TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING
PULCHOWK CAMPUS

A Report
ON
Inorganic Polymers, Lubricants and Paints.

Submitted To: Rameshwor Man Shrestha Sir

Submitted By: Paridhi Parajuli (073BCT525)

Submitted On: 2074-3-20

Acknowledgement

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my

teacher Rameshwor Man Shrestha who gave me the golden
opportunity to do this wonderful project on the topic “Environmental
Pollution Including Lubricants and paints, Engineering Polymers”, which
also helped me in doing a lot of research and I came to know about so
many new things I am really thankful to them.

Secondly I would also like to thank everyone who helped

me a lot in finalizing this project within the limited time frame.

-Paridhi Parajuli
073BCT525
Contents

1) Inorganic Polymers
INTRODUCTION
CLASSIFICATION OF INORGANIC POLYMERS
PREPARATION AND USES OF INORGANIC POLYMERS
1) Polyphosphazenes
2) Silicones
3) Sulphur Based Inorganic Polymers: Chalcogenide glass

2) Paints
INTRODUCTION
CHARACTERISTICS OF AN IDEAL PAINT
TYPES OF PAINTS
SPECIAL PAINTS
APPLICATION OF PAINTS

3) Lubricants
INTRODUCTION
FUNCTION OF LUBRICANTS
TYPES OF LUBRICANTS
 1) Inorganic Polymers
INTRODUCTION
Polymers are substances whose molecules have high molar masses and are composed of a large
number of repeating units. There are both naturally occurring and synthetic polymers. Among naturally
occurring polymers are proteins, starches, cellulose, and latex. Synthetic polymers are produced
commercially on a very large scale and have a wide range of properties and uses. The materials commonly
called plastics are all synthetic polymers.
Inorganic polymers are giant molecules composed of atoms other than carbon. These atoms are
linked together mainly by covalent bonds. Most of the inorganic polymers contain 2 different elements of
alternate structure. But side chain or radical group contains carbon atoms with other elements like phenyl
group, alkyl group etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF INORGANIC POLYMERS :

1) Polyphosphazene
2) Sulphur Based Polymer
3) Silicones

PREPARATION AND USES OF INORGANIC POLYMERS

1) Polyphosphazenes
Polyphosphazenes include a wide range of hybrid inorganic-organic polymers with a number of
different skeletal architectures that contain alternating phosphorus and nitrogen atoms. Nearly all of
these molecules contain two organic or organometallic side groups attached to each phosphorus atom.
These include linear polymers with the formula (N=PR1R2)n, where R1 and R2 are organic or organometallic
side groups. The linear polymers are the largest group, with the general structure shown schematically in
the picture. Other known architectures are cyclolinear and cyclomatrix polymers in which
small phosphazene rings are connected together by organic chain units.
The method of synthesis depends on the type of polyphosphazene. The most widely used method for linear
polymers is based on a two-step process. In the first step a cyclic small molecule phosphazene, known
as hexachlorocyclotriphosphazene, with the formula (NPCl2)3, is heated in a sealed system at 250 °C to
convert it to a long chain linear polymer with typically 15,000 or more repeating units. In the second step
the chlorine atoms linked to phosphorus in the polymer are replaced by organic groups through reactions
with alkoxides, aryloxides, amines or organometallic reagents. Because many different reagents can
participate in this macromolecular substitution reaction, and because two or more different reagents may be
used, a large number of different polymers can be produced, each with a different combination of
properties. Variations to this process are possible using poly(dichlorophosphazene) made by condensation
reactions.
Another synthetic process uses a living cationic polymerization that allows the formation of block
copolymers or comb, star, or dendritic architectures. Other synthetic methods include the condensation
reactions of organic-substituted phosphoranimines.
Cyclomatrix type polymers made by linking small molecule phosphazene rings together employ difunctional
organic reagents to replace the chlorine atoms in (NPCl2)3, or the introduction of allyl or vinyl substituents,
which are then polymerized by free-radical methods.[13] Such polymers may be useful as coatings
or thermosetting resins, often prized for their thermal stability.
The linear high polymers have the geometry shown in the picture. More than 700
different macromolecules that correspond to this structure are known with different side groups or
combinations of different side groups. In these polymers the properties are controlled partly by the high
flexibility of the backbone, its radiation resistance, high refractive index, ultraviolet and visible transparency,
and its fire resistance. However, the side groups exert an equal or even greater influence on the properties
since they impart properties such as hydrophobicity, hydrophilicity, color, useful biological properties such
as bioerodibility, or ion transport properties to the polymers. Representative examples of these polymers
are shown
below.
 2) Silicones

