ELECTRIC POWER

QUALITY
Subject Code: RT42023a Year/Sem: IV-I (R-13)

Presented by:
HARI MADHAVA REDDY. Y (Ph.D)., M.Tech., ISTE., IAENG., SSI

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPT. OF EEE
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 CONTENTS

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UNIT–I: Introduction

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UNIT–II: Voltage imperfections in power systems

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UNIT–III: Voltage Regulation and power factor

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improvement
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UNIT–IV: Harmonic distortion and solutions
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UNIT–V: Distributed Generation and Power

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Quality
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UNIT–VI: Monitoring and Instrumentation

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 UNIT–I: Introduction
1.0. Introduction
1.1. Overview of power quality

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1.2. Concern about the power quality

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1.3. General classes of power quality and voltage quality

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problems

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– Transients

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– Long duration voltage variations
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– Short–duration voltage variations
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– Voltage unbalance
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– Waveform distortion
– Voltage fluctuation
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– Power frequency variations.

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 Reference Books

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 1.0. Introduction
The term electric power quality (PQ) is generally used to
assess and to maintain the good quality of power at the level of
generation, transmission, distribution, and utilization of AC electrical

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power. Since the pollution of electric power supply systems is much

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severe at the utilization level, it is important to study at the terminals of
end users in distribution systems.

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There are a number of reasons for the pollution of the AC

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supply systems, including natural ones such as lightening, flashover,

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equipment failure, and faults (around 60%) and forced ones such as
voltage distortions and notches (about 40%).
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A number of customer’s equipment also pollute the

supply system as they draw non-sinusoidal current and behave as
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nonlinear loads. Therefore, power quality is quantified in terms of

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voltage, current, or frequency deviation of the supply system, which may

result in failure or mal-operation of customer’s equipment.
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 Typically, some power quality problems related to the
voltage at the point of common coupling (PCC) where various loads
are connected are the presence of voltage harmonics, surge, spikes,
notches, sag/dip, swell, unbalance, fluctuations, glitches, flickers,

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outages, and so on.

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These problems are present in the supply system due to

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various disturbances in the system or due to the presence of various

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nonlinear loads such as furnaces, uninterruptible power supplies

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(UPSs), and adjustable speed drives (ASDs).
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However, some power quality problems related to the
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current drawn from the AC mains are poor power factor, reactive
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power burden, harmonic currents, unbalanced currents, and an

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excessive neutral current in polyphase systems due to unbalancing and

harmonic currents generated by some nonlinear loads.
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 1.0. Introduction
( i ). 1-φ power equations in linear with sinusoidal supply

The definitions of power and its various components are very important

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to understand quantitative and qualitative power quality aspects in

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power system. This is not only necessary from the point of view of
conceptual clarity but also very much required for practical applications

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such as metering, quantification of active, reactive power, power factor

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and other power quality parameters in power system. These aspects

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become more important when power system is not ideal i.e., it deals

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with unbalance, harmonics, faults and fluctuations in frequency.
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Let us consider a single-phase system with sinusoidal system voltage
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supplying a linear load . A linear load is one which consists of ideal

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resistive, inductive and capacitive elements. The voltage and current are
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expressed as below.

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Sinusoidal Voltage Source Supplying Non-linear Load
Current
The load current is now considered as nonlinear load. A non-

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linear load is one which consists of switched elements such as diode,

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transistors, MOSFET, etc., in the circuit. In power circuit, non-linear

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load current exists, when source supplies to power electronics based
loads such as rectifier, inverter, cyclo-converters etc.. These loads cause

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presence of harmonics in the load current.

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Assuming that all harmonics are present in the load current, the
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voltage and current are expressed as following.
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The equation (1.14) shows that power factor becomes less by a factor of
cos γ , which is ratio of fundamental to the total current. This is due to
the presence of the harmonics in the load current. The nonlinear load
current increases the ampere rating of the conductor for same amount of

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active power transfer with increased VA rating. Such kind of load is not

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desired in power system.

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 1.1. Overview of power quality
Power Quality Definition

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Power quality can be defined from two different perspectives, depending

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on whether you supply or consume electricity. Power quality at the

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generator usually refers to the generator’s ability to generate power at 50

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Hz with little variation, while power quality at the transmission and
distribution level refers to the voltage staying within plus or minus 5
percent. ha
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Gerry Heydt in Electric Power Quality defines power quality as “the
measure, analysis, and improvement of bus voltage, usually a load bus
voltage, to maintain that voltage to be a sinusoid at rated voltage and

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frequency.” The type of equipment being used by the end user affects

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power quality at the end-user level.

