BOILER

EFFICIENCY

Rajeev Kumar Jain

DGM (PMI)
9650997939
rkj_ntpc@rediffmail.com
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22 April 2013

Boiler Efficiency – Why is it important?

 Cost of boiler fuel is continues to rise.

Competition knows it is very important!!

BOSS wants lower costs!!!

Boiler Efficiency
Input Energy
Fuel

Output Energy
Process Steam
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 Coal / Ash / CO2 for 3000 MW station per day Basis:

3000 MW Station ( 500 MW X 6 = 3000 MW)

Station generation 72MU in a day
( 3000 X 100,000 X 24 = 72, 000, 000, 000 units)

Required coal flow = 54000 Ton coal/day

( 500 X 375 X 6 X 24 = 54000 Ton/day )

Total ash generated = 21000 Ton/day

(54000 X 0.39 = 21000 Ton/day)

59000 ton CO2/ day ( 54000 X 1.1 )

Cost of coal 1.2 / KWh approx.

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22 April 2013

Operation Performance parameters

• Heat rate (Kcal/KWh)

• Sp. Oil Consumption (ml/KWh)

• Aux. Power Consumption (%)

• Unit HR (Monthly) = ( Fuel cons. X Avg. CV) / Net

Energy Output

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 Example
• For 3000 MW Station ( 500 X 6 )

• Gross Generation = 72 X 30 = 2160 MU per month

• APC = 6%

• Sent Out = 2160 – 0.06X2160 = 2030 MU/Month

• HR = 2400 Kcal/KWh

• CV = 3200 Kcal/Kg

• Coal 1.62 Million Ton

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22 April 2013

Impact of development in
performance parameters
• Gross Generation = 72 X 30 = 2160 MU per month

• Coal 1.62 X 106 Ton ( Rs 2268 X 106 )

• HR 2400 Kcal/KWh, CvV3200 Kcal/Kg

• If HR is 2410 Kcal/KWh, Coal required = 1.627 X 106

Tons

• New amount Rs 2277 X 106 (Rs 9.45 X 106 Increased)

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  A thermal power station consists of

◦ Boiler : converts chemical to heat energy.

◦ Turbine : Converts heat to mechanical energy
◦ Generator : Converts mechanical to electrical energy
◦ Auxiliaries : Electrical to mechanical energy

 Any energy conversion associated with some amount

of energy loss.
 This loss may be in the form of friction, heat etc.

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Power Station Efficiency

•Efficiency = Output / Input

•Efficiency = Power generated in KWH/Heat Input

in Kcal
•1 KWh = 860 Kcal
• Efficiency (%) = Power generated in KWH*860*
100 / Heat Input in Kcal

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  Most common term used for indicating Power Station
efficiency

 Defined : Heat required in Kcal to generate one KWH of Power

 Heat rate = Heat input in Kcal / Power output in KWH

Efficiency and Heat Rate

• Efficiency (%) = Power generated in KWH*860* 100 /

Heat Input in Kcal

= 860*100/Heat rate

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 Common terms used
Boiler efficiency = Heat output from Boiler*100/ Heat
input to Boiler
Turbine cycle Heat rate = Heat input to Turbine cycle/
Power generated
Unit Heat rate = Heat input to Boiler / Power output from Unit
= Turbine cycle Heat rate*100/ Boiler efficiency

• Unit Heat rate is often referred to as Gross Unit Heat rate

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22 April 2013

Net Turbine cycle Heat rate =

Heat input to Turbine cycle/ net Power delivered

Net Unit Heat rate =

Net Turbine cycle Heat rate*100/ Boiler efficiency

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 Typical Plant Losses
Cycle
Boiler
56% (49%)
13%
Unit
Auxiliaries

8%(3%)

100%
Heat
input 87% Net
38%
35% electric
output

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22 April 2013

• Boiler performance
• Causes of poor boiler performance
-Poor combustion
-Heat transfer surface fouling
-Poor operation and maintenance
-Deteriorating fuel and water quality

• Heat balance: identify heat losses

• Boiler efficiency: determine deviation
from best efficiency

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 Heat Balance
An energy flow diagram describes
geographically how energy is transformed
from fuel into useful energy, heat and losses
Stochiometric
Excess Air
Un burnt

Stack Gas

FUEL INPUT
STEAM
OUTPUT

Convection & Blow Ash and Un-burnt parts of

Radiation Down Fuel in Ash

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  A boiler generally encounters following
losses.