Silicones have alternate silicon-oxygen bonds and organic radicals attached to the silicon
atoms.
The monomers are prepared as
(i) RCl + Si CU> R2SiCl2
(ii) From Grignard reagent
SiCl4 + RMgCl > RSiCl3 + MgCl2
The monomer is obtained by fractional distillation of the reaction products whereby different organo-silicon
chlorides are obtained.
In the next step the chlorides are polymerized by hydrolysis involving the following steps—
= SiCl + H2O > = SiOH + HCl
= SiOH + HOSi = > = Si - O - Si = + H2O
Thus, the OH groups of Si are involved in polymerization hence when there is one or two —OH groups in
Si, it leads to long chain polymers but when there are three OH groups, crosslinked polymers are formed.
Reactions:
(i) 2RCl + Si C------> R2SiCl2
(ii) From Grignard reagent
SiCl4 + RMgCl -------> RSiCl3 + MgCl2
(iii) Me2SiCl2 --------- > Me2Si(OH)2

Structure of Silicone Polymers

HO. SiMe2- [OSiMe2 ] n_ OSiMe2OH
Silicone
Di-alkyl-di-chlorosilicane and alkyl trichloro silicone undergo hydrolysis and condensation polymerization to
give a cross-linked silicone polymer.
Complete condensation of all the —OH give rise to hard, insoluble product, thus a mixture of monomers
(containing one or more —OH groups) along with sufficient water for hydrolysis is heated for
polymerization.

Different Types of Silicones

Depending on the proportion of various alkyl silicon halides used the final silicones may be liquids, viscous
liquids, semi-solids and solids. Their properties and uses also differ accordingly.
(i) Silicone fluids. They are of relatively low molecular weight, sparkling clear fluids with an oily feel,
insoluble in water but soluble in aromatic and chlorinated solvents. They have good resistance to heat and
oxidation, low surface tension and show low change in viscosity with temperature.
Uses. They are used as autofoam agents, high temperature lubricants, in cosmetics, as damping and
hydraulic fluids and to give water repellant finish to textiles and leathers.
(ii) Silicone greases. These are formed from the oils by adding silica, carbon black etc. They are used as
lubricants particularly for very high and low temperature applications.
(iii) Silicone resins. They are highly cross-linked polymers, possess good insulating properties, heat
resistance and good dielectric properties.

Uses. Used for high voltage insulators, high temperature insulating foams, silicone- glass laminates for high
temperature application, for different electrical and electronic equipment parts manufacturing.

Silicone rubbers. Silicone rubbers are formed by reaction of dimethyl silicone fluid with peroxide and
appropriate inorganic fillers like TiO2, ZnO, SiO2 etc. They retain rubbery properties over a much wider
temperature span, good heat transfer properties, good resistance to dilute acids and alkalis. They are
flexible in wide range of temperatures.

Uses. For tyre manufacturing of fighter aircrafts, as insulators of electric wires in ship, as adhesives for
artificial heart valves, transfusion tubings, for special boots to be used at very low temperature, for making
lubricants, paints, protective coatings etc.

