fifth largest wind power producer and these wind energy facilities are installed in
eight major states across India, Tamil Nadu,Gujarat,Maharashtra,Karnataka As of the end of March
2017 the total installed wind power capacity was 32.17 GW.

Lec-5

Water Harvesting Structure-

Inspite of large-scale development of surface and ground water through major, medium and minor
projects by the government, the rural people in different parts of the country still have to depend on
traditional water harvesting to meet their water requirements. The techniques and methods used
vary from region to region depending upon their specific problems, nature of terrain, climate,
hydrogeological conditions etc.

Rainfall-Report by Ministry of Statistics and IMD

 REGION DEFICIT/EXCESS
EAST AND NORTEAST
INDIA -13%
NORTHWEST -2%
SOUTHERN -12%
CENTRAL 1%(EXCESS)

ROOF TOP HARVESTING-

This system can be seen in the northeastern states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya,
Manipur and Nagaland. This is also in use in Bikaner, Jaisalmer and Jodhpur districts of Rajasthan.
2-TANKA/ KUND/ KUNDI-Rajasthan

3-PONDS/ TANKS

4 GROUND WATER HARVESTING

HILL SLOPE COLLECTION In this system, which is in vogue in many hilly areas with good rainfall, lined
channels are built across the hill slopes to intercept rain water. These channels convey water for
irrigating terraced agricultural fields. The water is also used to fill small ponds for domestic use and
the cattle. These practices can be seen in Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Arunachal
Pradesh etc.

During the last 100 years there has been considerable technological
development in the design and construction of water harvesting structures for various purposes. The
structures, which are commonly built for surface storage and/ or ground water recharge are :

(i) Check Dams : These are concrete or masonry structures built across small
streams for surface storage and incidental benefit of ground water recharge.
The design of these structures are done taking into consideration the volume of
water that can be stored in the stream channel upstream, the surplus flood
 discharge that must be evacuated safely, stability of the structure against
various forces and the likely ground water recharge. These are usually built by
the State Government agencies like the departments of Irrigation/ Water
Resources, Agriculture and Forests. These are the modified and improved
versions of the traditional temporary or semi-permanent structures that people
in the villages usually build across natural streams or drainage channels.

 Percolation Tanks : Percolation tank is an artificially created surface water body,

submerging in its reservoir a highly permeable land so that surface runoff is made to
percolate and recharge the ground water storage. Moderate to high porosity of soil and/
or underlying rocky strata is the main criteria for the choice of percolation tanks.
Ex-Take Gravel in one Beaker and Sand in other Beaker.Suppose Beaker is of 300 ml.
You have 200 ml Water in another beaker.Fill the beaker of Gravel first you find that you are
left with 80 ml water and 120 ml is used.So porosity is 120/300 *100 comes out 40%.In second
Beaker of Sand when you add water you find it used 100 water because of less pores.So
porosity is 100/300*100 comes out 33%.

.
Sub-Surface Dykes : A subsurface dyke is a barrier impermeable to water that is placed
underground to control the groundwater flow in an aquifer, and to raise the water table.
The dyke was constructed in the 25 hectare farm of Krishi Vigyan Kendra Kannur in 2007 to solve the
problem of water scarcity. The experience of KVK indicated that subsurface dyke was an efficient
barrier to arrest the subsurface flow of water and conserve ground water.

(i)
These are :
(i) Contour Bunding : समोच्च मेंडबंदी

(ii) These are small earthen bunds built horizontally in parallel rows across the hill
slope. These help in augmenting soil moisture and prevent erosion of topsoil.
Use-sloping, and hilly land where the soil productivity is very low.
Rainfall<650mm
 

(i) (ii) Gully Plugging : These are soil and water retaining structures built across
gullies in hilly areas. These are built with locally available materials like stone
boulders, earth, brushwood etc

Ground water thus forms the largest source of fresh water, next to glaciers and ice caps.

The reason for this is that although India receives about 400 million hectare metres (mham)
of rainfall each year, only 50 mham filters down to the ground water aquifer and can be
pumped back. A large part (115 mham) is lost to the sea in the form of run-off and rest is
evaporated.

Agro processing involves the processing of raw materials from the field and the farm into finished
products for rural and urban markets. Major agro-processing industries are food processing, sugar,
pickles, fruits juices, beverages (tea, coffee and cocoa), spices and oils fats and textiles (cotton, jute,
silk), rubber, etc.

Food Processing Agro processing includes canning, producing cream, fruit processing and
confectionery. While some preserving techniques, such as drying, fermenting and pickling, have
been known since ancient times, these had limited applications to cater to the pre-Industrial
Revolution demands.

All economic activities namely primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary, revolve around obtaining
and utilising resources necessary for survival. Secondary activities add value to natural resources by
transforming raw materials into valuable products. Cotton in the boll has limited use but after it is
transformed into yarn, becomes more valuable and can be used for making clothes. Iron ore, cannot
be used; directly from the mines, but after being converted into steel it gets its value and can be
used for making many valuable machines, tools, etc
Advantage-
1- Reduce wastage of fruits and vegetables worth Rs 9,000 crore per annum because the same value of these
commodities can now be processed.

2-helping the farmers to realise better income for their produce and on ther side, it will also keep the prices of
perishables under check..

3-creating employment opportunities.

4-export of agro-food products

Upstream industries are engaged in the initial processing of agricultural commodities. Examples are
rice and flour milling, leather tanning, cotton ginning, oil pressing, saw milling and fish canning.

Downstream industries undertake further manufacturing operations on intermediate products

made from agricultural materials. Examples are bread, biscuit and noodle making, textile spinning
and weaving; paper production; clothing and footwear manufacturing; and rubber manufactures.

The regulation of oxygen and carbon dioxide nitrogen, as well as

the temperature and humidity levels along with the regulation of temperature is known
as controlled-atmosphere storage. Rooms are sealed so that gaseous exchange can be effectively
controlled. Many horticultural products, such as fruit, can be kept fresh for as long as a year under
these controlled conditions.

