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Notes on Lessons
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Class : VI semester B.E. Sub. EE2355 Design of Electrical Machines
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UNIT -1
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INTRODUCTION
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Flux (Φ) = (MMF/ Reluctance) , Wb ; Reluctance(S) = (l/aµ) , A/Wb ;
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Permeance = ( 1/S) , Wb/A ; where l = length of the flux path, m ;
Leakage Coeff. = total flux/useful flux; total flux = useful flux + leakage flux
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Kcs = Carter’s Coefficient for slots depends on the ratio of slot opening /airgap length or
the empirical relation is 1/ {1+ (5lg /Ws )}
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If ducts are provided on the stator and on the rotor, then Kcd should be based
on half the air gap.
Considering the effect of both slotting and ducts, Kg ( gap contraction factor) = Kgs Kgd
where Kgs ={ ys / ys l } and Kgd ={L /Ll }
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If slots are provided on both sides of the airgap, Kgs = Kgss Kgsr (ss and sr denoting stator
and rotor slots respectively).
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MMF for airgap = H Kg lg ={ B/ µo }Kg lg = 8,00,000 B Kg lg .
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Effect of Saliency : K f = Field form factor = Bave / Bg
= ψ = pole arc/pole pitch ;
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pole pitch = πD/P ; Bave = Φ /( πDL/P)
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i) the teeth are tapered when parallel sided slots are used and this results in variation in
the flux density over the depth of the tooth.
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ii) the slots provide another parallel path for the flux flow, the teeth are normally worked
in saturation and hence µr becomes low.
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Following methods are usually employed for the calculation of MMF required for the
tapered teeth:-
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Mean ord. is the mean ord. of “at” variation with tooth depth.
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λ=µo[(h1/3ws) + (h2/ws )+ {2h3/ws+wo)} + (h4/wo) ]
Concentric winding
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Total leakage reactance of the transformer referred to the primary =
Xp = 2πf µoTp2 (Lmt/Lc) {a+ (bp + bs)/3}
The per unit reactance can also be calculated as ε x = Ip Xp /Vp ; where Ip , and Vp are
rated phase current and voltage respectively.
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Sandwich winding:
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Xp = πf µo(Tp2 /n)(Lmt/w) {a+ (bp + bs)/6}
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5. Temperature rise calculations
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Q = Power loss(heat produced ), J/s or W
G = weight of the active material of the Machine, kg
h = specific heat, J/kg-◦C
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S = cooling surface area, m2
λ = specific heat dissipation, W/ m2 -◦C
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The temperature of the machine rises when it is supplying load. As the temperature
rises, the heat is dissipated partly by conduction, partly by radiation and in most cases
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largely by air cooling. The temperature rise curve is exponential in nature. Assuming the
theory of heating of homogeneous bodies ,
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Th=heating time constant (time taken by the machine to attain 0.632 times θm) = Gh/Sλ
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Tc = cooling time constant (time taken by the machine to fall to 0.368 times θi)
6. Rating of machines
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6. continuous duty with intermittent periodic loading
7. continuous duty with starting and braking
8. continuous duty with periodic speed changes
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7. Determination of motor rating
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From the point of calculation of motor rating, the various duty cycles listed earlier, can
be broadly classified as
i) Continuous duty ii) Fluctuating duty and iii) Short time and intermittent duty.
The motor carries a load much higher than the rated continuous load for a short time.
The time for which the motor may be allowed to carry the short time higher load is th =
Th log {ph/ (ph – 1) }
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where ph = θml / θm ; θml = final steady temperature that would be attained if the machine
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In most cases, the cooling electrical machines is carried out by air flow and this cooling
is called ventilation. In high speed machines such as turbo alternators, hydrogen is used
for cooling.
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i) (1/14) th density thereby the windage losses and noise reduced ii) 14 times specific
heat and 1.5 times heat transfer leading to improved cooling iii) 7 times thermal
conductivity resulting in reduced temperature gradient iv) reduced corona effect v)
will not support combustion so long as the hyd /air mixture exceeds 3/1.
In operation, the fans mounted on the rotor circulate hydrogen through the ventilating
ducts and internally mounted gas coolers. The required gas pressure is maintained by a
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regulator. The precaution to be observed is the stator frame must be gas tight and
explosion proof and oil film gas seals at the rotor shaft ends are essential.
Induced and Forced ventilation: In induced ventilation, the fan produces decreased air
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pressure inside of the machine, causing air to be sucked into
the machine under the external atmospheric pressure ; and in the forced ventilation, the
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air is forced into the fan by the fans mounted internally or externally.