◦ Exit loss or dry flue gas loss.

◦ Wet flue gas loss
◦ Moisture in combustion air
◦ Unburnt gas loss
◦ Combustible in ash
◦ Radiation and un accounted loss.

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 Standards: ASME PTC 4/ BS 2885/ IS 8753/ DIN

standards
 ASME PTC 4.1: Fired Steam Generators
 ASME PTC 4.2: Coal Pulverizers
 ASME PTC 4.3: Air Heaters
 Applicable for Boilers fired with Oil, Gas, Solid Fuels
 Two methods Used: Direct Method & Indirect Methods
 Applicable for Super & Sub Critical Boilers
 •Standard Applied :- ASME Standard PTC 4.1
◦ Calculation Method :- Loss Method
◦ Losses calculated as percentage of INPUT as 100%

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 Steam
Out Put

Radiation
Loss

Second
Pass
Heat
ESP
Input
Furnace

Heat Input is Pulverised Coal

Heat Output is Superheated Steam

Secon
d Pass
Heat Furna
Input ce ESP

1) Loss due to dry flue gas = 4.928%

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 Secon
d Pass
Heat
Input Furna
ESP

ce

2) Loss due to Unburnt Carbon = 0.331%

Secon
Heat d Pass
Input ESP

Furna
ce

3) Due to Sen. Heat of Bottom Ash = 0.071%

4) Due to Sen. Heat of Fly Ash = 0.102%

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 Secon
Heat d Pass
Input ESP

Furna
ce

5) Radiation Losses = 0.200%

6) Loss due to moisture in Fuel = 1.263%

7) Loss due to Hydrogen in Fuel = 5.537
8) Loss due to Moisture in Air = 0.074%
9) Unaccounted Losses = 1.327%

Total Losses = 13.83%

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 Typical Boiler Losses
Boiler Losses Typical values (%)

Dry Gas Loss 4.928

Un-burnt Loss 0.331
Sensible Heat of Bottom Ash 0.071
Sensible heat of Fly Ash 0.102
Moisture in Fuel Loss 1.263
Hydrogen in Fuel Loss 5.537
Moisture in Air Loss 0.074
Radiation Loss 0.200
Unaccounted Loss 1.327

Total Losses 13.83

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22 April 2013

Heat Balance
Goal: improve energy efficiency by reducing
avoidable losses

Avoidable losses include:

- Stack gas losses (excess air, stack gas
temperature)
- Losses by unburnt fuel
- Blow down losses
- Condensate losses
- Convection and radiation
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 Boiler Efficiency
Thermal efficiency: % of (heat) energy input that
is effectively useful in the generated steam

BOILER EFFICENCY
CALCULATION

1) DIRECT METHOD: 2) INDIRECT METHOD:

The energy gain of the The efficiency is the
working fluid (water and steam) different between
is compared with the energy losses
content of the boiler fuel. and energy input

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 Direct
◦ Loss = Input energy – Output energy.
◦ In case of Boiler, input energy is fuel, and measurement
of fuel with available technology/limitation is a major
source of error.

 Indirect
◦ Input = Losses + Output.
◦ Error in loss measurement with available technique is
less. Therefore this method is used world wide.

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 Flue
Gas

Fuel Input 100%

Boiler
+ Air

Efficiency = Heat addition to Steam x 100

Gross Heat in Fuel

Steam flow rate x (steam enthalpy  feed water enthalpy)

Boiler Efficiency  x 100
Fuel firing rate x Gross calorific value

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22 April 2013

Boiler Efficiency: Direct Method

Heat Output x 100 Q x (hg – hf) x 100
Boiler efficiency () = =
Heat Input Q x GCV

hg -the enthalpy of saturated steam in kcal/kg of steam

hf -the enthalpy of feed water in kcal/kg of water

Parameters to be monitored:
- Quantity of steam generated per hour (Q) in kg/hr
- Quantity of fuel used per hour (q) in kg/hr
- The working pressure (in kg/cm2(g)) and superheat
temperature (oC), if any
- The temperature of feed water (oC)
- Type of fuel and gross calorific value of the fuel
(GCV) in kcal/kg of fuel

