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POINTERS TO REVIEW
Based on PRC Board Resolution no 10 series of 2013

MODULE 5 BLUEPRINT (17.5%)

PharmacistLicensure
Pharmacist Licensure Examination
Examination NO. OF EASY
NO. OF NO. OF
PHARMACEUTICS NO. OF ITEMS MODERATE DIFFICULT

PHYSICAL PHARMACY
PHARMACY
ITEMS

PHYSICAL
ITEMS ITEMS

Pharmaceutical
29 12 12 5
Manufacturing
Daryl E. Magno, RPh
Pharmaceutical Dosage
UP College of Pharmacy Forms
29 12 12 5

Physical Pharmacy 25 10 10 5

Jurisprudence and Ethics 17 6 6 5

POINTERS TO REVIEW
Based on PRC Board Resolution no 10 series of 2013

MODULE 5 BLUEPRINT (17.5%)

NO. OF NO. OF
NO. OF EASY
PHARMACEUTICS

Pharmaceutical
NO. OF ITEMS
ITEMS
MODERATE
ITEMS
DIFFICULT
ITEMS
INTRODUCTION
25 10 10 5
Manufacturing

TOPICS NO. OF ITEMS

Physical Pharmacy Principle 3

Solubility and Distribution Phenomena, Buffer and Isotonic

3 (each)
Solutions, Interfacial Phenomena, Micrometics

Colloids, Coarse Dispersion, Rheology, Complexation and

2 (each)
Protein Binding, Kinetics

WHAT IS PHYSICAL PHARMACY? DEFINITION OF TERMS

- Physical pharmacy integrates knowledge of mathematics,
Atom
physics and chemistry and applies them to the
- Atoms are the smallest particle into which an
pharmaceutical dosage form development element can be divided
- Basic unit of an element
- Physical pharmacy is the study of the physical and Molecule
chemical properties of drugs and their dosage forms - One or more atoms joined together by chemical
bonds
- Physical pharmacy is the application of physical chemical - Smallest unit of a compound that has the physical
principles to various aspects of pharmacy and chemical properties of that compound

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DEFINITION OF TERMS DEFINITION OF TERMS

Electron

C
O H - A particle which has a negative charge
Proton
- A particle which has a positive charge
Neutron
ATOM of CARBON H - A particle with no charge
Nucleus
MOLECULE of WATER - At the center of the atom containing both protons
and neutrons

DEFINITION OF TERMS DEFINITION OF TERMS

Nucleon Isotopes
- Collective term for protons and neutrons - Atoms of the same element with the same number
Atomic Number of protons, but differing numbers of neutrons
- Number of protons Example:
Mass Number
ATOMIC MASS NUMBER OF
ISOTOPE FORMULA
- Number of protons and neutrons NUMBER NUMBER NEUTRONS
Protium 1
- Nucleon number 1H 1 1 0
Deuterium 2 (D)
Orbital 1H 1 2 1
Tritium 3
- A region within the atom in which electrons have the 1H (T) 1 3 2
highest probability of being found

DEFINITION OF TERMS DEFINITION OF TERMS

Isotones Isobars
- Atoms belonging to different elements having the - Atoms belonging to different elements with the same
same number of neutrons mass numbers but different atomic numbers
Example: Carbon and Nitrogen have the same number Example: Calcium and Argon both have the same mass
of neutrons (7) numbers (40)
13 14 40 40
6C and 7N 20Ca 18Ar

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CHECKPOINT

1. Study of the physical and chemical properties of 3. Example of an atom.

drugs and their dosage forms. a. Carbon Dioxide
a. Pharmacokinetics b. Nitric Acid
b. Pharmacotherapeutics c. Sulfur
c. Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms d. All of the above
d. Physical Pharmacy
4. Atoms of the same element with the same number
2. One or more atoms joined together by chemical of protons, but differing numbers of neutrons
bonds. a. Isotopes
a. Atom b. Isotones
b. Molecule c. Isobars
c. Both A and B d. None of the above
d. None of the above

5. Number of protons
a. Atomic Number
b. Mass Number
c. Molecular Weight
d. Atomic Weight
FORCES OF ATTRACTION
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
TYPES OF PROPERTIES

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FORCES OF ATTRACTION
INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES
 Forces that hold atoms together within a molecule
FORCES OF ATTRACTION

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
 Forces that exist between molecules