Dry commodities

Grains, legumes and oilseed are stored in a controlled atmosphere primarily to control insect
pests. Most insects cannot survive indefinitely without oxygen or in conditions of raised (<30%)
carbon dioxide. Such controlled atmosphere treatments of grains may take several weeks at
lower temperatures (<15 °C).

Fruit and vegetables

Modified Storage-Modified atmosphere is the practice of modifying the composition of the

internal atmosphere of a package (commonly food packages, drugs, etc.) in order to improve
the shelf life.
The modification process often tries to lower the amount of oxygen (O2), moving it from 20.9% to
0%, in order to slow down the growth of aerobic organisms and prevent oxidation reactions. The
removed oxygen can be replaced with nitrogen (N2), commonly acknowledged as an inert gas,
or carbon dioxide (CO2), which can lower the pH or inhibit the growth of bacteria. Carbon
monoxide can be used for preserving the red color of meat.
Ex- fruits and vegetables, meat and meat products, and seafood.
Perishable foods are those likely to spoil, decay or become unsafe to consume if not kept refrigerated
at 40 F° (4.4 °C) or below or frozen at 0 F° (-17.8 °C) or below. Examples of foods that must be kept
refrigerated for safety include meat, poultry, fish, dairy products, and all cooked leftovers.
Refrigeration slows bacterial growth and freezing stops it. There are two completely different families
of bacteria that can be on food: pathogenic bacteria, the kind that cause foodborne illness, and
spoilage bacteria, the kind of bacteria that cause foods to deteriorate and develop unpleasant odors,
tastes, and textures.
Bins and Grain Silos- Grain(अनाज) Ex-FCI(FOOD CORPORATION OF INDIA)

Grain Storage-High temperature and high moisture affect grain quality in storage and
cause rapid decline in germination, colour, oil composition, and many other
characteristics. Insects and fungus impair the quality of grains directly by their feeding
and development, and indirectly by generating heat and moisture. High temperature
and moisture favour development of insects and moulds. Insects cannot develop at
temperatures below 10°C and moisture below 9% in cereals.

Silos-

A silo a structure for storing bulk materials. Silos are used in agriculture to store grain or fermented
feed known as silage. Silos are more commonly used for bulk storage of grain, coal, cement, carbon
black, woodchips, food products and sawdust. Three types of silos are in widespread use today:
tower silos, bunker silos, and bag silos.

Bins-

Bins are vented, silver, corrugated steel structures fatter in diameter than silos and have varying
heights. They generally store dry corn and soybeans, which meet domestic or export market demand
for feed, food and fuel use.

Facts- Globally, one-third of the food produced is wasted, costing the world economy
about $750 billion (more than Rs 47 lakh crore), the Rome-based Food and Agriculture
Organisation’s report said. It said Asian countries, especially India and China, were the
worst culprits causing loss of 1.3 billion tonnes of food every year.

India is a significant contributor on account of both pre and post harvest waste in
cereals, pulses, fruits and vegetables.
Agriculture produce to the tune of Rs 58,000 crore---40% of the total
produce---was wasted every year in the country.

The Food Corporation of India owns a storage capacity of about 156 lac
tonnes including the storage space hired by it. The total storage capacity
comes to about 336.04 lac tonnes. However, the Stock of Food grains
procured in the year 2011-12 was 667.89 lac tonnes, leading to severe strain
on the FCI storage facilities.

study that says 21 million tonnes of wheat -- equivalent to the entire

production of Australia -- goes waste in the country.
According to ICAR-The total post-harvest losses to agricultural commodities are estimated to be
from 6 to 18%.
Lec-6
Horticulture is a science of studying garden plants. The world Horticulture is

derived from two Latin words viz. Hortus means garden and Culture means knowledge of
growing these crops. Horticulture is an aesthetic science that deals with the important crops
which are grown in the gardens e.g. vegetable crops in vegetable garden, fruit crops in fruit
orchards.

In ancient days the gardens had protected enclosures with high walls or similar
structures surrounding the houses.  The enclosed places were used to grow
fruit, vegetables, flowers and ornamental plants. Therefore, in original sense
“Horticulture refers to cultivation of garden plants within protected enclosures”.

Branches of Horticulture

There are four branches of Horticulture, which are as follows:-

1. Olericulture (Vegetable culture): cultivation of vegetables e.g. Cabbage, Tomato,

Fenugreek.

2. Pomology (Fruit Culture): study of fruit crops e.g. Mango, Banana, Grapes.

3. Floriculture and Ornamental Gardening: cultivation of flower crops and

ornamental plants. e.g. Roses, asters, lily, Cactus, Ferns, etc.
4. Post Harvest Technology and preservation: Study of post harvest handling,
marketing, and processing of Horticultural crops is covered under this branch. Post harvest
management of fruits, vegetables, flowers with their storage, marketing and preservation is
studied under this branch e.g. Preparation of jam, jelly, ketchup etc.

5. Plantation crops : cultivation of coconut, arecanut, rubber, coffee, tea, etc

6. Spices crops : cultivation of cardamom, pepper, nutmeg etc.

7. Medicinal and aromatic crops: cultivation of medicinal and aromatic crops.

medicinal plants are Isabgol, Senna, Opium poppy, Periwinkle, Coleus,
Ashwagandha, etc. and aromatic plants are Japanese mint, Lemon grass,
Citronella, Davana, Patchouli etc

Importance and scope of Horticulture

Let us see the importance of Horticulture:

1. As compared to field crops Horticultural crops give more returns per unit area (More yield
in terms of weight and money).Spice Trade,Keshar ki Kheti

2. Horticulture crops are important as their nutritional status is high. Particularly fruits and
vegetables provide high amount of vitamins and minerals to us.Fruits contains Fiblers.An
apple a day Keeps a doctor away.

3. Horticulture is important as it beautifies the surroundings.

4. Horticulture crops are suitable for small and marginal farmers.

5. The varieties of crops are available in the Horticulture section with wide range of uses.

6. Horticultural plants improve environment by reducing pollution, conserves soil and water
and improve socio-economic status of the farmer. Scope of Horticultural crops.