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The ventilation can also be classified as i) Radial, ii) axial and iii) combined radial and
axial.
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9. Quantity of the cooling medium employed
Similar calculations can be made for the volume of hydrogen or air or oil used for
cooling the machine.
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UNIT II
DC MACHINES
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Iz = current in each conductor(Ia/A) , A
E = induced EMF, V
P = machine rating (power output),kW
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Pa = power developed by the armature, kW
Q = kVA rating of the machine
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Φ = flux per pole, Wb
τ = pole pitch (π D/p), m
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Total Electric loading = pΦ ; Total Magnetic loading = Iz Z
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Specific Electric loading = ac = Iz Z
(amp.conductor/m) πD bl
Specific magnetic loading = Bave = pΦ
(Wb/m2 ) π DL
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1. Output equation
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Pa = E Ia x 10 -3 = (p/A)(ΦZN/60) Iz A 10 -3
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Generator: Pa = (P/η) – (FW & Iron losses) ; Motor : Pa = P + (FW & Iron losses)
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Pa = P/ η (Generator)
=P (Motor)
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For small machines : FW & Iron losses can be taken as 1/3 rd of the total losses. So,
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i) B max in the iron part of the magnetic circuit:
B max ≤ maximum allowable density
i.e., Bt = Bave Ys /wt (non-salient pole machines); Ys = slot-pitch and wt = tooth width.
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Bt = 3 Bave : For example,if Bt is to be limited to 2.2 Wb/m2 ,
Bave should excced 2.2/3 = 0.73 Wb/m2.
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large Bave → high magnetizing current → large core loss
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3. Choice of specific electric loading (ac)
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i)Temperature rise(θ)
θ depends on Q (losses),which in turn depends on ac.
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Allowable θ depends on insulating material used.
In high voltage machines, the slot space factor, Sf is less and so only smaller ac can
be used. It also depends on the shape of the conductors, circular or rectangular in
cross section.
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The MMF required for the airgap = 50% of the armature MMF and gap
contraction factor = 1.1.
In the design process, choose p based on f& Ib and then calculate D and L
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5. Armature Design
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vi) slot pitch (ys = 25 to 35 mm) vii) slot loading (Iz Zs ≤ 1500 Amp-cond)
viii) suitability of the winding – doublelayer Lap or wave )
Slot dimensions:
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i) the slot area should accommodate the armature conductors and the required
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insulation depending on the operating voltage ii) Bt1/3 ≤ 2.1 Wb/m2 iii) deep slots
cause eddy current losses iv) slot opening should be narrow to reduce the flux
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pulsation and hence to reduce eddy current losses.
Area of each pole (Ap) = Flux in the pole body / Flux density = cl φ / Bp
where cl = leakage coefficient
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Height of the pole(hf) chosen based on the MMF to be provided by the pole at full-load.
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MMF per metre of the field winding = ATf/ hf = If Tf /hf = δf (af Tf )/ hf
= δf Sf hfdf/hf = δf Sf df = Sqrt {2 qf Sf df /ρ}
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i) The number of commutator segments is equal to the number of coils.
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iii)Peripheral speed of commutator = π DcN/60 ≤ 20 m/s
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iv) Pitch of the commutator segment = βc = π Dc/C ≥ 4.0 mm
(3.2 mm for the conducting portion and 0.8 mm for mica separator)
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v) Distance between brush spindles = π Dc/p (25 – 30 cm)
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vi) Length of the commutator = Lc = nb (wb + cb) + c1+ c2
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where nb = number of brushes per brush arm, wb = width of the brush, cb = clearance
between brushes , c1 = clearance for staggering (10–30 mm), c2 = clearance for end
ply (10-25 mm).
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= total brush contact area ; δb = current density in the brushes (≈0.1 A/mm2).
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nb is selected such that each brush does not carry more than about 70 A .
viii) The thickness of brush = (2-3) βc
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1.brush contact loss = Wbc = VbIa ; Vb = brush contact drop ≈ 1.0 V/brush
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2. Rotational losses :i) Friction &windage
ii)Iron loss a) Hysterises =Kh Bm1.6 f b) Eddy current loss =Ke Bm2 f2t2
For the calculation of copper losses , the total length and area cross section of each
of the windings should be first calculated.