FORCES OF ATTRACTION
INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES
1. Ionic bond
2. Covalent bond
3. Metallic bond
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
1. Dipole-dipole
2. London forces
3. Hydrogen bond
*Photo grabbed from www.khanacademy.org

FORCES OF ATTRACTION FORCES OF ATTRACTION

INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES
1. Ionic bond 2. Covalent bond
 Electrostatic attraction between ions that have  Bond is formed between atoms that have
opposite charges similar electronegativities—the affinity or
 Between metals and nonmetals desire for electrons
 Complete transfer of valence electron(s)  Sharing of electrons in order to achieve octet
between atoms configuration
 2 types of Covalent bond:
i). Nonpolar
ii) Polar

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FORCES OF ATTRACTION FORCES OF ATTRACTION

INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES
2. Covalent bond 2. Covalent bond
 Nonpolar- the difference in electronegativity  Polar- the difference in electronegativity
between bonded atoms is less than 0.5 between bonded atoms is between 0.5 and 1.9

FORCES OF ATTRACTION FORCES OF ATTRACTION

INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
3. Metallic bond 1. Van der Waals Forces
 Bond exists only in metals  Weakest of the intermolecular forces and exist
 Valence electrons are free to move through the lattice between all types of molecules
 The electrons act as a "glue" giving the substance a TYPE DESCRIPTION OTHER TERM
definite structure
KEESOM Dipole-dipole Orientation forces

DEBYE Dipole-induced Induction forces

dipole
LONDON Induced dipole- Dispersion forces
induced dipole

FORCES OF ATTRACTION FORCES OF ATTRACTION

INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES
A. Keesom B. Debye

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FORCES OF ATTRACTION FORCES OF ATTRACTION

INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES
C. London Forces 2. Hydrogen bonding
 Special kind of dipole-dipole interaction that
occurs specifically between a hydrogen atom
bonded to either an oxygen, nitrogen, or
fluorine atom

FORCES OF ATTRACTION FORCES OF ATTRACTION

INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES
3. Ion-dipole 4. Ion-induced dipole
 Electrostatic attraction between an ion and a  Ion induces a dipole in an atom or a molecule
neutral molecule that has a dipole with no dipole

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
1. Additive Property
 Depends on the sum of the individual properties of the
components present in a system
 Ex. Molecular weight

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 2. Constitutive Property

 Depends on the type and arrangement of the
components present in a system
 Ex. Optical activity
3. Colligative Property
 Depends on the number of components present in a
system
 Ex. Boiling point elevation

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TYPES OF PROPERTIES
 Extensive Property
- Depends on the size or the amount of material
- Ex. mass, length, volume
 Intensive Property
- Does not depend on the size or amount of
material
TYPES OF PROPERTIES - Ratio of two extensive properties
- Ex. Density, specific gravity

Density Density
 Measure of mass per unit of volume  Two types:
 unit: g/mL 1. Bulk Density
 Two types: Measure of interparticulate interactions
1. Bulk Density Index of the ability of the powder to flow
2. Tapped Density
Determined by measuring the volume of a known
mass of powder sample that has been passed
through a
• Graduated cylinder (Method I)
• Volumeter (Method II)

Density Density
 Two types:  Measure of mass per unit of volume
2. Tapped Density  unit: g/mL
 achieved by mechanically tapping a measuring
cylinder containing a powder sample
 Methods:
– Method I – mechanical tapped density tester
(fixed drop: 14 ± 2 mm; nominal rate: 300
drops/min)
– Method II – mechanical tapped density tester
(fixed drop: 3mm (±10%); nominal rate: 250
drops/min

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What is the density of a 85 mL liquid if its weight What is the weight of 60 mL of oil whose density
is 38 g? is 0.9645 g/mL?
A. 0.56 g/mL A. 56.0
B. 0.53 g/mL B. .5600
C. 0.45 g/mL C. 57.87
D. 0.41 g/mL D. 54.88

CORRECT ANSWER: C CORRECT ANSWER: C

Density
What is the density of a 3.5 L liquid if its weight
 Two types:
is 90 g?
 Bulk density- ratio of the mass of an untapped
A. 0.56 g/mL powder sample and its volume
B. 0.056 g/mL  Tapped density- increased bulk density attained
C. 0.026 g/mL after mechanically tapping a container containing
the powder sample
D. 0.063 g/mL

