Impacts of Transportation Interventions on Air

Quality

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National University of Science & Technology (NUST)
 Introduction to Air Quality Impacts
 An air pollutant is a gas, liquid droplet, or solid particle which, if
dispersed in the air with sufficient concentration, poses a hazard to
flora, fauna, property, and climate
 Air pollution, a visible environmental side effect of transportation,
has become a public health concern for millions of urban residents
worldwide
 Transportation or “mobile” sources of air pollution, particularly
motor vehicles, are a primary source of local carbon monoxide
problems and are considered the main cause of excess regional
photochemical oxidant concentrations (Air pollutants formed by
the action of sunlight on oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons)
 Transportation vehicles typically emit carbon monoxide, nitrogen
oxides, small particulate matter, and other toxic substances that
can cause health problems when inhaled
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 Introduction to Air Quality Impacts
 Air pollution also has adverse effects on forests, lakes, and rivers
 The contribution of transportation vehicle use to global warming
remains a cause for much concern as anthropogenic (human)
impacts on the upper atmosphere become increasingly evident
 In this chapter we discuss:
 Air pollution sources
 Adverse impacts of air pollution
 Factors that affect pollutant emissions and concentrations
 Estimation of pollutant emissions and concentrations

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Air Pollutants – Types, Sources, and Trends

CO -- Carbon Monoxide
HC -- Hydrocarbons
SOx – Sulfur oxides
NOx – Nitrous Oxides
Particulate matters -- include dust & smoke
Heavy metals - Pb, Cd, Zn, and Cu
CO2 -- Carbon Dioxide (a single tank produces 300-400 pounds of
CO2)
CFC -- Chlorofluorocarbons

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Air Pollutants – Types, Sources, and Trends
Benzene (motor vehicles emit about 15% of world’s
benzene)
Aldehydes
Asbestos
Ozone (03)
Acidic Depositions

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Air Pollutants – Types, Sources, and Trends
SOURCES
- Natural sources: volcanoes, forest fires, etc.
- Man-made (anthropogenic) sources
Stationary sources: Industrial plants, etc.
Mobile sources: transportation, etc.
Power generation
Fuel use
Slash & burn agricultural practices

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 Air Pollutants – Types, Sources, and Trends
Primary vs. Secondary
 Primary air pollutant: are those emitted directly into the
atmosphere and include carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons
sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter
 Secondary air pollutants: such as ozone and acidic
depositions, are those formed in the atmosphere as a
result of physical and chemical processes (such as
hydrolysis, oxidation, and photochemistry) on primary
pollutants

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 Air Pollutants – Types, Sources, and Trends
Criteria vs. Greenhouse
 Criteria air pollutants: are a set of air pollutants that cause
smog, acid rain, and other health hazards. Are typically
emitted from many sources in industry, mining,
transportation, electricity generation and agriculture. In most
cases they are the products of the combustion of fossil fuels or
industrial processes (CO, SOX, NOX, etc)
 Greenhouse gases (GHG): A greenhouse gas (GHG), is that
gas in atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the
thermal infrared range. This process is the fundamental cause
of the greenhouse effect.
 Water vapor , Carbon dioxide , Methane, Nitrous oxide, Ozone ,
CFCs 8
 Air Pollutants – Types, Sources, and Trends
o The ground is heated by visible and
(some) infrared light from the Sun.
o The heated surface emits infrared light.
o The primary components of Earth’s
atmosphere, N2 and O2 do not have
absorption in the IR wavelength range,
therefore, do not have a significant role
in setting the surface temperature of the
planet…
o Greenhouse gas are efficient in
absorbing IR light(H2O, CO2).
o Greenhouse gases trap (absorb and re-
emit) the infrared radiation, increasing
the temperature of the atmosphere…
 Air Pollutants – Types, Sources, and Trends

20

18

16 Carbon Monoxide
Emission(millions of short tons)

14 (*10)
Volatile Organic
12
Compounds
10 Nitrogen Oxides
8

6 Sulphur Dioxide

4
Particulate
2 Matter

0
1970 1980 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002
Year

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Air Pollutants – Types, Sources, and Trends
CO