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UNIT III
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TRANSFORMERS
1. Single-Phase Transformers
The window in a single-phase transformer contains one primary and one secondary
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winding. The total copper area in the window:
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= 2AT/ δ ; since TpIp = TsIs neglecting magnetizing current
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Aw = total window area ; Kw = window space factor = Ac / Aw
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Ac = Kw Aw = 2AT/ δ → AT = Kw Aw δ/2
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Rating in kVA = Q = Vp Ip x 10 -3 = Ep Ip x 10 -3 = Et ( Tp Ip )x 10 -3
2. Three-phase transformers
= 3.33 fΦm ( Kw Aw δ ) 10 -3
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_____ __________
E t = K √ kVA where K =√ 4.44 f r 10 3 ; r = Φm / AT
r is a constant for transformer of a given type ,service and method of connection, since
Φm determines the core section and AT fixes the total copper area.
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Copper loss/m3 = (ρl/a) (current)2 /(la) = (ρl/a) (aδ)2/la
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Wc = pcGc where Gc weight of copper , Kg
In addition to the above , we must add stray losses which may be 5 to 25 % of copper
loss.
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The total iron loss / Kg = specific iron loss (pi) can be found from the iron loss curves.
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Then the total iron loss = Wi = pi Gi
Where Gi = weight of iron . Ratio of Iron loss / copper loss = pi Gi / pcGc
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4. Design of the core
The core section of the core type transformer may be rectangular , square or stepped.
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Shell type transformers use cores with rectangular cross section. For the rectangular
core the ratio of depth to width 1.4 to 2.0.
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Square or stepped coreWhen circular coils are required for high voltage transformers ,
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square and stepped cores are used . Circular coils are preferred because of their superior
mechanical characteristics.
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As the size of the transformer increases, it becomes wasteful to use rectangular cores.
Square cores are used and the surrounding circle, representing the inner surface of the
tubular form carrying the windings, is called the circumscribing circle. Even now a lot of
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useful space is wasted and the length of the mean turn increases causing higher I2R
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losses.
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With larger transformers, cruciform cores, with better utilization of the space, are used. It
should be born in mind that two different types of laminations are used in cruciform
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cores. With still larger transformers, further step sizes are introduced to utilize the core
even more effectively. However, larger step sizes → larger number of lamination sizes →
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Assuming a stacking factor for iron = 0.9 , Net core area / area of circumscribing circle
= 0.637 for square core and = 0.710 for stepped core with a= 0.851d , b= 0.526 d ;
where d = diameter of the circumscribing circle.
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Bm determines the core area.
Higher Bm → smaller area → smaller Lmt → saving in the cost of iron and copper. But
higher Bm increases the iron loss and temp rise. For Distribution transformer Bm = 1.1 to
1.35 Wb/m2 . For Power transformer Bm = 1.25 to 1.45 Wb/m2 .
The area of conductors for the primary and secondary windings determined after
choosing a suitable value for δ which depends on the method of cooling.
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6. Types of Windings
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i) Cylindrical winding with circular conductors
ii) Crossover winding with circular or rectangular conductors
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iii) Continuous disc type winding with rectangular conductors
iv) Helical winding
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7. Design of insulation
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i) Electrical insulation: depends on the operating voltage
ii) Eddy current loss in the conductors and tank walls
iii) Mechanical considerations: high mechanical forces during fault
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iv) Thermal considerations: depends on cooling
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Materials : cotton thread, cotton tape, leatheriod paper, millinax paper etc.
8. Window dimensions
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For core type, the yoke section may be either rectangular or stepped. In rectangular yoke
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sections, depth of the yoke = depth of the core; when stepped cores are used
the core depth = width of the largest stamping; area rectangular yokes = Ay
= Dy Hy = a Hy
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For shell type : Dy = b ; Hy = a ; W = 2Ww+4a ; H = Hw + 2a
The phasor sum of the magnetizing current (Im) and the loss component of current (I l) ;
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Im is calculated using the MMF/m required for the core and yoke and their respective
length of flux path. Il is determined using the iron loss curve of the material used for the
core and yoke and the flux density employed and their weight.
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10. Temperature rise of transformers
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Losses dissipated in transformers in the core and windings get converted into thermal
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energy and cause heating of the corresponding transformer parts.The heat dissipation
occurs as follows: i) from the internal heated parts to the outer surface in contact with oil
by conduction ii) from oil to the tank walls by convection and iii) from the walls of the
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tank to the atmosphere by radiation and convection.
= λconv = 40.3 (θ /H) ¼ W/m2- oC ; = temp difference of the surface relative to the oil and
H = height of the dissipating surface.