CORRECT ANSWER: C

Specific gravity Methods of Determining Specific Gravity

 Dimensionless unit 1. Measurement by Pycnometer
 Ratio of the density of a substance to the density of 2. Measurement by Sprengel-Ostwald Pycnometer
water at a specified temperature 3. Measurement by Hydrometer
4. Measurement by Oscillator-Type Density Meter

8

Calculating Specific Gravity
1. Calculating Specific Gravity by Weight
2. Calculating Specific Gravity by Density
Calculating Specific Gravity by Weight
1. Obtain the weight of the liquid in question
2. Obtain the weight of an identical volume of water
3. Calculate the ratio of the liquid’s weight to the
weight of water
Example: If you weighed 100 mL of acetone at 25
degrees C, it would weigh 0.17314 pounds. Weighing
the same volume of water at the same temperature
give you 0.22 pounds. What is the specific gravity of
acetone?
Calculating Specific Gravity by Density
1. Obtain the density of the liquid in question
2. Obtain the density of an identical volume of water
3. Calculate the ratio of the liquid’s density to the
density of water
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Calculating Specific Gravity by Weight
1. Obtain the weight of the liquid in question
2. Obtain the weight of an identical volume of water
3. Calculate the ratio of the liquid’s weight to the
weight of water
Calculating Specific Gravity by Weight
1. Obtain the weight of the liquid in question
2. Obtain the weight of an identical volume of water
3. Calculate the ratio of the liquid’s weight to the
weight of water
Example: If you weighed 100 mL of acetone at 25
degrees C, it would weigh 0.17314 pounds. Weighing
the same volume of water at the same temperature
give you 0.22 pounds. What is the specific gravity of
acetone? Answer: 0.17314/0.22 = 0.787
Calculating Specific Gravity by Density
1. Obtain the density of the liquid in question
2. Obtain the density of an identical volume of water
3. Calculate the ratio of the liquid’s density to the
density of water
Example: If you had a sample that was eight grams and
nine milliliters, what its specific gravity?
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Calculating Specific Gravity by Density

1. Obtain the density of the liquid in question
2. Obtain the density of an identical volume of water
3. Calculate the ratio of the liquid’s density to the
density of water

Example: If you had a sample that was eight grams and

nine milliliters, what its specific gravity? CHECKPOINT
Answer: 8g/9mL = 0.89g/mL
0.89g/mL ÷ 1g/mL = 0.89g/mL

1. Weakest type of intermolecular force of attraction. 3. Example of property where it depends on the sum
a. London of the individual properties of the components
b. Debye present in the system.
c. Keesom a. Additive
d. None of the above b. Constitutive
c. Colligative
2. Sharing of electrons in order to achieve octet d. All of the above
configuration.
a. Ionic Bond 4. Ratio of untapped powder sample and its volume
b. Covalent Bond a. Bulk Density
c. Metallic Bond b. Tapped Density
d. All of the above c. Both
d. None

5. What is the weight of 0.05 L of oil whose density is

0.8465 g/mL?
a. 42.325
b. 0.042
c. 4.233
d. 423.25

STATES OF MATTER

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STATES OF MATTER STATES OF MATTER

1. Solid 3. Gas
 Fixed volume and shape  Assumes the shape and volume of its container
 Rigid (particles locked into place)  Particles can move past one another
 Not easily compressible  Compressible
 Does not flow easily  Flows easily

2. Liquid 4. Plasma
 Assumes the shape of the container which it occupies  Hot ionized gas consisting of positively and negatively
 Particles can move/slide past one another charged electrons
 Not easily compressible
 Flows easily

STATES OF MATTER STATES OF MATTER

5. Bose-Einstein Condensate Liquid Crystal
 Forms within a few degrees of absolute zero  Mesophase
 Formation of “SUPER ATOM”  Intermediate phase
 Blends the structures and properties of the liquid
and solid states
 ROPE (Rigid, Organic, Polarizable, Elongated)
 Thermotropic VS Lyotropic Crystals?

STATES OF MATTER STATES OF MATTER

Types of Liquid Crystals Types of Liquid Crystals
Type 1: Smectic Type 2: Nematic
 Soap-like  Thread-like
 Molecules tend to line themselves up  Simplest form of liquid crystal
into layers  Crystal molecules have no orderly
 More restricted movement than nematic position and are free to move

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STATES OF MATTER
Types of Liquid Crystals
Type 3: Cholesteric
 Chiral nematic
 Molecules being aligned and at a slight
angle to one another
GASES

GASES GAS LAWS

Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases Boyle’s Law
1. Gases are composed of a large number of particles that  Mariotte Law
behave like hard, spherical objects in a state of constant,
random motion.
 States that “At constant temperature, the
2. These particles are much smaller than the distance between
pressure P of a gas varies inversely with its volume V”
particles. Most of the volume of a gas is therefore empty
space.
3. There is no force of attraction between gas particles or P1V1= P2V2
between the particles and the walls of the container.
4. Collisions between gas particles or collisions with the walls of
the container are perfectly elastic.