7. Highly perishable nature.You can’t store Mango for Years like Wine and Pulses.

Factors affecting the scope of Horticultural crops in India is as follows:

1. Varied agro climatic conditions in India, allows growing different Horticultural crops in
different regions.Eg kerala Rubber,Apple in Kashmir,Keshar in Kashmir

2. Increasing irrigation facilities provide more scope for growing Horticultural crops.

3. Availability of technical information regarding production of Horticultural crops will provide

congenial condition for growing these crops.Cross breeding,Pollination

4. Increasing communication and transport facilities provide greater markets to Horticultural

crops.

5. There is scope for export of fresh and processed products.Patanjali Fruit Juice.

6. Greater demand for Horticultural commodities in local markets.

7. Facilities provided by the government helps farmer to replace their traditional crops with
Horticultural crops.

8. Development of financial institutions, co-operatives in rural areas. increasing returns from

these crops.

Difference between horticulture and agriculture

Everyone practicing horticulture is practicing agriculture but, not everyone
practicing agriculture is practicing horticulture.

Agriculture involves so many types of species that for us agronomists is

sometimes difficult to separate knowledge and learn about everything.

Think of it as if we were a medical doctor. There are heart doctors and

stomach doctors. In the field of agronomy there are fruits agronomists and
veggie agronomists (this last one is horticulture).

RESEARCH ORGANISATIONS IN HORTICULTURE

1. Indian Institute of Horticultural Research(IIHR), Bangalore
2. Indian Institute of Vegetable Research(IIVR), Varanashi
3. Indian Institute of Spices Research(IISR), Calicut, Kerala
4. Central Institute of sub-tropical Horticulture(CISH), Lucknow
5. Central Institute of Temperate Horticulture(CITH), Srinagar
6. Central Potato Research Institute(CPRI), Kufri, Shimla
7. Central Tuber Crops Research Institute(CTCRI), Thiruvananthapuram,Kerala

Lec-7
Climatic Zones of Horticultural Crops

1. Temperate Fruits:(Warm and Sunny not too hot)

This class of fruits grown successfully in cold regions where temperature falls
below freezing point during winters. During the cold season, the trees, sheds
their leaves and goes into rest period. For breaking this rest period, a definite
chilling period is required. This class of fruits includes fruits like apple, pear,
walnut, almond, plum, peaches, strawberry etc. The regions under this
zone are J&K, HP.

2. Tropical Fruits:

Weather in Tropical Climate is hot all year-21-30degree celcius,Rainy and

Dry Season

This class includes fruit crops which are unable to endure cool temperature.
Some of them are being severally injured by even the temperature somewhat
above the freezing point. This class of fruits required hot and humid climate in a
summer and mild winter. This class includes only evergreens such as mango,
Sapota, papaya, cashew, pineapple, banana etc.

Areas under this zone include West Bengal, Parts of Punjab, Haryana,
Rajasthan Orissa, Maharastra, AP, Karnataka, TN and Kerala

3. Sub Tropical Fruits:

This class includes fruit crops intermediate in character to tropical and temperate. These
fruits grown mostly In plains where the climate is hot, comparatively dry and winter less
severe. This class of fruits include fruits lie citrus, phalsa, fig, guava, and
pomegranate.

This fruit zone covers the plains of Punjab, UP, Parts of Bihar, MP, WB,
Maharastra, Rajasthan, Karnataka, AP, TN, Kerala, Orissa. et

3. Arid Zone: The arid zone has an extreme climatic condition, high temperature
low humidity, rainfall is very low and its distribution is erratic, poor textured soil.
 Rajasthan ,Gujarat (20%) parts of the Punjab, Haryana, Karnataka &
Maharashtra 

The crops are Phalsa, Date palm, Pomegranate, Ber, Custard apple, Tamarind
etc

Production technology of various plantation and

horticulture crops

The term Plantation crops refers to those crops which are cultivated on an extensive
scale in a large contiguous area, owned and managed by an Individual or a company.
The crops include tea, coffee, rubber, cocoa, coconut, arecanut, oil palm, palmyrah,
cashew, cinchona etc. These plantation crops are high value commercial crops of greater
economic importance and play a vital role in our Indian economy.
India is the leading country in the total production of certain plantation crops in the
world. For instance, our production meets the share of 47 per cent in tea and 66 per
cent in each of cashew and arecanut(सुपारी).
Production Technology of Coconut

Soil and Climate

Coconut palm thrives in almost all types of wall drained soils such as coastal sand, red
loam, laterals alluvial and reclaimed soils of marshy low lands.. Among the
climatic. factors affecting the palm, rainfall is the most important;. A rainfall of 1000 to
2250 mm per annum evenly distributed throughout the year appears to be most
congenial. Regions with long and pronounced dry spells are not suited to its growth.

Coconut palm requires equable climate neither very hot not very cold. The maximum
mean annual temp, for good growth is about 27°C

Planting Material (Propagation)

MODES OF REPRODUCTION

Asexual and sexual reproduction. In asexual reproduction plants can give rise to
, Eg-Rose

whereas in sexual reproduction, .

Sexual Production- The stamens are the male reproductive part and the pistil
is the female reproductive

Anther contains pollen grains which produce male gametes.

A pistil consists of stigma, style and ovary.

The transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of a flower is called
pollination. If the pollen lands on the stigma of the same flower it is called self-
pollination. When the pollen of a flower lands on the stigma of another flower
of the same plant, or that of a different plant of the same kind, it is called
cross-pollination

Since, it is a cross-pollinated crop which is propagated only by seeds, the selection of

planting material is of vital, importance selection has to be made at the mother palm
level and at the seedling stage. Generally nuts harvested from January to April are used
for raising seedlings.

The seedlings should be.

1) Healthy
2) Should have minimum of 5 to 6 leaves when they are one year old.
3) The leaves should have been splited.
4) The girth of seedling at collar region should be more
5) Should have 5 to 6 roots.