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 Boiler Efficiency: Direct Method

Advantages
• Quick evaluation
• Few parameters for computation
• Few monitoring instruments
• Easy to compare evaporation ratios with
benchmark figures
Disadvantages
• No explanation of low efficiency
• Various losses not calculated

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Steam Output
1. Dry Flue gas loss
2. H2 loss
6. Surface loss 3. Moisture in fuel
4. Moisture in air
5. CO loss

7. Fly ash loss

Fuel Input, 100%
Boiler Flue gas sample

Air
Water

8. Bottom ash loss

Blow down

Efficiency = 100 – (1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8) (by Indirect Method)

PMI Revision 00
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 Boiler Efficiency: Indirect Method

Efficiency of boiler () = 100 – (i+ii+iii+iv+v+vi+vii)

Principle losses:
i) Dry flue gas
ii) Evaporation of water formed due to H2 in fuel
iii) Evaporation of moisture in fuel
iv) Moisture present in combustion air
v) Unburnt fuel in fly ash
vi) Unburnt fuel in bottom ash
vii) Radiation and other unaccounted losses
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Boiler Efficiency: Indirect Method

Required calculation data
• Ultimate analysis of fuel (H2, O2, S, C, moisture
content, ash content)
• % oxygen or CO2 in the flue gas
• Fuel gas temperature in ◦C (Tf)
• Ambient temperature in ◦C (Ta) and humidity of air
in kg/kg of dry air
• GCV of fuel in kcal/kg
• % combustible in ash (in case of solid fuels)
• GCV of ash in kcal/kg (in case of solid fuels)
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 Boiler Efficiency: Indirect Method

Advantages
• Complete mass and energy balance for
each individual stream
• Makes it easier to identify options to
improve boiler efficiency

Disadvantages
• Time consuming
• Requires lab facilities for analysis

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 Fuel burns in the combustion chamber at very high

temperature. The produced flue gas exchange heat to super
heaters, economizer, air pre heaters and finally comes out
at a temperature of about 140 deg C. This is in order to
strike a balance between economy of heat exchange as
well as to avoid cold end corrosion.
 The exit flue gas contains mixture of CO2, O2, N2 & CO all at
exit temperature and thrown to atmosphere at about 140
deg C.
 This resulting a huge heat energy loss.
 Let us calculate the losses.

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 Exit loss or dry flue gas loss
This is the heat carried away by flue gas at AH outlet

• It’s a function of flue gas quantity and the

temperature difference between air heater exit gas
temperature and FD fan inlet air temperature
• Typically 20 C increase in exit gas temperature ~
1% reduction in boiler efficiency.
Sensible Heat of flue gas (Sh)
Sh = Mass of dry flue gas X Sp. Heat X (Tfg – Tair)
Dry Flue Gas Loss % = (Sh / GCV of Fuel) * 100

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22 April 2013

 The fuel contains inherent moisture and hydrogen.

 Combustion of hydrogen produce water.
 The wet flue gas loss is due to heat absorption by this
moisture/ water for vaporization.

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  The ambient air contains moisture.
 This moisture also carries away latent and
sensible heat from the system

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 Though excess air is administered in the combustion

chamber, due to non homogeneous mixture in
combustion space, CO gets produce and goes out at
exit, taking away the useful heat value of the gas.

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  The retention time of a coal particle inside the
combustion chamber is in the order of 3 sec.
 If the particle size is bigger, or the combustion
atmosphere is having shortage of oxygen it does not
burnt completely and drops down with ash particle.
 Similarly smaller un burnt particle carries away with fly
ash.

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 Radiation loss varies with boiler size and load.