BOYLE’S GAS LAWS BOYLE’S GAS LAWS

Sample Problem:
Calculate the pressure in atmospheres in an engine at
the end of the compression stroke. Assume that at the
start of the stroke, the pressure of the mixture of
gasoline and air in the cylinder is 745.8 mm Hg and the
volume of each cylinder is 246.8 mL. Assume that the
volume of the cylinder is 24.2 mL at the end of the
compression stroke.
Sample Problem:
Calculate the pressure in atmospheres in an engine at
the end of the compression stroke. Assume that at the
start of the stroke, the pressure of the mixture of
gasoline and air in the cylinder is 745.8 mm Hg and the
volume of each cylinder is 246.8 mL. Assume that the
volume of the cylinder is 24.2 mL at the end of the
compression stroke.
Answer: 10 atm

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BOYLE’S GAS LAWS BOYLE’S GAS LAWS

Sample Problem: Sample Problem:
A gas tank holds 2785 L of propane, C3H8, at 830 A gas tank holds 2785 L of propane, C3H8, at 830
mmHg. What is the volume of the propane at standard mmHg. What is the volume of the propane at standard
pressure? pressure?

Answer: 3042 L

GAS LAWS CHARLES’ GAS LAWS

Charles’ Law
 States that, “At constant pressure, the volume V of a Sample Problem:
gas is directly proportional to its absolute (Kelvin) Assume that the volume of a balloon filled with H2 is
temperature T” 1.00 L at 25 degrees C. Calculate the volume of the
balloon when it is cooled to -78 degrees C in a low-
temperature bath made by adding dry ice to acetone.
V1/T1= V2/T2

CHARLES’ GAS LAWS CHARLES’ GAS LAWS

Sample Problem:
Assume that the volume of a balloon filled with H2 is
1.00 L at 25 degrees C. Calculate the volume of the
balloon when it is cooled to -78 degrees C in a low-
temperature bath made by adding dry ice to acetone.
Sample Problem:
A sample of oxygen occupies a volume of 160 dm3 at
91° C. What will be volume of oxygen when the
temperature drops to 0.00° C?

Answer: 0.65 L

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CHARLES’ GAS LAWS CHARLES’ GAS LAWS

Sample Problem: Sample Problem:
A sample of oxygen occupies a volume of 160 dm3 at A sample of oxygen occupies a volume of 160 dm3 at
91° C. What will be volume of oxygen when the 91° C. What will be volume of oxygen when the
temperature drops to 0.00° C? temperature drops to 0.00° C? How about in liters?

Answer: 120 dm3

CHARLES’ GAS LAWS GAS LAWS

Gay-Lussac’s Law
Sample Problem:  States that, “At constant volume, the pressure P of a
A sample of oxygen occupies a volume of 160 dm3 at gas is directly proportional to its absolute (Kelvin)
91° C. What will be volume of oxygen when the temperature T”
temperature drops to 0.00° C? How about in liters?

P1/T1= P2/T2
Answer: 120 L

GAY-LUSSAC’S GAS LAWS GAY-LUSSAC’S GAS LAWS

Sample Problem: Sample Problem:
A gas has a pressure of 699.0 mm Hg at 40.0 °C. What A gas has a pressure of 699.0 mm Hg at 40.0 °C. What
is the temperature at a pressure of 760.0 mm Hg? is the temperature at a pressure of 760.0 mm Hg?

Answer: 340.3 Kelvin

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GAY-LUSSAC’S GAS LAWS GAY-LUSSAC’S GAS LAWS

Sample Problem: Sample Problem:
If a gas at 740 mm Hg and 70.0 ºC has its pressure If a gas at 740 mm Hg and 70.0 ºC has its pressure
lowered to 720 mm Hg, what will its temperature be if lowered to 720 mm Hg, what will its temperature be if
volume remains constant? volume remains constant?

