CHAPTER 3 (PART 2)

FM Transmitter
FM Receiver
Noise in FM: pre-emphasis and de-emphasis
Summary of FM spectrum
• Frequency spectrum consists of carrier component at fc and also

sideband at fc±nfm where n is an integer (n = 1,2,3,…)

• The number of sideband depends on index modulation value, m.

• Magnitude of carrier signal decreases as m increases.

• Amplitude of the frequency spectrum depends on value of Jn(m).

• The bandwidth of modulated signal increases when index modulation,

m increases. BW > 2∆fm is expected.

Introduction
• The FM transmitters and receivers are those devices
which is used for sending and receiving FM signal.

• The transmitters are those devices which is used to send

frequency modulated wave through a band.

• The receivers are the devices which received modulated

signal then after demodulation it gives us the original
signal.
 FM Transmitter
ANTENNA
NBFM WBFM

Crystal phase frequency

oscillator Power amplifier
modulator multiplier

Audio
source
More detailed block diagram
Description
• Crystal oscillator: Crystal oscillator generates the stable
carrier signal.
• Phase modulator: The phase modulator modulates the
carrier signal and the massage signal in the low power
range to generate a narrowband FM.
• Frequency multiplier: The frequency multiplier is used
to increase the frequency deviation and carrier signal
frequency to a desired level.
• Power amplifier: The power amplifier gives the required
power level to the signal which passes through the
antenna.
• Antenna: Antenna is a device which is used for sending
and receiving the information.
FM Receiver
RF IF De-
Discrimi
tuned mixer tuned limiter emphasi
nator
amp amp s
AFC

Vol. &
Delayed TONE
AGC control

Local
oscillator
Power
amp.
Another look at FM receiver
Description
• RF tuned amplifier: These amplifiers are used for
impedance matching to minimise noise level
• Mixers: These oscillator circuits are take any form to mix
up the frequency modulated signal for performing the
operation in such circuit central frequency are change but
deviation are constant
• Intermediate frequency amplifier: The IF amplifier
provides most of the gain and bandwidth requirement of
the receiver.
• Limiters: Limiters are those circuit which allows the
certain frequency range to pass out and block the other
signals
Description (cont)
• Discriminator: The discriminator change FM into AM. A
simple diode detection then recover the intelligence
contained in the envelop of the AM waveform.
• De-emphasis: The artificial boosting given to the higher
modulating frequencies in the process of pre-emphasis is
compensated at the receiver by the process of De-
emphasis
• Vol & tone controller: In this circuit it control the
efficiency of audio signal. The signal whose efficiency is
more than audible range are neglected in this circuit.
• Power amplifier: The power amplifier gives the required
power level to the signal which passes through the
loudspeaker.
Discriminator
• This technique is required to convert FM signal to AM
signal and then by using AM demodulation circuit is to get
back the information signal.
• This technique is called (slope detection) or discriminator.
• Block diagram of the detection circuit is as shown below:

d v FM t  Slope
vFM(t) y(t)
dt Detection

v FM t 
vFM(t) y(t)

t t
t
Frequency Modulators
• There are many circuits used to produce FM and PM
signals. There are two types of frequency modulator
circuits: direct circuits and phase modulation circuits.
• A frequency modulator is a circuit that varies carrier
frequency in accordance with the modulating signal.
• The carrier is generated by LC or crystal oscillator circuits.
Frequency modulators
Varactor diode

• Uses either:
• LC oscillator: the carrier frequency can be
changed by varying either the inductance or
capacitance.
• Crystal Oscillator: the frequency is fixed by
the crystal