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Experimentally found that a plain tank surface dissipates 6.0 W/m2-oC by radiation and
6.5 W/m2-oc by convection (.for a temp rise of 40 oC above an ambient temp of 20 oc).
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For small transformers , plain walled tank is enough to dissipate the losses. As the rating
of the transformer increases, the volume increases as he cube of the linier dimensions but
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the heat dissipating surface area increases only as square of the linier dimensions. So
above certain rating, plain tank becomes inadequate to dissipate losses and the area is
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increased by providing tubes. For larger ratings forced air cooling is used.
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If tubing is provided, the oil circulation is improved due to the head of the oil, and this
causes an additional dissipation by convection of about 35 % .
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= (12.5 St + 8.8 x St ) W/0C
The arrangement of the tubes on tank side walls should be made uniformly with a
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spacing of usually 75 mm. Examples of calculation of n t and the arrangement of the tubes
should be studied.
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UNIT IV
INDUCTION MOTORS
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1. Output Equation
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= 1.11 π2 Bave ac Kw x 10-3 D2L ns
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= 11 Bave ac Kw x 10-3 D2L ns = Co D2L ns
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Co = output coefficient , Q is calculated as ( hp x 0.746 )/(η cosΦ)
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2. Choice of Bave
i) Low Bave → large size machine for a given hp
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ii) high Bave → large magnetizing current → low power factor
iii) high Bave → high iron loss
iv) high Bave → high Φm→ less Tph→ low leakage reactance
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→ larger diameter for the circle diagram→ larger over load capacity
For 50 Hz motors Bave : 0.3 to 0.6 Wb/m2
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→ lower diameter for the circle diagram→ lower over load capacity
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It should be remembered that the Power factor (PF) and efficiency(η) of the motor at full
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load increases with the rating of the machine. Again η and Pf are higher for high speed
motors compared to low speed motors.
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The stator winding can be connected in star or delta. The motors meant for starting with
star- delta starter should be designed with delta connected stator winding.
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Stator slot –pitch = yss = π D/Ss where Ss =number of stator slots
Stator outer diameter Do = D + 2 dss + 2dcs
Where dss = stator slot depth and dcs = stator core depth
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After designing the main dimensions, the following calculations can be made:
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ii) Turns in series per phase, Tph = V/ (4.44f Φm Kw )
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iii) Number of slots per pole per phase can be suitably assumed
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iv) Slot pitch should not exceed about 24 mm
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v) Number of conductors per slot should be rounded off
xi) A suitable tooth flux density is assumed and tooth width is calculated
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xii) slot width = slot pitch- tooth width (at different diameters)
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xiii) The core flux(Φm/2) , core area and core depth are calculated
assuming a core flux density. Core depth = core area/ Li
xiv) The rotor bar and end rings are designed (sq.cage rotor)
xv) The rotor winding is designed similar to stator winding (wound rotor)
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i) stator copper loss ii) rotor copper loss iii) iron loss in the stator teeth and
core iv) friction and windage loss (1- 1.5 % of output)
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6. No-load current
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Magnetizing component = Im =(0.427 p ATtotal )/( Kws Tph )
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ATtotal = sum of the ampere turns for airgap ,stator tooth and core and rotor tooth and
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core.
No-load current = In = { Il 2 + Im 2 }1/2
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The leakage reactance calculations are made to find x1 , x2 and x01 .
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UNIT V
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
1. Construction
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either 2-pole or 4-pole. Slow speed alternators have salient pole rotor (water
wheel alternators) and they have more than 4 poles.
2. Output Equation
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= 11 Bave ac Kw x 10-3 D2L ns = Co D2L ns
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(see Unit -4 for derivation)
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D and L are separated using L/τ ratio or maximum specified peripheral
speed of the rotor.
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Damper winding is used for starting and damping rotor oscillations that occur during
sudden load changes.
iv) stability : Pmax =VE/Xs . Since high Bave gives low Tph and hence low Xl
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low Xs gives higher value for the synchronizing power leading stable parallel
operation of synchronous generators.
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i) Copper loss and temperature rise: High value of ac → higher copper loss
leading high temperature rise. So choice of depends on the cooling method used.
ii) Operating voltage : High voltage machines require large insulation and so the slot
space available for conductors is reduced. So a lower value for ac has to be chosen.
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iii) Synchronous reactance (Xs) : High value of ac results in high value of
Xs , and this leads to a) poor voltage regulation b) low steady state stability limit.