Answer: 334K

GAS LAWS GAS LAWS

Avogadro’s Law Amontons’ Law
 States that, “Volume of a gas is directly proportional  States that, “Given a constant number of mole of a
to the amount of gas at a constant temperature and gas and an unchanged volume, pressure is directly
pressure.” proportional to temperature.”

GAS LAWS COMBINED GAS LAWS

Combined Gas Law
 Combination of Boyle's Law, Charles' Law and Gay- Sample Problem:
Lussac’s Law A sample of sulfur dioxide occupies a volume of
652 mL at 40.° C and 720 mm Hg. What volume
will the sulfur dioxide occupy at STP?

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COMBINED GAS LAWS COMBINED GAS LAWS

Sample Problem:
A sample of sulfur dioxide occupies a volume of
652 mL at 40.° C and 720 mm Hg. What volume
will the sulfur dioxide occupy at STP?
Answer: 538.75mL
Sample Problem:
The initial temperature of a 1.00 liter sample of
argon is 20.° C. The pressure is decreased from
720 mm Hg to 360 mm Hg and the volume
increases to 2.14 liters. What was the change in
temperature of the argon?

COMBINED GAS LAWS GAS LAWS

Ideal Gas Law
Sample Problem:  Combination of Boyle's Law, Charles' Law,
The initial temperature of a 1.00 liter sample of Amontons’ Law and Avogadro's Law
argon is 20.° C. The pressure is decreased from
720 mm Hg to 360 mm Hg and the volume
increases to 2.14 liters. What was the change in PV=nRT
temperature of the argon?

Answer: 313.51 K

GAS LAWS IDEAL GAS LAWS

Ideal Gas Law
 Combination of Boyle's Law, Charles' Law, Sample Problem:
Amontons’ Law and Avogadro's Law How many molecules are there in 985 mL of nitrogen
 n is number of moles (mass/molecular weight) at 0.0° C and 1.00 x 10-6 mm Hg?
 R is the gas constant
- R = 0.0821 liter·atm/mol·K
- R = 8.3145 J/mol·K
- R = 8.2057 m3·atm/mol·K
- R = 62.3637 L·Torr/mol·K or L·mmHg/mol·K

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IDEAL GAS LAWS IDEAL GAS LAWS

Sample Problem: Sample Problem:
How many molecules are there in 985 mL of nitrogen at
Calculate the mass of 15.0 L of NH3 (MW = 17.04
0.0° C and 1.00 x 10-6 mm Hg?
g/mol) at 27° C and 900 mm Hg.
Answer: 3.48 X 1013 N2 molecules

IDEAL GAS LAWS GAS LAWS

Sample Problem: Sample Problem:
Calculate the mass of 15.0 L of NH3 (MW = 17.04
Calculate the density in g/L of 478 mL of krypton
g/mol) at 27° C and 900 mm Hg.
(MW=83.798 g/mol) at 47° C and 671 mm Hg.
Answer: 12.3 g

GAS LAWS GAS LAWS

Sample Problem:
Calculate the density in g/L of 478 mL of krypton
(MW=83.798 g/mol) at 47° C and 671 mm Hg.
Answer: 2.82 g/L
Real Gas Equation
2 Factors:
 As pressure increases, the volume of a gas becomes very
small and approaches zero. While it does approach a small
number, it will not be zero because molecules do occupy
space (i.e. have volume) and cannot be compressed
(INCOMPRESSIBILITY)

 Intermolecular forces do exist in gases

(INTERMOLECULAR FORCES)

17

GAS LAWS
Real Gas Equation (Van der Waals Equation)
an2/v2: accounts for the internal pressure per mole
resulting from the intermolecular forces of attraction
between the molecules
nb: accounts for the incompressibility of the molecules
GAS LAWS
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure
 States that “The total pressure in a mixture of gases
is equal to the sum of the partial pressure of each gas”
PTOTAL= PA + PB…
DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE
Sample Problem:
Let's say that we have one container with 24.0 L of nitrogen gas
at 2.00 atm, and another container with 12.0 L of oxygen gas at
2.00 atm. The temperature of both gases is 273 K.
If both gases are mixed in a 10L container, what are the partial
pressures of nitrogen and oxygen in the resulting mixture?
What is the total pressure?
Partial pressure of Nitrogen is 4.79 atm
Partial pressure of oxygen is 2.40 atm
Total Pressure is 7.19 atm
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GAS LAWS
Henry’s Law of Gas Solubility
 States that “At a constant temperature, the amount
of a gas that dissolves in a liquid is directly
proportional to the partial pressure of that gas in
equilibrium with that liquid”
DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE
Sample Problem:
Let's say that we have one container with 24.0 L of
nitrogen gas at 2.00 atm, and another container with
12.0 L of oxygen gas at 2.00 atm. The temperature of
both gases is 273 K.
If both gases are mixed in a 10L container, what are
the partial pressures of nitrogen and oxygen in the
resulting mixture? What is the total pressure?
GAS LAWS
Graham’s Law
 States that “The rate of effusion of a gaseous
substance is inversely proportional to the square root
of its molar mass.”
 Empirical relationship stating that the ratio of the
rates of diffusion or effusion of two gases is the
square root of the inverse ratio of their molar masses
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1. Description of solid except