Preparation of Land and Transplanting

The depth of pit depends on soil type in sand loam soil pits of 1 x 1 x m is generally
recommended. In laterite soils, the pits of 1.2%1.2 x 1.2 M are necessary. The pits are
taken at the distance of 7.5 to 9 M apart thus accommodating 177 to 124 palm/ha. The-
planting is done by square system, deep planting method is adopted. The seedling is
placed at the center of the pit in such a way that the top of the husk is just visible from
outside. The earth is well pressed down in order to keep the seedling firmly in position.

In well drained soil where water stagnation is not a problem transplanting is done at the
beginning of the monsoon. Irrigation with 45 litres of water once in four days has been
found to be the optimum especially in sandy soils.

Harvesting:

Coconut usually ripens in about 12 to 13 months after opening of the

infloresecence(फूलना). In order to get the maximum yield of copra and oil, only full
matured nuts should be harvested.
Generally, harvesting is done once in 45 to 60 days. Tender nuts which are in great
demand as a delicious soft drink particularly in West Bengal and Maharashtra are best
harvested at the age of six to seven months.

A fully matured fruit will have a composition by weight of about 35% husk, 12% shell,
28% meat or Kernel and 25% water.

Production Technology of Coffee

A cash crop is an agricultural crop which is grown for sale to return a profit
Coffee of commerce consists of seeds of coffee which when roasted, ground and soaked
in hot water yields a fragrant stimulating infusion used for preparing the beverage called
Coffee.

It is native of America and introduced in India in 1936 near Chimanglur in

Karnataka. Mainly grown in the~ countries like Brazil, Central Venezula,
Colombia, Central America, West Kenya, East Africa, Jawa, Sumatra, India etc.

Coffee plants grow in germinators.Prepare seedbeds in Plastic bags to put germinated

coffeeAfter 5-6 months grown plants are planted in farm.

Soil and Climate:

Coffee comes up well in high altitude from 800 to 1650 meters

Evenly distributed rainfall of 2250 mm is essential. Heavy rainfall is not conducive as it

encourages rotting of leaves and plants are easily susceptible to fungal diseases.

The temperature range is 50 to 80°F. It can also be grown at higher provided shade is
there. In India, coffee is grown in hilly areas. There is a distinct dry period of about 90-
100 days or from the Dec. March-April which is best for harvesting and processing and
also for maturity of flower buds.

In Karnataka where Coffee arabica is grown on commercial scale the soils are red loamy
and deep. Soils of "coffee estates are generally richJn' aluminum and iron content..

Propagation:

Propagated both by seeds and cuttings Seeds are collected during December. Seed
should be heavy broad and boat shaped. Pulp of the seed is removed by hand: The
fruits are rubbed with ash to prevent sticking of seeds and dried in shade and sown at
2.5 cm. Then the seedlings are uprooted and transplanted in bags(Plastic Bags) or in
nursery bed at 25 cm apart.

Provision of Shade:

Coffee: prefers a subdued light i.e. partial shade where, sunlight is intense... In Brazil
coffee is grown without any slade. In India the environmental conditions are entirely
different.

Cropping and Harvesting :

Bearing commenes from 3rd year onwards. Good yield sectres from the 5th year
onwards and continue to yield upto 50 years.

Production Technology of Tea

Origin: Tea is believed to be indigenous to Assam in India only.

Area and Production:

The crop is mainly grown in Assam, and West Bengal i.e. 50% and 25% respectively
Karnataka (30%) and T.N. (10%). Other minor tea growing/producing areas are located
in tripura, Punjab, U.P. Himachal Pradesh, & Bihar.

Varieties:

The most important types in cultivation are 1. Assam and China.

1) Assam:

It is a taller plant with soft leaves and can grow at elevations under 1500 meters.

2) China:

It is dwarf bush with leathery leaves and can be grown upto 2400 meters above sea
level. Many hybrids of these two are in cultivation.

Ecology:

1. Warm moist climate with plenty sun light.

2. Rainfall: 1500-2500 mm well distributed
Temperature: Mean ranging from 10-38°C.
3. Highelevations are good for economic life of plants and quality of leaves but total yield
at high altitudes is best.

Soil:

Deep liable loam and forest land rich in organic matter is very ideal. Generally tea soils
of India are generally with organic matters, N, Potash, low K, lime and magnesia content
hence soil Reaction is medium to strongly acidic.

Land Preparation: Cultural Method

Tea is taken on hilly areas; the land is prepared by cutting of low growing vegetation
arid unwanted forest trees are cut and removed. Except few selected ones left for shade
Stoop slopes are terraced and provided with contour drains and silt traps

Raising of Seedlings:

.Seeds sown first in germinating beds, then seedlings transferred- to other nurseries or
baskets containing, loose friable soil. Here seedlings are allowed to grow for 6-8 months
and subsequently 1.5 year (17 months) old seedlings are planted in April - May or Sept.
Oct. In pits (previously prepared) dug in the permanent stags.

Inter Cultivation:

The tea-gardens are hood and weeded 3 to 5 times during the rainy season. Shade trees
are lopped to promote lateral development which will shade large area.

Economic Use:

Tea is an important foreign exchange earning crop, India exported tea worth of Rs. 340
crores during 1998 - 99. The commercial tea is either Green (Unfermented) or Black
(fermented). The leaves are rich in caffeine and tannin.