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Roger Dugan, Mark McGranaghan, and Wayne Beaty in Electrical

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Power Systems Quality define a power quality problem as “any
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power problem manifested in voltage, current, or frequency
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deviations that results in failure or missed operation of utility or end

user equipment.”
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The definition of power quality given in the IEEE dictionary states
that “Power quality is the concept of powering and grounding
sensitive equipment in a manner that is suitable to the operation of
that equipment.”

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The IEC definition of power quality, given in IEC 61000-4-30,

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states “Characteristics of the electricity at a given point on an

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electrical system, evaluated against a set of reference technical

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parameters.”

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Electromagnetic compatibility is a term related to power quality

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used in IEC 61000-1-1, which states that “Electromagnetic
compatibility is the ability of an equipment or system to function
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satisfactorily in its electromagnetic environment without
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introducing intolerable electromagnetic disturbances to anything in

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that environment.”
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Recently, power quality is referred to “the ability of the electric

utilities to supply electric power without interruption.”
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Power quality is considered as a combination of current and voltage
quality.

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Voltage quality is concerned with the deviation of actual voltage

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from the ideal voltage and an equivalent definition exists for the current
quality.

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Any deviation in the voltage or current from the ideal

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value is a power quality disturbance. However, in the power system, it

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is difficult to distinguish between the voltage and current disturbances

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because an event leads to different disturbances for different customers.
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Therefore, in general, power quality is related to disturbances in
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voltage, current, frequency, and power factor.

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 Economists and power marketers see power as a product
and power quality as a measure of the quality of that product.
The definition of power quality becomes even more

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unclear when the roles of utility and customer become blurred as the

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utility industry is restructured and deregulated. Because of the changing

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roles of the utility and the customer, I will try to present power quality

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from a power system standpoint rather than an ownership point of view.

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The evolution of the power system and the types of loads
it serves is the major cause of an increased need for power quality.
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 Art of power quality
The awareness of the customers toward the power quality problems has
increased tremendously because of the following reasons:

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 The customer’s equipment have become much more sensitive to

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power quality problems than these have been earlier due to the use of

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digital control and power electronic converters, which are highly

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sensitive to the supply and other disturbances. Moreover, the

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industries have also become more conscious for loss of production.
 The awareness of power quality problems has increased in the
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customers due to direct and indirect penalties enforced on them, which
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are caused by interruptions, loss of production, equipment failure,

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standards, and so on.

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 The increased use of solid-state controllers in a number of equipment
with other benefits such as decreasing the losses, increasing overall
efficiency, and reducing the cost of production has resulted in the
increased harmonic levels, distortion, notches, and other power quality

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problems. It is achieved, of course, with much more sophisticated

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control and increased sensitivity of the equipment toward power

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quality problems. Typical examples are ASDs and energy-saving

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electronic ballasts, which have substantial energy savings and some

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other benefits; however, they are the sources of waveform distortion
and much more sensitive to the number of power quality disturbances.
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 The disturbances to other important appliances such as
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telecommunication network, TVs, computers, metering, and
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protection systems have forced the end users to either reduce or

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eliminate power quality problems or dispense the use of power

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polluting devices and equipment.

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 The deregulation of the power systems has increased the importance
of power quality as consumers are using power quality as
performance indicators and it has become difficult to maintain good

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power quality in the world of liberalization and privatization due to

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heavy competition at the financial level.
 Distributed generation using renewable energy and other local

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energy sources has increased power quality problems as it needs, in

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many situations, solid-state conversion and variations in input power

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add new problems of voltage quality such as in solar PV generation

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and wind energy conversion systems.
 Similar to other kinds of pollution such as air, the pollution of power
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networks with power quality problems has become an environmental
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issue with other consequences in addition to financial issues.