a. Fixed volume
b. Fixed Shame
c. Flow Easily
d. Rigid

2. Formation of condensate

CHECKPOINT a. Plasma
b. Liquid Crystals
c. Bose-Einstein Condensate
d. Any of the above

3. Third type of liquid crystals

5. Factor(s) affecting real gas equation
a. Smectic
a. Incompressibility
b. Nematic
b. Intermolecular forces
c. Cholesteric
c. Both
d. A and B
d. None
4. States that “At constant temperature, the
pressure P of a gas varies inversely with its volume V
a. Gay Lussac’s Law
b. Henry’s Law
c. Graham’s Law
d. Mariotte Law

LIQUIDS
 Less kinetic energy than do gases
 Occupy a definite volume
 Take the shape of container
 Denser than gases
 Not compressible
LIQUIDS

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LIQUIDS LIQUIDS
Vapor Pressure Vapor Pressure
 Pressure of the saturated vapor above a liquid  Clausius-Clapeyron Equation
resulting from the escape of surface liquid - shows the relationship between the
molecules vapor pressure of a liquid and the temperature
 A measure of the tendency of molecules to escape
from a liquid

LIQUIDS LIQUIDS
Clausius-Clapeyron Equation Clausius-Clapeyron Equation

Sample Problem: Sample Problem:

A certain liquid has a vapor pressure of 6.91 mmHg at 0 A certain liquid has a vapor pressure of 6.91 mmHg at 0
°C. If this liquid has a normal boiling point of 105 °C, °C. If this liquid has a normal boiling point of 105 °C,
what is the liquid's heat of vaporization in kJ/mol? what is the liquid's heat of vaporization in kJ/mol?

Answer: 38445 J/mol or 38.4 kJ/mol

LIQUIDS LIQUIDS
Dispersed Systems Dispersed Systems
 Systems in which one substance (dispersed phase) is 1. True Solutions
distributed, in discrete units, throughout a second  A solution is a homogenous mixture (one phase)
substance (continuous phase or vehicle) composed of two or more substances
 A solute is dissolved in another substance, known
as a solvent
 Particle size is < 1 nm

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LIQUIDS LIQUIDS
Dispersed Systems Dispersed Systems
2. Colloidal Dispersions 3. Coarse Dispersions
 A system having a particle size intermediate  Size of particle is larger than that of colloids
between that of a true solution and a coarse  Particle size is > 0.5 um
dispersion  Suspensions and emulsions
 Particle size is 1 nm-0.5 um

SOLUTIONS
Solute and Solvent
Electolyte Nonelectrolyte
• Yields ions • Does not yield ions
• Conduct electricity • Does not conduct
Solute
• NaCl, HCl, CaCl2, electricity
CH3COOH • Sucrose
SOLUTIONS
Solvent: phase of the solution and the largest portion of the
solution

LIQUIDS LIQUIDS
True Solutions Factors that Affect Solubility
SOLUBILITY TERM PARTS OF SOLVENT REQUIRED TO DISSOLVE  Temperature
ONE PART OF SOLUTE
- Endothermic reactions
Very Soluble Less than 1
- Absorb heat
Freely Soluble 1-10
- Increase temperature, increase solubility
Soluble 10-30
- Exothermic reactions
Sparingly Soluble 30-100
- Release heat
Slightly Soluble 100-1000
- Decrease temperature, increase solubility
Very slightly Soluble 1000-10000
Practically Insoluble Greater than 10000

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LIQUIDS
Factors that Affect Solubility
 pH
- Critical pH for weak acid and weak base
 Presence of Salts
- Salting in (addition of salt, increased solubility)
- Salting out (addition of salt, decreased solubility) COLLIGATIVE PROPERTY
 Nature of solute and solvent
 Particle size OF SOLUTIONS
 Pressure (for gases)