INTRODUCTION: Mango
 Perennial tree(बारहमासी) of medium to large size with a symmetrical top.
 The flowers are produced in panicles which are about ten to twelve inches in length.
 The fruit varies in size and has a fleshy pulp. The skin is leathery and varies in color
from yellowish green to red. The seed is found in the center of the fruit.
 The immature fruit has green skin that gradually turns yellow, orange, purple, red, or
combinations of these colors as the fruit matures.
 Mature fruit has a characteristic fragrance and a smooth, thin, tough skin.
 The flesh of ripe mangos is pale yellow to orange.
DISTRIBUTION:
 Mango is now cultivated throughout the tropical and subtropical countries for
commercial fruit production, as a garden tree, and as a shade tree for stock.
PROPAGATION: कलम बांधने का काम

Grafting(कलम बांधने का काम) is another method of vegetative propagation, where two plant
parts are joined together in such a manner that they unite and continue their growth as
one plant.
 Mango is commercially propagated by; 1. Veneer grafting-
In this method, a shallow downward cut of about 4 cm long is given on the rootstock at
a height of about 15-20 cm from the ground level. At the base of this cut, a second short
downward and inward cut is made to join the first cut, so as to remove a piece of wood
and bark. The scion is prepared exactly as in side grafting. The cuts on the rootstock and
scion shoot should be of the same length and width so that the cambial layers of both
components match each other. Then, the prepared scion is inserted into the rootstock
and tied security with polythene strip. After the union is complete the stock is cut back,
leaving time for doing veneer grafting.

3. Approach grafting

This method of grafting is termed as approach grafting, as the rootstock is approached

to the scion, while it is still attached to the mother plant. Alternatively, the mother plants
are trained to be low headed and the stock is sown under their canopy. Last week of July
or the first week of August is the best period for approach grafting. In this method, the
diameter of rootstock and scion should be approximately the same. A slice of bark along
with a thin piece of wood about 4 cm long is removed from matching portions of both the
stock and the scion. They are then brought together making sure that their
cambium layers make contact at least on one side. These grafts are then tied firmly
with a polythene strip or any other tying material. The stock and scion plants are
watered regularly to hasten the union. The union is complete in about 2 to 3 months.
The method is commonly followed in mango. This method is also called inarching
4. Soft wood grafting

This method of grafting is done when the rootstock is overgrown and thus not suitable for
.Normally in this method, seedlings of 8-10 months old are selected.The grafting is done on
newly emerged flush. The scion wood to be used is defoliated 10 days prior to the grafting
and has same thickness as that of terminal shoot.
 New method
Usually the grafted seedlings are planted in the field and
grown, but the farmer says, “through this new technique
(polybag growing), mango seedlings come to commercial
bearing in 2- 3 years.”
Giving details about how he does the grafting the farmer
says:
“Good, bearing mother plants are selected and the desired
variety is grafted together and grown for 45 days in plastic
bags in a controlled environment. After the first flush of
leaves emerge, the seedlings are moved to open conditions
and kept under shade and watered.”

Banana
Banana is rich source of energy (350 to 550 kilo joules/100g) and is a good source of
minerals and vitamins.  It contains 73 % moisture, 25-30 % carbohydrates, 1.4 %
protein, 0.3 % fat, 0.5 % mineral matters (Ca, Fe, P, K) and Vit- C and K.
The banana is a perennial plant that replaces itself. Bananas do not grow from a seed
but from a bulb or rhizome, and it takes 9 to 12 months from sowing a bananabulb to
harvesting the fruit. The banana flower appears in the sixth or seventh month.Require
Huge Infrastructure.

SOIL AND CLIMATE

 Banana can be grown in almost all types of soil provided adequate soil moisture is
available.
 Deep well drained, loamy soil with adequate organic matter is ideal for its cultivation.
 The plant has restricted root zone.
 It can grow well in slightly alkaline soils.
 Though banana requires large quantity of water, it cannot tolerate water stagnation.
Only way to reproduce is to transplant part of plant stem.

Post Harvest Management

Since, fruits and vegetables are highly perishable, efficient Post Harvest
Management has become an absolute necessity. It is also important for effective
exploitation of the export potential of fruits and vegetables

Joint effort of R&D institutions, farmers, government agencies and traders has
resulted in India emerging as a major producer of fruits and vegetables in the
world. But the magnitude of loss in food grains is to the tune of 10% whereas
for fruits and vegetables losses are estimated at 35-40% due to improper Post
Harvest Management (PHM) (XI Planning Commission). It amounts to a loss
estimated at Rs 40,000 crores per year! This is not only loss of produce of crores
of rupees but also wastage of labour, energy and inputs involved in production..

Realizing the need for strong PHM initiatives, following initiatives have been
undertaken:
  Management of Harvesting operations
 Pack house operations
 Appropriate Pre-treatments - like curing , hot water treatment, fungicide
application, waxing standardized
 Pre-Cooling
 Packaging
 Transportation
 Storage (Cold Storages): A number of cold storages have been set up in
the country mainly for potatoes. Among other perishables apple, grape,
orange, eggs, fish, livestock and dairy products are prominent from
storage point of view.

Establishment of Food Parks and Cooperative Food Parks: In 11th Plan it is

planned to support establishment of thirty (30) Mega Food Parks in various parts
of the country. The emphasis will be on building strong linkages with agriculture
and horticulture, enhancing project implementation capabilities, increased
involvement of private sector investments and support for creation of rural
infrastructure. It will provide a mechanism to bring farmers, processors and
retailers together and link agricultural production to the market so as to ensure
maximization of value addition, minimize wastages and improve farmer's income

 Establishment of Agri-Export Zones

Value and Supply Chain Management of Plantation and Horticulture Crops-

Supply Chain Management

Supply Chain Management represents the management of the entire set of production,
manufacturing/ transformations, distribution and marketing activities by which a consumer is
supplied with a desired product.
Procuring the right inputs(raw materials,components,capital equipments) coverting them
efficiently into finished products and dispatching them to final destination.
It also includes coordination and collaboration with channel partners, which may be suppliers,
intermediaries, third-party service providers, or customers. supply chain management is defined
as the design and operation of physical, management information and financial systems needed
to transfer goods and services from point of production to point of consumption in an efficient and
effective manner. The supply chain perspective can help the retailers identify superior suppliers
and distributors and help them to improve productivity, which ultimately brings down customers
costs.
2nd Largest Fruit and Vegetable Producers.(Green Revolution)China -1st
India Lacks in Supply chain Management-No of Intermediataries,Poor Handling,Poor
Infrastructure.This will lead to Smart investor to invest in India(FDI) and earn huge profit.
Food Bazar,Reliance Fresh is an Exam of Supply chain management.
Wallmart-Coffee from Brazil and Vietnam,Tea-India ,China

Objectives
The project aimed at improving Supply Chain Management (SCM) scenario of the country through

1. Developing competency of faculty,

2. Developing curriculum and learning opportunities and
3. Strengthening partnership linkages among the stakeholders including farmers.