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 Heat Loss in the Boiler %=
 Dry Flue gas losses ( Sensible heat + Un-burnt
CO)
 Loss due to Hydrogen & Moisture in the flue gases
 Loss due to moisture in Air
 Un-burnt Carbon losses (Fly ash & Bottom Ash)
 Radiation & Convection losses from the boiler
surface
 Total Losses = Sum of all above losses

Boiler Efficiency = 100- Total Losses

 Ultimate analysis of Fuel (C, H, O, N, S, H20, Ash)

 GCV of Fuel KCAL/KG
 O2 in flue gas (% by Vol.)
 CO in flue gas (% by Vol.)
 Flue gas temp. oC Tg
 Ambient Temp, Humidity in air
 Combustibles (un-burnt) in fly ash & Bottom Ash
 Measurement of Press. Temp. flow should be done
at multiple points in the duct

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  Theoretical air required =
◦ 4.31[8/3 C + 8(H – O2/8) + S] Kg/ 100 Kg fuel
 Excess air = Theoretical CO2 % / Actual CO2 % - 1
 = O2 % X 100 / (21 – O2 %)
 Theoretical CO2 for
◦ Natural gas 11.7 %
◦ Fuel oil 15.3 %
◦ Bituminous coal 18.6 %
 Actual air x actual CO2 % = Th. Air x Th. CO2 %

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22 April 2013

 Actual combustion air quantity/kg of fuel,

 Ma = (1+EA/100) X At
 EA = Excess air (%)= O2% X 100/ (21-O2%)
 At= 11.51C+34.30(H-o/7.937)+ 4.335 S

 Heat loss due to heat in dry flue gas % Lfg=

 =Mfg X Cpg X (Tg-Ta) X 100 /GCV

 Mfg, quantity of dry flue gas (Kg/Kg of fuel)=

 {(44.01XCO2+28.01XCO+32XO+28.02XN)}X
{C+12.01XS/32.07}/ {12.01X(CO2+CO)}

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 CO2% = {(max CO2/100) X (100-
4.78XO2+1.89XCO)-CO}

 Where maximum possible CO2 % in flue gas by

volume
 Max CO2(%) = (31.3X C + 11.5 X S) X (1.504 X C +
3.55 X H + 0.56 X S + 0.13 X N – 0.45 X O )

 W AL, % leakage =
{(O2 in gas leaving the heater - % O2 in gas
entering the heater) / ( 21- %O2 in gas leaving the
heater)} X 90

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 Optimization of
Boiler total air

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22 April 2013

 Efficient operation of boiler depends on

optimisation of CO2 and O2
 This involved elimination of source of air
ingress.
 As different losses of boiler is affected by
variation of air, the optimum value is
determined by plotting the total loss and
thereby determining CO2 and O2.

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  Theoretical air required =
 4.31[8/3 C + 8(H – O2/8) + S] Kg/ 100 Kg
fuel
 Excess air = Theoretical CO2 % / Actual CO2 % - 1
 = O2 % X 100 / (21 – O2 %)
 Theoretical CO2 for
◦ Natural gas 11.7 %
◦ Fuel oil 15.3 %
◦ Bituminous coal 18.6 %
 Actual air x actual CO2 % = Th. Air x Th. CO2 %

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Boiler Air Ingress

• Cold air leaks into the boiler from openings in the furnace
and convective pass and through open observation doors.
• Some of the boiler leakage air aids the combustion
process; some air that leaks into the boiler in the low
temperature zones causes only a dilution of the flue gas.
• This portion of air appears as a difference in O2 level
between the furnace exit and oxygen analysers at
economizer exit. Actual oxygen in the furnace could be
much less.
• Also, boiler casing and ducting air ingress affects ID fans’
power consumption and margins in a major way.

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 Air Ingress Points – Furnace Roof , Expansion
joints, Air heaters, Ducts, ESP Hoppers, Peep
Holes, Manholes, Furnace Bottom
Air-in-
leakage

Furnace
Outlet
Zirconia
O2 Probe
Expansion Joints

AH ESP
Seal
Lkg

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22 April 2013

Air Ingress Calculations

Air ingress quantification is done with the same formulae as those
used for calculation of AH leakage

Air ingress = O2out - O2in * 0.9 * 100

(21- O2out)

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 PMI Revision 00
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