LIQUIDS
Colligative Properties of Solutions
1. Vapor Pressure Lowering
 When a nonvolatile solute is added to a volatile
solvent, the solute decreases the escaping tendency
of the solvent
 The vapor pressure of the solution is lowered
proportional to the relative number of solute
molecules
LIQUIDS
Colligative Properties of Solutions
1. Vapor Pressure Lowering
Sample Problem #1: What is the vapor pressure of an
aqueous solution that has a solute mole fraction
of 0.1000? The vapor pressure of water is 25.756
mmHg at 25 °C.

Psolvent = XsolventPosolvent Psolvent = XsolventPosolvent

LIQUIDS LIQUIDS
Colligative Properties of Solutions Colligative Properties of Solutions
1. Vapor Pressure Lowering 1. Vapor Pressure Lowering

Sample Problem #1: What is the vapor pressure of an
aqueous solution that has a solute mole fraction
of 0.1000? The vapor pressure of water is 25.756
mmHg at 25 °C.
Answer: 23.18 mmHg
Sample Problem #2: Calculate the vapor pressure of a
solution made by dissolving 50.0 g
glucose, C6H12O6 (MW= 180g/mol), in 500 g of
water. The vapor pressure of pure water is 47.1
torr at 37°C.
Psolvent = XsolventPosolvent

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LIQUIDS LIQUIDS
Colligative Properties of Solutions Colligative Properties of Solutions
1. Vapor Pressure Lowering 1. Vapor Pressure Lowering

Sample Problem #2: Calculate the vapor pressure of a
solution made by dissolving 50.0 g
glucose, C6H12O6 (MW= 180g/mol), in 500 g of
water. The vapor pressure of pure water is 47.1
torr at 37°C.
Sample Problem #3: Calculate the vapor pressure
of a solution made by dissolving 50.0 g CaCl2
(MW= 111g/mol) in 500 g of water. The vapor
pressure of pure water is 47.1 torr at 37°C.

Answer: 46.63 torr Psolvent = XsolventPosolvent

LIQUIDS
Colligative Properties of Solutions
1. Vapor Pressure Lowering
Sample Problem #3: Calculate the vapor pressure
of a solution made by dissolving 50.0 g CaCl2 in
500 g of water. The vapor pressure of pure
water is 47.1 torr at 37°C.
LIQUIDS
Colligative Properties of Solutions
2. Boiling Point Elevation
 BP is the temperature at which the vapor pressure
of the liquid becomes equal to the external
atmospheric pressure (1 atm or 760 mmHg)
 The BP of the solution containing a nonvolatile
solute would be higher than the pure solvent

Answer: 46.35 torr

ΔT = i Kb m

LIQUIDS LIQUIDS
Colligative Properties of Solutions Van’t Hoff Factor
2. Boiling Point Elevation Complete Dissociation

ΔT = i Kb m Substance Van’t Hoff Factor

Non-electrolytes 1
 Ebullioscopic constant (Kb) is the molal boiling
point elevation constant and its unit is degrees NaCl 2
Celsius per molal (°C/molal) MgCl2 3
 Van’t Hoff factor (i) is the number of particles
after dissociation
 m is the molal concentration

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LIQUIDS LIQUIDS
Van’t Hoff Factor Colligative Properties of Solutions
Incomplete Dissociation 2. Boiling Point Elevation

ΔT = i Kb m
Sample Problem: What is the molecular mass of an
organic compound if 16.00 g of the compound is
dissolved in 225.0 g of carbon tetrachloride raises the
boiling point to 85.36 °C?
Given: BP and Kb of CCl4 is 76.2°C and 5.03°C kg/mol
respectively

LIQUIDS
Colligative Properties of Solutions
2. Boiling Point Elevation
ΔT = i Kb m
Sample Problem: What is the molecular mass of an
organic compound if 16.00 g of the compound is
dissolved in 225.0 g of carbon tetrachloride raises the
boiling point to 85.36 °C? Given: BP and Kb of CCl4 is
76.2°C and 5.03°C kg/mol
Answer: 41.4 g/mol
LIQUIDS
Colligative Properties of Solutions
3. Freezing Point Depression
 FP is the temperature at which a liquid turns into a
solid when cooled
 The FP of the solution containing a nonvolatile
solute would be lower than the pure solvent
ΔT = i Kf m