Non
Transpor
tation
44%
Transpor NOx
tation
56%

Transpor
tation
Non 44%
VOCs Transpor
tation
56%
Transpor
tation
37%

Non
Transpor
tation
63% 11
 The Process of Air Pollution

Emission Dispersion

Concentration

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 Emissions

• Definition: The discharge of pollutants into the

atmosphere

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 Emissions
• Emission. The overall magnitude of emissions depends on the
number of emitting sources, the diversity of source types, the nature
and scale of activity at the polluting source, and the emission
characteristics. For instance, more pollutants are emitted by motor
vehicles at higher altitudes, due to inefficient combustion caused by
air thinness.
• Mobile emission. A mobile source of air pollution is one that is
capable of moving from one place to another under its own power,
such as a motorized vehicle. The total air quality in an area is
measured in terms of the ambient concentration of pollutants that
are emitted by mobile and stationary sources.
• Emission factors. An emission factor is an average estimate of the
rate at which a pollutant is released into the atmosphere as a result
of some activity (such as motor vehicle operation) in terms of
activity level such as VMT (vehicle-miles of travel) or VHT (vehicle-
hours traveled) for motor vehicles.
 Air Quality Estimation

Total Emissions
= Emissions per vehicle per mile * number of vehicles * nr. of miles

Emissions Rate (g/veh-mile)

Can be reduced by highway improvement

- Policies that restrict tailpipe emissions
- Policies that require installation of catalytic converters
- Policies that help increase speed (speed limit increases)
- Physical projects to help increase speed, decrease congestion and delay
(ITS projects, signalization, and incident clearance, etc.)
 Air Quality Estimation

Total Emissions
= Emissions per vehicle per mile * number of vehicles * nr. of miles

Emissions Rate (g/veh-mile)

BUT …

Can be reduced by highway improvement Could also be increased by a

highway improvement
- Transit improvements help reduce auto travel
- Induced demand
- Policies that restrict the number of vehicles in a
certain area (e.g.,, congestion pricing)
 Air Quality Estimation

Total Emissions
= Emissions per vehicle per mile * number of vehicles * nr. of miles

Emissions Rate (g/veh-mile)

What Factors affect the Emissions Rate?

Pollution Estimation by Mode
Pollution Estimation by Mode
 Factors Affecting the Rate of Pollutant
Emissions
Hot Start
Engine Operating Mode Cold Start
Speed Level Hot Stabilized
Travel Related
Speed Variation
Facility Related Engineering Features
Age and Mileage
Driver Related
Maintenance Condition
Factors Affecting
Emission of Vehicle Vehicle Related Weight and Size
Pollutants Engine Power
Fuel Delivery System
Emission Control System
Fuel Type Used Volatility, Content of Oxygen, Lead, Sulfur

Environmental Ambient Temperature, Altitude, Humidity

 Travel Related Factors Affecting Emission
o Engine Operation Mode
o Cold Start: Any start of a vehicle engine taking 1-4 hrs or later
following the end of the preceding trip.
o Hot starts are those that occur less than 4 hours after the end of
the preceding trips
o Hot Stabilized: The time between the start and the end of a trip
is called the hotstabilized period.
o HC, CO Emission Higher During Cold Start Compared to Hot
Start
o Speed and Acceleration
o Smoothness and Consistency of Speed
o HC, CO Emission High at Low Speeds
o Sharp Acceleration at High Speed: More HC and CO Emitted
 Emissions as a Function of Speed

For example, for Heavy Duty Gasoline Vehicles:

By increasing urban traffic speed from 20 to 50mph, we can have a 50%
reduction in CO emissions
 Travel Related Factors Affecting Emission
Facility Related Factors
– Grade, Existence of Ramps and Signals
– Acceleration and Deceleration Lanes
– Traffic Signal Coordination can result in up to 50 percent
reduction in emissions (Rakha et al. 1999)