Reactance Modulator

• uses a transistor amplifier that acts like either a

variable capacitor or an inductor.
Varactor Modulator
• A reverse-biased diode acts like a small
capacitor.
• The P- and N-type materials act as the
two plates of the capacitor.
• The depletion region acts as the
dielectric material.
• The width of the depletion layer
determines the width of the dielectric
and, therefore the amount of
capacitance.
• All diodes exhibit variable capacitance.
• Varactors are designed to optimize this
characteristic.
Direct Frequency Modulators
A direct-frequency-modulated carrier oscillator using a varactor diode.
Varactor Modulator
• In previous figure , the capacitance of varactor diode D1
and L1 form the parallel tuned circuit of the oscillator.
• The value of C1 is made very large so its reactance is
very low.
• C1 connects the tuned circuit to the oscillator and blocks
the dc bias on the base of Q1 from being shorted to
ground through L1.
• The values of L1 and D1 fix the center carrier frequency.
• The modulating signal varies the effective voltage
applied to D1 and its capacitance varies.
Varactor Modulator (cont)
• Most LC oscillators are not stable enough to provide a
carrier signal.
• The frequency of LC oscillators will vary with
temperature changes, variations in circuit voltage, and
other factors.
• As a result, crystal oscillators are normally used to set
carrier frequency.
Crystal Oscillator
• Crystal oscillators provide highly accurate carrier
frequencies and their stability is superior to LC
oscillators.
• The frequency of a crystal oscillator can be varied by
changing the value of capacitance in series or parallel
with the crystal.
• By making the series capacitance a varactor diode,
frequency modulation can be achieved.
• The modulating signal is applied to the varactor diode
which changes the oscillator frequency.
 Frequency-Modulating a Crystal Oscillator
Frequency modulation of a crystal oscillator with a varactor diode or
voltage variable capacitor (VVC)
Frequency-Modulating a Crystal Oscillator
• Varactors are made with a wide range of capacitance
values, most units having a nominal capacitance in the
1- to 200-pF range.
• A frequency multiplier circuit is one whose output
frequency is some integer multiple of the input
frequency.
• A frequency multiplier that multiplies a frequency by two
is called a doubler.
• A frequency multiplier that multiplies a frequency by
three is called a tripler.
• Frequency multipliers can also be cascaded.
Reactance Modulator
• A reactance modulator is a circuit that uses a
transistor amplifier that acts like either a variable
capacitor or an inductor.
• When the circuit is connected across the tuned circuit of
an oscillator, the oscillator frequency can be varied by
applying the modulating signal to the amplifier.
• Reactance modulators can produce frequency deviation
over a wide range.
• Reactance modulators are highly linear, so distortion is
minimal.
A Reactance Modulator
How frequency multipliers increase carrier
frequency and deviation
Example
 An FM station operates at 106.5 MHz with a maximum deviation of 75
KHz.
 The FM signal is generated by a reactance modulator that operates at
3.9444 MHz, with a maximum deviation of 2.7778 KHz.
 The resulting FM signal is fed multiplying the carrier frequency and
deviation 27 times.
 The final carrier frequency is 27x3.9444 = 106.5 MHz and the final
deviation is 27x2.7778 = 75 KHz.

It is important to remember that frequency multiplication multiplies both the

carrier frequency and the deviation.
Exercise 1
Antenna
∆f = 75k

Determine:
i. Maximum deviation at output modulator
ii. Modulation index if fm is 15kHz
iii. Modulation index at antenna
Solution
75𝑘𝐻𝑧
i. ∆f = = 4166.7Hz
18
4166.7𝐻𝑧 4166.7
ii. m= = = 0.2778
𝑓𝑚 15𝑘
iii. Modulation index at antenna, m = 0.2778 x 18 = 5
Frequency Demodulators

Slope Detector

Pulse-Averaging Discriminators

Quadrature Detector

Phase-Locked Loop Detector

Frequency Demodulators
• Any circuit that will convert a frequency variation in the
carrier back into a proportional voltage variation can be
used to demodulate or detect FM signals.
• Circuits used to recover the original modulating signal
from an FM transmission are called:
• Demodulators
• Detectors
• Discriminators
Slope Detector
• The slope detector makes use of a tuned circuit and a
diode detector to convert frequency variations into
voltage variations.
• The main difficulty with slope detectors lies in tuning
them.
Slope detector operation
Pulse-Averaging Discriminators
• A pulse-averaging discriminator uses a zero crossing
detector, a one shot multivibrator and a low-pass filter in
order to recover the original modulating signal.
• The pulse-averaging discriminator is a very high-quality
frequency demodulator.
• Originally this discriminator was limited to expensive
telemetry and industrial control applications.
• With availability of low-cost ICs, this discriminator is
used in many electronic products.
Pulse-averaging discriminator
Quadrature Detector
• The quadrature detector is probably the single most
widely used FM demodulator.
• The quadrature detector is primarily used in TV
demodulation.
• This detector is used in some FM radio stations.
• The quadrature detector uses a phase-shift circuit to
produce a phase shift of 90 degrees at the unmodulated
carrier frequency.
A quadrature FM detector
Phase-Locked Loops
• A phase-locked loop (PLL) is a frequency- or phase-
sensitive feedback control circuit used in frequency
demodulation, frequency synthesizers, and various
filtering and signal-detection applications. PLLs have
three basic elements. They are:
• Phase detector
• Low-pass filter
• Voltage-controlled oscillator
Block diagram of a PLL
Phase-Locked Loops
• The primary job of the phase detector is to compare the
two input signals and generate an output signal that,
when filtered, will control the voltage-controlled
oscillator (VCO).
• If there is a phase or frequency difference between the
FM input and VCO signals, the phase detector output
varies in proportion to the difference.
• The filtered output adjusts the VCO frequency in an
attempt to correct for the original frequency or phase
difference.
Phase-Locked Loops
• This dc control voltage, called the error signal, is also
the feedback in this circuit.
• When no input signal is applied, the phase detector and
low-pass filter outputs are zero.
• The VCO then operates at what is called the free-
running frequency, its normal operating frequency as
determined by internal frequency-determining
components.
Noise in FM
• Noise is interference generated by lightning, motors,
automotive ignition systems, and power line switching that
produces transient signals.
• Noise is typically narrow spikes of voltage with high
frequencies.
• Noise (voltage spikes) add to a signal and interfere with it.
• Some noise completely obliterates signal information.
Noise in FM
• FM signals have a constant modulated carrier amplitude.
• FM receivers contain limiter circuits that deliberately
restrict the amplitude of the received signal.
• Any amplitude variations occurring on the FM signal are
effectively clipped by limiter circuits.
• This amplitude clipping does not affect the information
content of the FM signal, since it is contained solely within
the frequency variations of the carrier.
An FM signal with noise
 Noise and Angle Modulation
• With FM, there is a non-uniform noise distribution.
• The higher frequencies suffers more noise than the lower frequencies.
• The situation become more complex due to the amplitude of the signal
at higher frequencies are smaller than at the lower frequencies.
• Thus for a information signal with uniform signal level, the Signal to
noise ratio is also non-uniform.
• The SNR for higher-modulating frequencies are lower than the SNR for
the lower frequencies.