3) Sulphur Based Inorganic Polymers: Chalcogenide glass

Chalcogenide glass (hard "ch" as in "chemistry") is a glass containing one or
more chalcogens (sulfur, selenium and tellurium, but excluding oxygen). Such glasses
are covalently bonded materials and may be classified as covalent network solids. Polonium is also a
chalcogen but is not used because of its strong radioactivity. Chalcogenide materials behave rather
differently from oxides, in particular their lower band gaps contribute to very dissimilar optical and electrical
properties.
The classical chalcogenide glasses (mainly sulfur-based ones such as As-S or Ge-S) are strong glass-
formers and possess glasses within large concentration regions. Glass-forming abilities decrease with
increasing molar weight of constituent elements; i.e., S > Se > Te.
Chalcogenide compounds such as AgInSbTe and GeSbTe are used in rewritable optical disks and phase-
change memory devices -they are fragile glass-formers; by controlling heating and annealing (cooling), they
can be switched between an amorphous (glassy) and a crystalline state, thereby changing their optical and
electrical properties and allowing the storage of information.
Most stable binary chalcogenide glasses are compounds of a chalcogen and a group 14 or 15 element and
may be formed in a wide range of atomic ratios. Ternary glasses are also known.

Not all chalcogenide compositions exist in glassy form, though it is possible to find materials with which
these non-glass-forming compositions can be alloyed in order to form a glass. An example of this is gallium
sulphide-based glasses. Gallium(III) sulphide on its own is not a known glass former; however, with sodium
or lanthanum sulphides it forms a glass, gallium lanthanum sulphide (GLS).

Applications
A CD-RW (CD). Amorphous chalcogenide materials form the basis of re-writable CD and DVD solid-state
memory technology.
Uses include infrared detectors, mouldable infrared optics such as lenses, and infrared optical fibers, with
the main advantage being that these materials transmit across a wide range of the infrared electromagnetic
spectrum.
The physical properties of chalcogenide glasses (high refractive index, low phonon energy, high
nonlinearity) also make them ideal for incorporation into lasers, planar optics, photonic integrated circuits,
and other active devices especially if doped with rare-earth element ions. Some chalcogenide glasses
exhibit several non-linear optical effects such as photon-induced refraction, and electron-induced
permittivity modification
Some chalcogenide materials experience thermally driven amorphous-to-crystalline phase changes. This
makes them useful for encoding binary information on thin films of chalcogenides and forms the basis of
rewritable optical discs and non-volatile memory devices such as PRAM. Examples of such phase change
materials are GeSbTe and AgInSbTe. In optical discs, the phase change layer is usually sandwiched
between dielectric layers of ZnS-SiO2, sometimes with a layer of a crystallization promoting film.[citation
needed] Other less common such materials are InSe, SbSe, SbTe, InSbSe, InSbTe, GeSbSe, GeSbTeSe
and AgInSbSeTe.

Electrical switching in chalcogenide semiconductors emerged in the 1960s, when the amorphous
chalcogenide Te48As30Si12Ge10 was found to exhibit sharp, reversible transitions in electrical resistance
above a threshold voltage. If current is allowed to persist in the non-crystalline material, it heats up and
changes to crystalline form. This is equivalent to information being written on it. A crystalline region may be
melted by exposure to a brief, intense pulse of heat. Subsequent rapid cooling then sends the melted
region back through the glass transition.
 2) Paints
INTRODUCTION
A paint is a product formulated to protect and decorate mainly metallic and wooden surfaces. A paint has
three main ingredients.
• Pigments, which scatter and absorb light, so that the paint covers up the surface underneath and
decorates it with colour.
• Polymers, which hold the pigment to the surface by forming a smooth plastic film as the paint dries
and sets. In gloss paints the film forming polymers are alkyd resins; in emulsion paints they are
latex polymers.
• A vehicle, which is a liquid in which the other ingredients are dissolved or dispersed. In gloss paints
a vehicle is traditionally a hydrocarbon solvent. In emulsion paint it is water.

CHARACTERISTICS OF AN IDEAL PAINT :

• It should be chemically inert.
• It should be weather resistant.
• It should be non-toxic.
• It should have a suitable consistency which is generally determined by PVC.