Success Stories-

Trading of mangoes goes online - a ‘One India-One Market concept’

Farmers in Krishnagiri(TN) are now getting fair prices for their mangoes. They are able to market their
produce worldwide at the click of a mouse, thanks to the on line spot trading introduced by Safal
National Exchange (SNX), for Tothapuri mangoes in Krishnagiri district.

SNX based in Bangalore and a joint venture between National Diary Development Board and Multi-
commodity Exchange of India (MCX) is conducting on-the-spot electronic trading of mangoes in
Krishnagiri and Pochampalli. Dharmapuri and Krishnagiri mango growers could sell around 2000
tonnes of fresh mangoes this year at a premium price.

How to Improve System.?

1-Food Supply Chain Cluster-Using RFID to track each and every thing.

2-APMC Mandis

3-Cold Storage

4-Setup Information Centre

Govt Intiative-

Scheme for Agro-Marine Produce Processing and Development of Agro-Processing Clusters

(SAMPADA)

APMC( Agricultural produce market committee) operate on two principles:

 Ensure that farmers are not exploited by intermediaries (or money lenders) who compel
farmers to sell their produce at the farm gate for an extremely low price.
 All food produce should first be brought to a market yard and then sold through auction.

Impact on Large Scale-

OBOR-One Belt One Road(China)-India Boycotted.

Easy Access to Asia,Europe,Africa-

Lec-9

The branch of science, which deals with the study of various breeds of domesticated animals
and their management for obtaining better products and services from them is termed
animal husbandry (the term husbandry comes from ‘husband’ which means one who takes
care).

• Milk giving (milch) animals: Cows, buffaloes and goats who give us milk.

• Meat and egg giving animals: Pigs, cattle, goat, sheep, fowls and ducks which are the main
source of meat. From hens and ducks we get eggs.

• Working (draught) animals: Bullocks, buffaloes, camels and horses are draught animals
used for doing work in the field and for transportation of goods and human beings.

We also get horns, feathers and leather from some of these animals which can be used for
making various things. Their urine and droppings help to make the soil fertile by acting as
manure.

Need for animal husbandry- We have a large number of animals in our country. Yet we
do not get as much food from these animals as we possibly can and need for our large population.
Besides the food, which we get from animals, we need them to do a lot of our work. In India, we
have about 80.4 million cattle, which work in the fields. If we take the ratio of working cattle to the
area of land, which is being used for cultivation we find that only two individuals of cattle are
available to plough 3.8 hectares of land.

Eg-Desi Cow Vs Pharsi Cow

Eg-Murrah Buffaloo(Haryana) ,Jaffarbadi,Surti

You all know that cattle wastes like urine and faeces are natural manure which enrich our
soil. Unfortunately, in India we do not use all the cowdung available and a lot of it goes
waste. Gobar gas plants have been developed so that we can make use of the cattle dung
both for fuel as well as to make manure. Thus, we find that animal husbandry is a very
important field which helps us to improve our livestock and other useful animals and make
the maximum use of them
 Role of Farm animals in Indian Economy
Animal Husbandry and Dairying play an important role in development of India’s economy.
Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries sectors play an important role in the national economy
and in the socio-economic development of the country. These sectors also play a significant role
in supplementing family incomes and generating gainful employment in the rural sector,
particularly, among the landless labourers, small and marginal farmers and women, besides
providing cheap nutritional food to millions of people.UP,RAJASTHAN,GUJRAT-Top Milk
Producing States.
The National Dairy Development Board (NDDB)-1965-DrVerghese
Kurian,Father of White Revolution,Operation Flood(1970)

70% World livestock in India and China

.
Contribution to the Economy & Agriculture Sector
1. Fibre and skins: The livestock also contributes to the production of wool, hair, hides, and pelts.
Leather is the most important product which has a very high export potential. India is producing about
47.9 million Kg of wool per annum.Pashmina Goats(J&K)

1. Dung and other animal waste materials: Dung and other animal wastes serve as very good farm
yard manure and the value of it is worth several crores of rupees. In addition it is also used as fuel
(bio gas, dung cakes), and for construction as poor man’s cement (dung).
2. Storage: Livestock are considered as “moving banks” because of their potentiality to dispose off
during emergencies. They serve as capital and in cases of landless agricultural labourers many time it
is the only capital resource they possess. Livestock serve as an asset and in case of emergencies
they serve as guarantee for availing loans from the local sources such as money lenders in the
villages.
3-Social security: The animals offer social security to the owners in terms of their status in the
society. The families especially the landless which own animals are better placed than those who do
not. Gifting of animals during marriages is a very common phenomenon in different parts of the
country. Rearing of animals is a part of the Indian culture. Animals are used for various socio religious
functions. Cows for house warming ceremonies; rams, bucks and chicken for sacrifice during festive
seasons; Bulls and Cows are worshipped during various religious functions. Many owners develop
attachment to their animals.

Ministry of Agriculture and Farmer Welfare

Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and

Fisheries
Reports-http://dahd.nic.in/sites/default/files/Press%20Release-
19th%20Livestock%20Census%28English%29%20%201_0.pdf
Human Census-2011
Livestock Sensus-2012
Poultry(मुर्गी पालन)

Mithuns-

Categories of Important breeds: There is following three categories

1. Indian breeds
2. Exotic Breeds
3. Improved breeds
(a) Indian Breeds Gir, Sahiwal, Red Sindhi, Thararkar, Kankrej etc. are
some high yielding varieties of Indian cattle
(b) Exotic Breeds (Imported breeds) Hilstein, Friesian, Jersey, Swiss etc.
are some of the high yielding varieties that have been imported from
abroad and reared widely in India.
(c) Improved breeds of Indian cattle Certain improved breeds have been
developed by making a cross between two desired breeds. A cross
between Sahiwal and Friesian varieties has been named as Friewal, Karan
Swiss is another improved breed for milk production in large quantities.