fc
Uniform signal
level
S/N
minimum
S/N
Without
maximum preemphasis
Nonuniform
noise level
• Solution: the high-frequency modulating signals are
emphasized or boosted in amplitude of the transmitter prior
to performing modulation and then deemphasized or
attenuated during demodulation at receiver.
nonuniform signal
level

Uniform With
S/N
preemphasis
Nonuniform
noise level

• The combined effect of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis is to increase

the signal-to-noise ratio for the high-frequency components during
transmission so that they will be stronger and not masked by noise.
 44

Preemphasis & Deemphasis

fc
Uniform signal
level
S/N
minimum
S/N
Without
maximum preemphasis
Nonuniform
noise level

nonuniform signal
level

Uniform With
S/N
preemphasis
Nonuniform
noise level
PRE-EMPHASIS

• The amplitudes of higher frequencies components

of input signal are increased before it modulate the
carrier
• Therefore will be less affected to noise.
• Preemphasis Network –> High-Pass Filter
(Differentiator)

DE-EMPHASIS

• Deemphasis – returns the frequency response to

its normal flat level.
• Deemphasis Network -> Low-Pass Filter
(Integrator)
Pre-emphasis & De-emphasis
• Break frequency is the frequency when preemphasis &
deemphasis begins. It is defined as below:

fb = 1 / 2RC or
fb =1 / 2L/R

where RC or L/R is a time constant ()

• Preemphasis circuit network in front of FM Modulator and

Deemphasis network at the output of FM Demodulator will
improve the signal-to-noise ratio for higher modulating-
signal frequencies
Pre-emphasis & De-emphasis circuits

Pre-emphasis

De-emphasis
 FM Stereo
(a) FM STEREO TRANSMITTER

Two signals (0Hz –

15 kHz) are used

(b) SPECTRUM STEREO SIGNAL

FM Application
Radio broadcasting

Two way mobile radio

Microwave communication

TV sound transmission

Cellular radio communication

Satellite communication
 FM Radio Broadcasting
88MHz 20MHz FM Radio Broadcasting 108MHz

CH CH CH CH CH
1 2 3 99 100

fm = 50Hz – 15kHz
Channel 1 Channel 2
Δf = ±75kHz

25kHz Guard Band

mmin = (75kHz/15kHz) = 5
25kHz Guard Band

25kHz Guard Band

25kHz Guard Band

fc1=88.1MHz fc2=88.3MHz
mmax = (75kHz/50Hz) = 1500
BW for each channel
BW = 200kHz
150kHz 150kHz
(Δf=±75kHz) (Δf=±75kHz)

BW=200kHz BW=200kHz
 (c) FM STEREO RECEIVER

FM MONO

2L

2R

Receiver is able to separate this

signal to 'right' and 'left' and
subsequently amplified and remove
the two signals on separate speakers
 52

FM Stereo
IPOH, PERAK
KUALA LUMPUR MELAKA
DARUL RIDZUAN
103.3FM 90.3FM
103.7FM
SEREMBAN, NEGERI JOHOR BAHRU, DARUL
PULAU PINANG SEMBILAN DARUL TAKZIM
103.6FM KHUSUS / SINGAPURA
103.6FM 104.5FM

KOTA BAHRU, KUANTAN, PAHANG KUALA TERENGGANU,

KELANTAN DARUL MAKMUR TERENGGANU
103.3FM 98.0FM 102.8FM

KUCHING, SARAWAK KOTA KINABALU, SABAH TAIPING, PERAK

96.1FM 102.4FM 95.2FM
 FM Stereo Broadcasting
• The first is a normal audio signal made up of the Sum of the left and right
channels. This is the signal you hear on a Mono radio and is the same as
switching the Stereo/Mono Switch on an amplifier to "Mono'.

• In addition a difference signal (Left - Right) is generated and then used to

modulate a 38 Khz subcarrier using Double sideband suppressed carrier
(DSBSC) modulation. This is an AM modulation of the subcarrier.

• To keep the receiver decoder locked into the 38Khz subcarrier a 19 Khz
pilot tone (EXACTLY 1/2 of 38 Khz) is transmitted as well. The relative
percentage of modulation put into the pilot is 10%.
 54

FM Stereo Transmitter
FM Stereo Receiver
FM Stereo matrix decoder