TYPES OF PAINTS:
1) Varnishes
Varnishes are organic compounds used as protective coating similar to paints. But only difference is
that varnishes do not contain coloring substances, i.e., pigments.
Varnishes are classified under two heads:
• Oleoresinous varnishes and
• Spirit varnishes.
Oleoresinous varnishes are the solutions of one or more than one natural or synthetic resins in a
drying oil and a volatile solvent. While the spirit varnishes are solutions of resins in volatile solvents only,
generally methanol and ethanol. For the Oleoresinous varnishes the formation of the film is due to the
polymerization of the oil and in case of spirit varnishes the film formation is due to only solvent evaporation.
Oleoresinous varnishes are also classified as:
(i) ‘long oil’ varnishes have high proportions of drying oil
(ii) ‘short oil’ type contains a lower proportion of drying oil
‘Medium oil’ containing the proportion of drying oil intermediate between the two. The classification is based
on the use of drying oil in gallons per 100 lbs. of resin.

2) Lacquers
Lacquers are dispersion or solution of a film forming material (like-nitrocellulose), resins and
plasticizers in solvents and or diluents. The purpose of using of a lacquer is for protective and decorative
aspects. The lacquer dries from the surface on which it is applied by simple evaporation of the volatile
constituents, i.e., solvents.
 3) Enamels and Japans
Pigmented varnishes or lacquers are known as enamels. Japans are closely related to enamels.
Carbon black is added in deep black Japans.
Enamels are brushed or sprayed on the surface and finally hardened by baking. The deep black
Japans are based on boiled linseed oil and are made by cooking linseed oil with litharge at 230 oC for 5 hrs.
The product is called lead oil. This lead oil is mixed with kerosene (thinner) and asphaltum. These Japans
are applied and baked at 200 degree C for a few hours.

4) Emulsion paints
Emulsion paints are those paints in which water is used in place of organic solvents as thinner.
Emulsion paint is an emulsion of two phases viz.:
• Water and
• The vehicle of film forming material (a synthetic resin or latex).
The latex is dispersed in water by means of dispersing agent which acts as a binder. Pigments and
extenders are dispersed in such an emulsion. Emulsifying agent or surface active agents,
stabilisers, driers, antifoaming agents and preservatives are also added.
Advantages of an emulsion paint
• Emulsion paints can be applied on the surface of metal or wood very easily.
• Emulsion paints dry quickly.
• More durable and more impermeable to dust and dirt.
• They can be applied simply with a brush.
• The surface on which the emulsion paint is applied can be easily washed with water.
• They are free from fire risks.

5) Distempers
Distempers are water paints comprising pigments, extenders, binders, and water as a dispersing
medium. The distempers have:
(i) Good covering power
(ii) Ease of application
(iii) Durability
Disadvantage of distemper is that it is not moisture-proof.

SPECIAL PAINTS:

(i) Fire resistant paints

(ii) Chemical resistant paints
(iii) Luminous paints.
(iv) Marine paints.
(v) Emulsion paints or latex paints.
(vi) Metal paints.