Products-Cream,Curd,Milk,Cheese,Khoya

Method in Animal Husbandry-

1-Good Environment-. A proper drainage system should be there to remove animal waste.

2-Pasture Quality- To maintain high yielding and disease-resistant breeds,

they must be provided with adequate water supply and nutrient-rich fodder.
In cattle farming, Hence, the animal feed includes roughage (high fibre
content) and concentrates (high proteins and nutrient content). In addition
to this, supplements containing micronutrients are also provided to
animals. An adequate proportion of these rations promote healthy and high
output animals.

Micronutrients-Iron,Magnese,Zinc,Copper
Macronutrients-Nitrogen,Phosphorus,Potassium,Calcium

3-Shelter Maintainance- The shed should be well-ventilated and roofed so that animals
are protected from rain, heat, and cold
4-should be brushed regularly to remove the dirt and bugs
5- Cattle should be protected from diseases. Diseases in cattle are caused by both external and
internal parasites. External parasites live on the skin and cause skin diseases. Internal parasites
affect the stomach and intestinal parts.
Bacterial Disease-Anthrax,Tubercolosis
Viral Disease-Cowpox,Foot and mouth disease
Fungal Disease-Aspergilosis,Ringworm

5-Disease Management

The third responsibility of cattle farming management is to maintain disease-free breeds. Animals
are not an exception to disease. They also suffer from numerous diseases. This may affect the health
as well as productivity of animals; even cause their death. Parasites, bacteria, and viruses are the
major villains here. These microbes infect the cattle externally as well as internally. Vaccination is
the one solution for the protection against bacterial and viral infections.

Livestock-

Turkeys

Common Terms Pertaining to Different Species of Livestock

Species: A group of individuals which have certain common characteristics that
distinguish them from other group of individuals with in species the individuals are fertile
when in different species they are not.

Sire: The male parent of the calf.

Dam: Female parent of the calf.

Calf: Young one of cattle or buffalo below the age of six months is called calf.

Heifer: The younger female of cattle above age of six months to first calving.

Cow: The adult female of cattle from the date of first calving is called cow.

Bull: It is unsaturated of, cattle used for breeding or covering the cows.

Bullock: It is the castrated male of cattle used for work.

Flock – a grouping of a species of livestock (sheep, poultry)

Polled – a naturally hornless animal

Litter – multiple offspring produced at one birth by a multi-parous mammal. Also called brood.

Chickens
Chick – a newly hatched or a very young chicken
Broilers – a chicken that is six to 13 weeks of age used for meat production
Pullet – a young domestic hen, usually one that is less than one year old
Hen – an adult female chicken
Cockerel – an adult male chicken
Rooster – all domestic chickens
Popular Products – eggs and chicken
Cattle
Bovine – the scientific name for cattle
Calf – a sexually immature young bovine
Heifer – a young female bovine which has not yet had a calf
Cow – a mature female bovine
Steer – a castrated male bovine
Bull – a sexually mature male bovine
Popular Products – milk, beef and leather
Goats
Caprine – refers to animals in the goat family
Kid – a young goat
Wether – a castrated male goat
Doe – (aka. nanny) a female goat
Buck – (aka. billy) a sexually mature male goat
Popular Products – milk

Pigs
Swine – a refers to animals in the pig family
Barrow – a young, castrated male swine
Boar – a sexually mature male swine
Gilt – a young female pig
Hog – a mature swine (usually weighing more than 120 pounds)
Pig – (aka. piglet) a young swine (usually weighing less than 120 lbs.)
Sow – a mature female swine
Sheep
Ovine – the scientific name for sheep
Ewe – a female sheep
Lamb – a sheep less than one year in age
Ram – a male sheep
Wether – a castrated male sheep
Popular Products – lamb,* mutton,* hogget,* and wool
Turkeys( large bird in the genus Meleagris, which is native to the Americas)
Poult – is a young domestic turkey
Hen – an adult female turkey
Tom – is a male turkey
Horse
Equine – name of the family that includes horses, donkeys and zebras
Foal – an animal in the equine family, of either sex, that is one year old or younger
Colt – a male horse under the age of four
Filly – a female horse under the age of four
Gelding – a castrated animal of the equine family
Pony – a mature horse that measures less than 14.2hands
Mare – an adult female horse
Stallion – an adult male horse
Draft Horse – a large horse bred for hard, heavy tasks such as ploughing and farm labor
Hand – a non-SI unit of measurement that equals four inches
Donkey & Mule
Foal – an animal in the equine family, of either sex, that is one year old or younger
Jenny – a female donkey
Jack – a male donkey
Mule – is the offspring of a male donkey and a female horse
Donkey – a domesticated animal of the equine family primarily used as a working animal
Rabbit
Kit – a young rabbit
Doe – a female rabbit
Buck – a male rabbit
Popular Products – fur and meat

Utility Classification of Breeds of Cattle-(Discussed Earlier)

Describe in Your Points.
Common Feed and Fodder and its Classification

Lack of adequate supply of quality fodders alone is the main constraint in achieving any
increase in milk production in India.
Some Terms You must Know-(Just for Knowledge)

DRY MATTER: The dry matter is available in foodstuffs as organic and inorganic material .

CARBOHYDRATES: Carbohydrates are the compounds of carbon with hydrogen and

oxygen. The carbohydrates are the chief sources for the supply of energy to the animal body,
for the maintenance of the body temperature and they are also necessary for the functioning
of the organs, work and production. While surplus carbohydrates are converted into fat and
stored in the body.

LIPIDS : The lipids (fats and oils) are a group of substances found in plant and animal
tissues, insoluble in water, but soluble in Benzene, Ether and Chloroform. They are important
sources of stored energy.

PROTEINS: Proteins are complex organic compounds containing nitrogen, carbon,

hydrogen, oxygen and occasionally phosphorus and sulphur. They are essential constituents
of animal and vegetable cells. Proteins are required for building of muscles for the growth or
development of the animal body for the production of milk and eggs.