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 Several standards and guidelines are developed and enforced on the

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customers, manufacturers, and utilities as the law and discipline of

the land.
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 Power Quality Terminology

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Utilities

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Since electric utilities supply, transmit, and distribute electric power to

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residential, commercial, and industrial end users, they are intimately
involved in power quality.
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End users
End users include any user of electricity. They can be categorized into
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residential, commercial, and industrial. Those end users most

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concerned about power quality have increased significantly and will

continue to increase every day.
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 Power Quality = Voltage Quality ?

Power is the rate of energy delivery and is proportional to the product of

the voltage and current. It would be difficult to define the quality of this

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quantity in any meaningful manner.

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The power supply system can only control the quality of the voltage; it

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has no control over the currents that particular loads might draw.

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Therefore, the standards in the power quality area are devoted to

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maintaining the supply voltage within certain limits.
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AC power systems are designed to operate at a sinusoidal voltage of a
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given frequency [typically 50 or 60 hertz (Hz)] and magnitude. Any

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significant deviation in the waveform magnitude, frequency, or purity is

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a potential power quality problem.

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 A close relationship between voltage and current in any practical
power system. Although the generators may provide a near-perfect sine-
wave voltage, the current passing through the impedance of the system
can cause a variety of disturbances to the voltage. For example,

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1. The current resulting from a short circuit causes the voltage to sag or

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disappear completely, as the case may be.

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2. Currents from lightning strokes passing through the power system

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cause high-impulse voltages that frequently flash over insulation and
lead to other phenomena, such as short circuits.
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3. Distorted currents from harmonic-producing loads also distort the
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voltage as they pass through the system impedance. Thus a distorted
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voltage is presented to other end users.

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Therefore, while it is the voltage with which we are ultimately

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concerned, we must also address phenomena in the current to understand

The basis of many power quality problems.
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 1.2. Why Are We Concerned about
Power Quality?

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The ultimate reason that we are interested in power quality is

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economic value and economic impacts on utilities, their customers,
and suppliers of load equipment.

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The quality of power can have a direct economic impact on many

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industrial consumers. There has recently been a great emphasis on

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revitalizing industry with more automation and more modern
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equipment. This usually means electronically controlled, energy-
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efficient equipment that is often much more sensitive to deviations

in the supply voltage than were its electromechanical predecessors.
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 Residences, industrial customers are aware of minor disturbances in
the power system. There is big money associated with these
disturbances.
 In the semiconductor manufacturing industry, the economic impacts

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associated with equipment sensitivity to momentary voltage sags
resulted in the development of a whole new standard for equipment

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ride-through.

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 The electric utility is concerned about power quality issues to meet

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customer expectations and maintaining customer confidence.
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 Deregulation and competition between utilities, they are more
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important than ever.

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 Financial impacts on both utilities and industrial customers, there
are numerous indirect and intangible costs associated with power
quality problems.
 Residential customers typically do not suffer direct financial loss

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or the inability to earn income as a result of most power quality

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problems, but they can be a potent force when they perceive that

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the utility is providing poor service.

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The Power Quality Evaluation Procedure

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 1.3. General classes of power quality and
voltage quality problems
There are different classifications for power quality issues, each using a specific

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property to categorize the problem.

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Some of them classify the events as "steady-state" and "non-steady-state"
phenomena. In some regulations (e.g., ANSI C84.1 [22]) the most important

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factor is the duration of the event. Other guidelines (e.g., IEEE-519) use the

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wave shape (duration and magnitude) of each event to classify power quality

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problems. Other standards (e.g., IEC) use the frequency range of the event for
the classification.
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For example, IEC 61000-2-5 uses the frequency range and divides the
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problems into three main categories:

low frequency (<9 kHz),
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high frequency(>9 kHz),

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and electrostatic discharge phenomena. In

addition, each frequency range is divided into "radiated" and "conducted"
disturbances.
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 1.Transients

It can be classified into two

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categories,

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1.Impulsiveha
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2.Oscillatory
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Impulsive transient
 It is a sudden, non–power frequency
change in the steady-state condition

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of voltage, current, or both.

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It is unidirectional in polarity

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(primarily either positive or negative).
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Impulsive transients are normally
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characterized by their rise and decay

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times, which can also be revealed by

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their spectral content.

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For example,

1.2X50-μsec,2000-volt(V)

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

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impulsive transient nominally rises

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from zero to its peak value of 2000 V

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in 1.2μs and then decays to half its

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peak value in 50μs .
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The most common cause of impulsive

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transients is lightning.
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Oscillatory Transient

It is a sudden, non–power frequency

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change in the steady-state condition

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of voltage, current, or both.