Driver Related Factors

– Aggressive Drivers: More Frequent and Severe Accelerations
and Decelerations
– Abrupt Changes in Velocity
 Vehicle Related Factors Affecting Emission
• Vehicle Related Factors
– Age, Mileage, Maintenance Condition, Weight, Size, Engine
Power
– Older Vehicles: More Pollutants Emitted
– Heavier and Larger Vehicles Emit More Pollutants
– Combustion Process Depends on Engine Type

• Environmental Factors - Ambient Temperature

– At Low Temperatures more time required to warm up engine;
Level of Cold-Start Emissions Increase
– At High Temperatures, Fuel Evaporation Rate Increases;
Combustive Emissions Low; Evaporative Emissions High
 Tools for Emissions Estimation

Approaches / Techniques / Software

– Emission Models Based on Vehicle Operating Modes

– Microscopic Emission Models

– Fuel Based Emission Models

Tools for Emissions Estimation – The MOBILE6 Software

• Software Development was Sponsored by: EPA

• Pollutants: Carbon monoxide, Hydrocarbons, Oxides of Nitrogen
• Vehicle Classifications: 28
• Roadway Facilities: Freeways, Arterial/Collectors, Local Roadways,
Ramps
• Emission Factors for Any Calendar Year Between 1952-2020
• Varying Conditions
– Ambient Temperature
– Travel Speed
– Operating Modes
– Fuel Volatility
Tools for Emissions Estimation

Pollutant Dispersion
Factors Affecting Pollutant Dispersion & Concentration

• Magnitude of Emissions
• Meteorological Conditions
– Wind Speed, Wind Direction, Mixing Speed
– Temperature
• Topography & Urban Spatial Form
• Altitude
• Physical Mixing, Deposition & Chemical Reactions

Why Concentration is important: harmful effects of pollutants are

measured in terms of their concentration
 Estimating Pollutant Dispersion & Concentration

Dispersion Models
– Box Model
– Gaussian Plume Model
– Numerical Model
The Box Model for Predicting Pollutant Dispersion

Maximum Distance for Transport

across the City and out of the Box
=
a 2  b2  H 2

Maximum Time Taken to be

Transported =

a 2  b2  H 2
V
Average Time Taken to be
Transported =

a 2  b2  H 2
2V
 The Box Model - Assumptions

• Uniform Dispersion of Pollutants in the Box

• Pollutant Concentration as a function of Wind Speed and

Mixing Height

• Increasing Mixing Height or Wind Speed Increases Effective

Volume in which Pollutants are allowed to mix (Higher Wind
Speed Implies Lower Pollutant Concentration)

• Reliability of results depends on a number of assumptions

– Does not take into account Pollutant Deposition

– Assumes No Chemical Reactions

– Uniform Dispersion in the Box !!

 The Box Model - Example
3.5 x 2.1 mile city
1.2 mile Average Mixing Height
3.5 mph Average Wind Speed
(a) Maximum Distance to be Traversed = 4.25 Miles

(b) Maximum Time Taken to be Transported = 4.25 / 3.5 = 1.21 hrs

(c) From (b), all pollutant emissions would have completely dispersed out of the
mixing box in 1.21 hours That is, residual concentration after 1.21 hrs is zero.

Therefore, 2 hrs after release, residual concentration = 0

Thus, if 1,000g of pollutant are released in bursts every two hours, the maximum
concentration will simply be:

= 1000 / (volume of the box) = 1000/(3.5*2.1*1.2) = 113.38 g / km3

The Gaussian Plume Model for Describing Dispersion
The Gaussian Plume Model for Describing Dispersion

• Continuous emission from the source

• Diffusion in the direction of travel is negligible
• Increasing size of plume with time
• Pollutant concentration follows normal distribution at any
point in the plume
• Spread of the plume represented by the standard deviation
of the pollutant concentration
• Moving away from the source, the maximum concentration
level decreases while the concentration standard deviation
increases
The Gaussian Plume Model for Describing Dispersion