APPLICATION OF PAINTS :
Paint can be applied as a solid, a gaseous suspension (aerosol) or a liquid. Techniques vary depending on
the practical or artistic results desired.
As a solid (usually used in industrial and automotive applications), the paint is applied as a very fine
powder, then baked at high temperature. This melts the powder and causes it to adhere to the surface. The
reasons for doing this involve the chemistries of the paint, the surface itself, and perhaps even the
chemistry of the substrate (the object being painted). This is called "powder coating" an object.
As a gas or as a gaseous suspension, the paint is suspended in solid or liquid form in a gas that is sprayed
on an object. The paint sticks to the object. This is called "spray painting" an object. The reasons for doing
this include:
 The application mechanism is air and thus no solid object touches the object being painted;
 The distribution of the paint is uniform, so there are no sharp lines;
 It is possible to deliver very small amounts of paint;
 A chemical (typically a solvent) can be sprayed along with the paint to dissolve together both the
delivered paint and the chemicals on the surface of the object being painted;
 Some chemical reactions in paint involve the orientation of the paint molecules.
In the liquid application, paint can be applied by direct application using brushes, paint rollers, blades,
scrapers, other instruments, or body parts such as fingers and thumbs.
 3) Lubricants
INTRODUCTION
A lubricant is a substance introduced to reduce friction between surfaces in mutual contact, which
ultimately reduces the heat generated when the surfaces move. It may also have the function of
transmitting forces, transporting foreign particles, or heating or cooling the surfaces. The property of
reducing friction is known as lubricity.
In addition to industrial applications, lubricants are used for many other purposes. Other uses
include cooking (oils and fats in use in frying pans, in baking to prevent food sticking), bio-
medical applications on humans (e.g. lubricants for artificial joints), ultrasound examination, medical
examinations, and the use of personal lubricant for sexual purposes.
FUNCTION OF LUBRICANTS
One of the single largest applications for lubricants, in the form of motor oil, is protecting the internal
combustion engines in motor vehicles and powered equipment.
1. Keep moving parts apart
Lubricants are typically used to separate moving parts in a system. This separation has the benefit of
reducing friction and surface fatigue, together with reduced heat generation, operating noise and vibrations.
2. Reduce friction
Typically the lubricant-to-surface friction is much less than surface-to-surface friction in a system without
any lubrication. Thus use of a lubricant reduces the overall system friction.
3. Transfer heat
Both gas and liquid lubricants can transfer heat. However, liquid lubricants are much more effective on
account of their high specific heat capacity. Typically the liquid lubricant is constantly circulated to and from
a cooler part of the system, although lubricants may be used to warm as well as to cool when a regulated
temperature is required.
4. Carry away contaminants and debris
Lubricant circulation systems have the benefit of carrying away internally generated debris and external
contaminants that get introduced into the system to a filter where they can be removed.
5. Transmit power
Lubricants known as hydraulic fluid are used as the working fluid in hydrostatic power transmission.
Hydraulic fluids comprise a large portion of all lubricants produced in the world. The automatic
transmission's torque converter is another important application for power transmission with lubricants.
6. Protect against wear
Lubricants prevent wear by keeping the moving parts apart. Lubricants may also contain anti-wear or
extreme pressure additives to boost their performance against wear and fatigue.
TYPES OF LUBRICANTS
Synthetic oils
Petroleum-derived lubricant can also be produced using synthetic hydrocarbons (derived ultimately from
petroleum).
Solid lubricants
1. PTFE: polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is typically used as a coating layer on, for example, cooking
utensils to provide a non-stick surface. Its usable temperature range up to 350 °C and chemical inertness
make it a useful additive in special greases. Under extreme pressures, PTFE powder or solids is of little
value as it is soft and flows away from the area of contact. Ceramic or metal or alloy lubricants must be
used then.[4]
2. Inorganic solids: Graphite, hexagonal boron nitride, molybdenum disulfide and tungsten disulfide are
examples of solid lubricants. Some retain their lubricity to very high temperatures. The use of some such
materials is sometimes restricted by their poor resistance to oxidation (e.g., molybdenum disulfide
degrades above 350 °C in air, but 1100 °C in reducing environments.
3. Metal/alloy: Metal alloys, composites and pure metals can be used as grease additives or the sole
constituents of sliding surfaces and bearings. Cadmium and Gold are used for plating surfaces which gives
them good corrosion resistance and sliding properties, Lead, Tin, Zinc alloys and various Bronze alloys are
used as sliding bearings, or their powder can be used to lubricate sliding surfaces alone.
Aqueous lubrication
Aqueous lubrication is of interest in a number of technological applications. Strongly hydrated brush
polymers such as PEG can serve as lubricants at liquid solid interfaces. By continuous rapid exchange of
bound water with other free water molecules, these polymer films keep the surfaces separated while
maintaining a high fluidity at the brush–brush interface at high compressions, thus leading to a very low
coefficient of friction.
Biolubricants
They are derived from vegetable oils and other renewable sources. They usually are triglyceride esters
(fats_ obtained from plants and animals. For lubricant base oil use the vegetable derived materials are
preferred. Common ones include high oleic canola oil, castor oil, palm oil, sunflower seed oil and rapeseed
oil from vegetable, and Tall oil from tree sources. Many vegetable oils are often hydrolyzed to yield the
acids which are subsequently combined selectively to form specialist synthetic esters. Other naturally
derived lubricants include lanolin (wool grease, a natural water repellent).