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It includes both positive and
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negative polarity values.
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It consists of a voltage or current

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whose instantaneous value changes

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It is described by its spectral
content (predominate frequency),
duration, and magnitude.

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The spectral content subclasses

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defined are

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High
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Medium
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Low frequency
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HF: Primary Freq component > 500khz
mesd in MicroSec duration - Local
sys response to Impulsive Transient

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Med Freq: Primary Freq

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component 5-500khz mesd in MicroSec

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duration - Back-to-back capacitor

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energization
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Low Freq: Primary Freq component
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<5khz mesd in MicroSec duration 0.3

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to 50 ms - Cap Bank energization

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(T&D)
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1.Med.Oscillatory Transient
due to capacitor switching
due to Cable switching

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2.Low Freq Osc.transient due to capacitor bank
energization

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3.Low Freq Osc.transient due to ferroresonance in
Transformer

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Oscillatory transients with principal frequencies less than 300 Hz can also be
found on the distribution system.
These are generally associated with ferroresonance and transformer
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energization.
SHORT DURATION VARIATIONS
Each type of variation can be designated as,
1.Instantaneous,
2.Momentary,
3.Temporary, depending on its duration

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[interruptions, sag and swell are common for all].

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CAUSES

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1.Fault conditions

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2.The energization of large loads which require high
starting currents
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3.Intermittent loose connections in power wiring.
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Depending on the fault location and the system

conditions, the fault can cause either temporary voltage
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drops (sags), voltage rises (swells), or a complete loss of

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voltage (interruptions).

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Interruption
An interruption occurs when the supply

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voltage or load current decreases to less

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than 0.1 pu for a period of time not

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exceeding 1 min.

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Causes of Interruption
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result of power system faults
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
equipment failure and control system
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
malfunction
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INTERRUPTION – contd.,

The interruptions are measured by their duration

since the voltage magnitude is always less than 10
percent of nominal.

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The duration of an interruption due to a fault on

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the utility system is determined by the operating

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time of utility protective devices.

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Instantaneous reclosing generally will limit the
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interruption caused by a nonpermanent fault to less
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than 30 cycles.
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Delayed reclosing of the protective device may
cause a momentary or temporary interruption.

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The duration of an interruption due to equipment
malfunctions or loose connections can be irregular.

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Figure shows such a momentary interruption during

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which voltage on one phase sags to about 20 percent
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for about 3 cycles and then drops to zero for about
1.8 s until the recloser closes back in.
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Temporary interruption due to fault

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Sags (dips)

A sag is a decrease in rms voltage or current

between 0.1 to 0.9 pu at rated power frequency for

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durations from 0.5 cycle to 1 min.

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Causes of Voltage sags

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–Associated with system faults

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–Energization of heavy loads
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–Starting of large motors.
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•Sag durations are subdivided here into three

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categories such as,

•Instantaneous (0.5-30 Cycles)
•Momentary (30 Cycles-3sec)
•Temporary (3sec – 104
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Example:- voltage sag that can be associated with a
single- line-to-ground (SLG) fault on another feeder
from the same substation.

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Example:- Voltage sag due to large motor
starting. An induction motor will draw 6 to 10
times its full load current during start-up.

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•In this case, the voltage sags immediately to 80 percent and then gradually
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returns to normal in about 3 s.

• Note the difference in time frame between this and sags due to utility
system faults.
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Swells
•A swell is defined as an increase in rms voltage or
current from 1.1 to 1.8 pu at rated power frequency
for durations from 0.5 cycle to 1 min.

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•Swells are characterized by their magnitude (rms

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value) and duration.

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•Swell durations are subdivided here into three
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categories such as,
•Instantaneous (0.5-30 Cycles)
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•Momentary (30 Cycles-3sec)

•Temporary (3sec – 1 min)
ar
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Page 78 of 104
Causes of Voltage Swell

-Associated with system faults

–Energization of large Capacitor bank

.Y
–Switching off large load

dy
ed
–The severity of a voltage swell during a

R
va
fault condition is a function of
ha
ad
•Fault location
iM

•System impedance
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•Grounding
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Page 79 of 104
Voltage Swell due to Single line to Ground fault

.Y
dy
ed
R
va
ha
ad
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ar
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Page 80 of 104
Long-Duration Voltage Variations

Long-duration variations encompass

.Y
root-mean-square (rms) deviations at

dy
ed
power frequencies for longer than 1

R
min.

va
It can be
ha
ad
Overvoltages
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undervoltages.
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Sustained interruption
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Page 81 of 104
OVERVOLTAGE

Increase in the rms ac voltage greater than

110 percent at the power frequency for a
duration longer than 1 min.