VITAMINS : Vitamins are organic compounds and are effective in small amounts in
promoting the health of animals, improving their appetite and digestion, stimulating growth
and increasing the productive capacity of animals. Vitamins are essential for transformation
of energy and regulation of metabolism. They are synthesized by plants and are found in
animals as a result of food intake or of the activity of microorganisms in the gut.

The various feeds and fodders used in livestock feeding are broadly classified as:

A) Roughages;

B) Concentrates;

C) Feed supplements and Feed additives.

Roughages(चारा)

– Roughages are the feed stuffs which contain more than 18 percent crude fiber and less than 60 percent
Total Digestible Nutrients. Due to higher crude fiber content, they are more bulky and have low digestibility
as compared to concentrates.
The roughages are further classified into two major group as: 1) Green / succulent roughages – They
contain about 60-90 percent moisture eg. Pastures, cultivated fodders, tree leaves, root crops and
silages. 2) Dry roughages – They contain about 10-15 percent moisture e.g. Straw, Hay and karbi.

Concentrates(दाना)

These are the feedstuffs which contain less than 18 percent crude fibre and more than 60 percent Total
Digestible Nutrients. They are less bulky and have higher digestibility. They are concentrated source of
nutrients and therefore, they have higher nutritive value than roughages. The concentrates are further
classified as:

1) Energy Rich Concentrates – e.g. Cereal grains, cereal grain byproducts, Roots and tubers.

2) Protein Rich Concentrates – i) Plant origin e.g. Oilseed cake, pulse chuni, Brewer’s grains and yeast. ii)
Animal origin e.g. Fish meal, Meat meal, Blood meal

Feed Supplements

Feed supplements are the compounds used to improve the nutritional value of the basal feeds so as to
take care of any deficiency. Commonly used feed supplements are

1) Vitamin supplements e.g. Rovimix, Vitablend, Arovit etc.

2) Mineral supplements e.g. Minimix, Milk min, Nutrimilk, Aromin etc.

Silage: Silage is conserved green fodder using fermentation process, to be utilized in lean season when
green fodder is not available.

Feed Additives

Feed additives are the non-nutritive substances usually added to basal feed in small quantity for the
fortification in order to improve feed efficiency and productive performance of the animals. Some commonly
used feed additives are as below:

1) Antibiotics e.g. Terramycin, Zinc bacitracin, Flavomycin etc.

2) Enzymes e.g. Amylase, lipase, protease, pepsin etc.

3) Hormones eg. Estrogen, progesterone, hexosterol etc.

4) Thyroprotein e.g. Iodinated casein.

5) Probiotics e.g. Microbial species. Lactobacillus.

6) Biostimulators e.g. Extracts of living organs like spleen, liver, ovary, chick embryo etc.

7) Antioxidants e.g. Vitamin E (Tocopherols), BHT ( Butylated hydroxy toluene).

8) Mold inhibitors e.g. Propionic acid, acetic acid.

9) Pellet binders e.g Gur, meal, molasses, sodium bentonite.

10) Coccidiostats e.g. Amprolsol powder, Furasol powder.

Fodder Development in the country -

Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries (DADF), Government of India has
taken necessary steps to increase fodder production in various parts of the country by
providing financial assistance to the States / UTs under Centrally Sponsored National
Livestock Mission with a Sub Mission on Feed and Fodder Development. The focus is to
improve Gauchar lands in the country for increasing the availability of Fodder and Grasses.
The Common Property Resources (Gauchar) at present are either degraded or encroached,
thereby not serving the desired purpose. A drive has been launched by sensitrising the State
Governments to develop these gauchar lands. Attention is also being paid to conserve
surplus crop residue to meet the shortage of fodder during the lean seasons, draught, flood
etc.
***National Commission on Agriculture is an Indian Government body which was founded in
1976 under the Ministry of Agriculture to recommend the Government on increasing agricultural
productivity.

***The National Commission on Farmers, chaired by Prof. M. S. Swaminathan, submitted

five reports through the period December 2004 - October 2006. Following from the first four, the
final report focused on causes of famer distresses and the rise in farmer suicides, and
recommends addressing them through a holistic national policy for farmers(Will Discuss in
Present Scenario of Indian Agriculture)

Introduction to Poultry Industry

Poultry farming in India was mostly a backyard venture till 1960s. Indigenous chicken constituted the major
share. Their productivity was around 60-70 eggs per bird per year. During the past three decades the poultry
scenario in the country has changed dramatically. Today poultry farming has transformed itself into an organized
industry. It plays a major role in the fight against malnutrition and poverty among the rural masses of our country.
The importance of poultry sector in solving the problems of unemployment and under-employment is well-
conceived by planners and personnel in the developmental programmes. Among the livestock vocations poultry
farming requires only less capital investment and it is same time has in added advancing ensuring quick returns.
Yellow Revolution: It refers to remarkably steady and assured supply of poultry products.
The poultry industry in India represents a major success story. What was largely a backyard
venture before the 1960s has been transformed into a vibrant agribusiness with an annual
turnover of Rs 30 000 crores. Today, India is the third largest egg producer in the world (after
China and the United States of America), and the nineteenth largest broiler producer.
Undoubtedly, this impressive growth is a result of several factors, such as active
developmental support from the state and central government, research and development
support from research institutes,1 international collaboration and private sector participation.
A point worth mentioning here is that Indian poultry is self-sufficient, supported by a broad
and strong genetic base in which the productivity levels2 of broilers and layers are equal to
those achieved elsewhere (e.g. in the United States of America and the European Union).
Undoubtedly, these achievements are quite significant. Today, however, globalization is
posing greater challenges: namely, making the industry globally competitive and viable; and
fulfilling the quite enormous potential for growth that is presented by changing food habits
and preferences. In what follows, an attempt is made to describe the trends and features of
development in the Indian poultry industry over the last ten years; probe the underlying
factors; and predict what lies ahead, including the threats posed to smallholders