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Salient pole alternators : 20,000 – 40,000 A/m
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5. Short Circuit Ratio (SCR)
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SCR = Field current required to produce rated voltage on opencircuit
Field current required to produce rated current on short circuit
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= 1/ direct axis synchronous reactance = 1/Xd
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Thus SCR is the reciprocal of Xd , if Xd is defined in p.u.value for rated voltage and
rated current. But Xd for a given load is affected by saturation conditions that then
exists, while SCR is specific and univalued for a given machine.
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Non-salient pole alternators : 1- 1.5 ; Salient pole alternators : 0.5 – 0.7
iii) Short circuit current : A low SCR → high Xd →low short circuit
current. But short circuit current can be limited by other means not
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not be designed with small SCR as this would lead to large terminal
voltage on open circuit due to large capacitance currents.
Summarizing ,high value of SCR leads to i) high stability limit ii) low voltage
regulation iii) high short circuit current iv)large air gap
The present trend is to design machines with low value of SCR, this is due to the
recent development in fast acting control and excitation systems.
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6. Length of airgap
The length of air gap very much influences the performance of a synchronous
machine. A large airgap offers a large reluctance to the path of the flux produced by
the armature MMF and thus reduces the effct of armature reaction. Thus a machine
with large airgap has a small Xd and so has
i)small regulation ii) high stability limit iii) high synchronizing power which makes
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the machine less sensitive to load variations iv) better cooling at the gap surface v)
low magnetic noise and smaller unbalanced
magnetic pull.
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But as the airgap length increases, a large value of Field MMF is required resulting in
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increased cost of the machine.
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7. Number of stator slots
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Factors to be considered in the selection of number of slots :
1. Balanced 3-phase winding to be obtained
2. With large number of slots i)→large number of coils → increased
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labor cost ii) cooling is improved iii) tooth ripples are less iv) Flux
density in the iron increases due to decreased tooth width.
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i) Flux density in the pole core ii)Winding depth (df)iii) Leakage factor (pole flux/gap
flux) iv) Field winding space factor (Sf) v) Power dissipation (qf) in W/m2 v) The ratio
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of field MMF to armature MMF vi) Allow about 30 mm for insulation , flanges and
height of the pole shoe.
MMF per unit height of the winding = 104 Sqrt (Sf df qf )
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The process of design any electrical may be broadly divided into three major aspects: i)
Electrical design ii) Mechanical design iii) Thermal design. Even though, these
problems can be solved separately, there are many inter- related features.
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The advantages of computer aided design are : i) The computer can handle large
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volume of data to make a number of trial designs. And speed and accuracy of
calculations are very high. iii) It can be programmed to satisfying take logical decisions
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iv) An optimized design with least cost and the required performance can be easily
obtained.
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Generally any design method can be
i) analysis method ii) Synthesis method iii) Hybrid method
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In the analysis method of design , a preliminary design is made by the designer
regarding the machine dimensions, materials and other constructional features and
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these are given as input data to the computer and the performance quantities are
calculated. The designer examines the performance and accordingly alters the input
data and then feed them to the computer again. The computer calculates the new
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performance with the revised data. This process is repeated till the required
performance is achieved.
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In the synthesis method, the required performance values are also given to the
computer as input. The computer through an iterative process alters the dimensions till
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iv) Forming the objective function (OBJ)
v) Applying the minimization technique till the OBJ becomes with in the chosen
tolerance.
The independent variables which has a significant effect on the performance are
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stator core diameter, stator core length , stator core depth, stator slot depth, stator slot
width, rotor slot depth, rotor slot width, end ring depth, end ring width, . airgap length
and airgap flux density.
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The other variables in the design are either taken as constants dased on the voltage and
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power rating of the machine or they are in some way related to the above 11 variables.
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During the course of optimization when the variables undergo incrementing or
decrementing, they should also be constrained to be with in practical ranges. This is
obtained by variable transformation. For example for airgap Xact = X tran + Lg min ;
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where they respectively denote actual and transformed values and Lg min = minimum
airgap required.
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Performance Specifications:
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1. Starting torque 2. maximum torque 3. Full- load power factor 4. full -load efficiency
5. full load slip 6.tooth and core flux densities 7. starting current 8. temperature rise 9.
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Objective function
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The objective function is formed by comparing the specified and calculated values of
the performance quantities at each iteration. Objective function minimization can be
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It should be noted that the independent variables or the performance specifications vary
with the type of machine and its application.
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