.Y
dy
CAUSES

ed
1.load switching (e.g., switchingoff a large

R
load or energizing a capacitor bank)

va
2. Incorrect tap settings on transformers
ha
can also result in system overvoltages.
ad
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EFFECT
The overvoltages result because either the
ar

system is too weak for the desired voltage

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regulation or voltage controls are inadequate.

Page 82 of 104
Overvoltages and undervoltages
generally are not the result of system

.Y
faults, but are caused by load

dy
variations on the system and system

ed
R
switching operations.

va
ha
ad
Long-duration variations are typically
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displayed as plots of rms voltage

ar

versus time.
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Page 83 of 104
UNDERVOLTAGE

Decrease in the rms ac voltage to less than

90 percent at the power frequency for a
duration longer than 1 min.

.Y
dy
1.load switching (e.g., switching on a large
load or overloading)

ed
2. Due to fault on the lines

R
va
CAUSES
ha
1.A load switching on or a capacitor bank
ad
switching off can cause an under voltage
iM

until voltage regulation equipment on

the system can bring the voltage back
ar

to within tolerances.
H

2.Overloaded circuits can result in

undervoltages
Page 84 of 104
SUSTAINED INTERRUPTION

When the supply voltage has been zero for a period

of time in excess of 1 min, the long-duration voltage

.Y
variation is considered a sustained interruption.

dy
ed
This term has been defined to be more specific

R
regarding the absence of voltage for long periods.

va
CAUSES ha
ad
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1.Power system faults

ar

2.Equipment failures
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3.Control malfunctions

Page 85 of 104
Voltage Imbalance (voltage unbalance)
•Voltage imbalance (or unbalance) is defined as the ratio
of the negative or zero sequence component to the
positive sequence component.

.Y
dy
Source

ed
Generally result from unbalanced loads

R
•Single-phase loads on a three-phase circuit (<2%)

va
• Result of failure in any one phase of a three-phase
capacitor bank
ha
• Severe voltage unbalance (>5%) can result from single-
ad
phasing conditions
iM
ar
H

Page 86 of 104
Voltage Imbalance under
unbalanced load condition

.Y
dy
ed
R
va
ha
ad
iM
ar
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Page 87 of 104
Waveform Distortion
It is defined as a steady-state deviation from an
ideal sine wave of power frequency principally
characterized by the spectral content of the

.Y
deviation.

dy
ed
Five types of waveform distortion

R
va
–DC offset
–Harmonics ha
ad
iM

–Inter harmonics
ar

–Notching
H

–Noise
Page 88 of 104
DC offset
The presence of a dc voltage or current in an ac
power system is termed dc offset.

.Y
HARMONICS

dy
• Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or currents having

ed
frequencies that are integer multiples of the

R
frequency at which the supply system is designed to

va
operate.

•IEEE ha
Standard 519-1992 provides guidelines for
ad
harmonic current and voltage distortion levels on
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distribution and transmission circuits.

ar
H

Page 89 of 104
•Periodicallydistorted waveforms can be
decomposed into a sum of the fundamental
frequency and the harmonics.

.Y
dy
ed
•Harmonic distortion originates in the

R
nonlinear characteristics of devices and loads

va
on the power system.
ha
ad
iM

•Harmonic distortion levels are described by

ar

the complete harmonic spectrum with

H

magnitudes and phase angles of each individual

harmonic component. Page 90 of 104
•Total harmonic distortion (THD), as a measure of
the effective value of harmonic distortion.