Calculating Concentration

Gaussian Distribution Functions Corresponding to 

GU , GL   y1 y2 
Higher and Lower values of and , respectively 
  y1  y2 

Q = Emission Rate of Pollutant in ug/s

U = Average Wind Speed (ft/s)
H = Effective Stack Height = Physical Stack Height (h) + vertical rise of the Plume
Sigmas are the standard Deviation of Pollutant Concentration in the Y and
Z directions
Software: Polluant Dispersion & Concentration Estimation

• HYROAD (HYbrid ROADway Model)

– For Intersections

– Concentration: CO, Other Gas Phase Pollutants, Particulate

Matters, Air Toxins etc.

– GUI with Three Modules

• Traffic: Microscopic Traffic Simulation for Speed
• Emissions: (With Speed as Input)
– Composite Emission Factors
– Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Emissions
• Dispersion
– Assuming Lagrangian Puff Formation
– Predicts Concentration Near Intersection at Specific Distances
Software: Pollutant Dispersion & Concentration Estimation

• CALINE-4 (CAlifornia LINE Source)

– Based on Gaussian Diffusion Equation
– Pollutant Concentration Predicted at Receptors within 500
meters of the Roadway
– Inputs
•Source Strength (Emissions)
•Meteorology (Temperature, Wind Speed, Direction,
Stability)
•Site Geometry
 Monetary Costs of Air Pollution

• Three Methods for Air Pollution Cost Estimation

– Based on Cleaning Air Near Pollutant Source

– Based on Addressing Effects of Pollution

– Based on Willingness-to-Pay Approach

 Dimensions
of Air Quality Impacts of Transportation Projects and Policies

Spatial
Dimension

Global

National

Regional Temporal
Local Dimension

Along Corridor Long-term

Along ROW Medium-term
Short-term
Air Econ. Land Social Etc.
Quality Dev. Use
 Temporal Dimensions
of Air Quality Impacts of Transportation Projects and Policies

Time Dimension (short-term/long-term)

– Short-term (a few days-months)

– Long-term (many years)

Note: Time dimension may also be categorized by

- Impacts during Construction
- Impacts after Construction (i.e., during usage/operation of the
transportation facility)
 Spatial Dimensions
of Air Quality Impacts of Transportation Projects and Policies

– ROW

– Corridor

– Community/Local System

– Region

– Global
 Spatial Dimensions
of Air Quality Impacts of Transportation Projects and Policies

Local Effects of Transportation Air Pollution

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 Spatial Dimensions
of Air Quality Impacts of Transportation Projects and Policies

Regional Effects of Transportation Air Pollution

 Definitions
• Smog. Fog that has become mixed and polluted with smoke
• Catalytic Converter. A catalytic converter is a device that uses a
catalyst (in the form of platinum and palladium) to convert three
harmful compounds in car exhaust into harmless compounds. The
catalyst helps to convert carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide. It
converts the hydrocarbons into carbon dioxide and water. It also
converts the nitrogen oxides back into nitrogen and oxygen.
• A gasoline engine and a diesel engine are actually very similar. Both
are internal combustible engines, but the way that they combust is
the main difference between the two. A gasoline engine mixes fuel
with air and creates a spark with the spark plugs in the engine. In a
diesel engine, first the air is compressed, and then the fuel is
injected into the engine. The ignition is not caused by spark plugs,
but by the heat of the compressed air.
 Definitions
• Infrared light is one type of light that is invisible to us.
– Gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet light, microwaves and radio waves are other
types of invisible light.
– All of these rays and waves are the same type of electromagnetic energy.
– They are different only because the length of their waves are different.
• Ambient: relating to the immediate surroundings of something
• A catalytic converter is a vehicle emissions control device that
converts toxic pollutants in exhaust gas to less toxic pollutants by
catalyzing a redox reaction (oxidation or reduction). Catalytic
converters are used in internal combustion engines fueled by either
petrol (gasoline) or diesel—including lean burn engines.