.Y
•THD - used to characterize both current and

dy
voltage waves. However THD refers distortion in

ed
voltage wave

R
va
•Figure illustrates the waveform and harmonic
ha
spectrum for a typical adjustable-speed-drive(ASD)
ad
input current.
iM
ar
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Page 91 of 104
 H
ar
iM
ad
ha
va

Page 92 of 104
R
ed
dy
.Y
•Total Harmonic distortion (THD)
•IEEE 519 sets limits on total harmonic
distortion (THD) for the utility side of the

.Y
meter

dy
ed
•Utility is responsible for the voltage

R
distortion at the point of common coupling

va
ha
(PCC) between the utility and the end user.
ad
iM

•Total harmonic distortion is a way to

evaluate the voltage distortion effects of
ar
H

injecting harmonic currents into the utility’s

system.
Page 93 of 104
Total Harmonic distortion (THD) =
•(RMS of the harmonic content / RMS value of the
fundamental) * 100

.Y
•Total harmonic distortion (THD) is a term used to

dy
describe the net deviation of a nonlinear waveform

ed
from ideal sine waveform characteristics.

R
va
ha
ad
iM
ar
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Page 94 of 104
Example: Find the total harmonic distortion of
a voltage waveform with the following
harmonic frequency make up:

.Y
Fundamental = V1 = 114 V

dy
3rd harmonic = V3 = 4 V

ed
5th harmonic = V5 = 2 V

R
va
7th harmonic = V7 = 1.5 V
ha
9th harmonic = V9 = 1 V
ad
iM
ar
H

THD = (4.82/114) × 100 =4.23%

Page 95 of 104
Total Demand Distortion (TDD)
•IEEE 519 sets limits total demand distortion
(TDD) for the end-user side of the meter.

.Y
dy
•(RMS of the harmonic current / RMS value

ed
of Maximum Demand Load Current ) * 100

R
va
•Expressed as a
ha
percent of rated load
ad
current.
iM

•TDD deals with evaluating the current

ar
H

distortions caused by harmonic currents in the

end-user facilities.
Page 96 of 104
Total Demand Distortion (TDD)- contd.,

.Y
dy
ed
R
va
ha
ad
iM
ar
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Page 97 of 104
INTERHARMONICS
Voltages or currents having frequency components
that are non-integer multiples of the fundamental
frequency.

.Y
dy
ed
Sources of Interharmonic Waveform Distortion

R
•Static frequency converters

va
•Cycloconverters
ha
ad
•Induction furnaces
iM

•Arcing devices
ar
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Page 98 of 104
NOTCH
Notching is a periodic voltage disturbance caused by
the normal operation of power electronic devices
when current is commutated from one phase to

.Y
another

dy
ed
R
va
ha
ad
iM
ar
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Page 99 of 104
NOISE
Noise is defined as unwanted electrical signals with
broadband spectral content lower than 200 kHz
superimposed upon the power system voltage or

.Y
current in phase conductors, or found on neutral

dy
conductors or signal lines.

ed
SOURCES

R
va
Power electronic devices, Control circuits, Arcing
equipment, Loads with solid-state rectifiers, and
ha
Switching power supplies.
ad
iM
ar
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Page 100 of 104

VOLTAGE FLUCTUATION (VOLTAGE
FLICKER)

•Voltage fluctuations are systematic

.Y
variations of the voltage envelope or a series

dy
of random voltage changes, the magnitude of

ed
which does not normally exceed the voltage

R
ranges specified by ANSI C84.1 of 0.9 to

va
1.1 pu.
•SOURCE ha
ad
•Loads that can exhibit continuous, rapid
iM

variations in the load current magnitude can

ar

cause voltage variations that are often

H

referred to as flicker.
Page 101 of 104
 H
ar
iM
ad
ha
va

Page 102 of 104

R
ed
dy
.Y
Power Frequency Variations
Power frequency variations are defined as the
deviation of the power system fundamental frequency
from it specified nominal value.

.Y
dy
ed
R
va
ha
ad
iM
ar
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Page 103 of 104

HARI MADHAVA REDDY.Y
Short answer type Questions
DIY (Do It Yourself)

.Y
1. What is power quality?

dy
2. What are the power quality problems in AC systems?

ed
3. Why is power quality important?
4. What are the causes of power quality problems?

R
5. What are the effects of power quality problems?

va
6. What is a nonlinear load?

ha
7. What is voltage sag (dip)?
ad
8. What is voltage swell?
iM

9. What are the harmonics?

10. What are the interharmonics?
ar

11. What are the subharmonics?

H

17-11-2018 Page 104 of 104 61