LIQUIDS LIQUIDS
Colligative Properties of Solutions Colligative Properties of Solutions
3. Freezing Point Depression 3. Freezing Point Depression

ΔT = i Kf m ΔT = i Kf m
Sample Problem #1:
 Cryoscopic constant (Kf) is the molal freezing point When 20.0 grams of an unknown nonelectrolyte
depression constant and its unit is degrees Celsius compound are dissolved in 500.0 grams of benzene,
per molal (°C/molal) the freezing point of the resulting solution is 3.77 °C.
 Van’t Hoff factor (i) is the number of particles The freezing point of pure benzene is 5.444 °C and the
after dissociation Kf for benzene is 5.12 °C/m. What is the molar mass of
 m is the molal concentration the unknown compound?

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LIQUIDS
Colligative Properties of Solutions
3. Freezing Point Depression
Sample Problem #1:
When 20.0 grams of an unknown nonelectrolyte compound are
dissolved in 500.0 grams of benzene, the freezing point of the
resulting solution is 3.77 °C. The freezing point of pure benzene
is 5.444 °C and the Kf for benzene is 5.12 °C/m. What is the
molar mass of the unknown compound?
Answer: 94.8 g/mol
LIQUIDS
Colligative Properties of Solutions
3. Freezing Point Depression
ΔT = i Kf m
Sample Problem #2:
Lauryl alcohol is obtained from coconut oil and is used
to make detergents. A solution of 5.00 g of lauryl
alcohol in 0.100 kg of benzene freezes at 4.1 °C and
the Kf for benzene is 5.12 °C kg/m. What is the molar
mass of the lauryl alcohol? Freezing point of pure
benzene is 2.756 °C.

LIQUIDS LIQUIDS
Colligative Properties of Solutions Colligative Properties of Solutions
3. Freezing Point Depression 4. Osmotic Pressure
ΔT = i Kf m  Osmosis is the spontaneous net movement of water
across a semi-permeable membrane from a region
Sample Problem #2: of high to low water concentration
Lauryl alcohol is obtained from coconut oil and is used  The pressure required to prevent osmosis in
to make detergents. A solution of 5.00 g of lauryl solutions
alcohol in 0.100 kg of benzene freezes at 4.1 °C and
the Kf for benzene is 5.12 °C/m. What is the molar ∏ = iMRT
mass of the lauryl alcohol?
Answer: 190 g/mol

LIQUIDS LIQUIDS
Colligative Properties of Solutions Colligative Properties of Solutions
4. Osmotic Pressure 4. Osmotic Pressure

∏ = iMRT ∏ = iMRT
Where Sample Problem #1:
∏ is the osmotic pressure in atm
How much glucose (C6H12O6) [MW = 180g/mol)
i = van’t Hoff factor of the solute
M = molar concentration in mol/L
per liter should be used for an intravenous
R = universal gas constant (0.0821 liter·atm/mol·K) solution to match the 7.65 atm at 37 °C
T = absolute temperature in K osmotic pressure of blood?

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LIQUIDS LIQUIDS
Colligative Properties of Solutions Colligative Properties of Solutions
4. Osmotic Pressure 4. Osmotic Pressure

∏ = iMRT ∏ = iMRT
Sample Problem #1: Sample Problem #2:
How much glucose (C6H12O6) per liter should be What is the osmotic pressure of a solution prepared
used for an intravenous solution to match the 7.65 by adding 13.65 g of sucrose (C12H22O11) [MW =
atm at 37 °C osmotic pressure of blood? 342g/mol) to enough water to make 250 mL of
Answer: 54.1 g solution at 25 °C?

LIQUIDS
Colligative Properties of Solutions
4. Osmotic Pressure

∏ = iMRT
Sample Problem #2:
What is the osmotic pressure of a solution prepared by
adding 13.65 g of sucrose (C12H22O11) MW = 342g/mol)
ISOTONIC SOLUTIONS
to enough water to make 250 mL of solution at 25 °C?
Answer: 3.9 atm

LIQUIDS LIQUIDS
Isotonic Solutions Isotonic Solutions
1. Hypertonic Solutions 2. Hypotonic Solutions
 A solution with more solute compared to cell  A solution with less solutes compared to cell
concentrations concentrations
 Solutions that freeze lower that -0.52 °C  Solutions that freeze higher than --0.52 °C
 Results: crenation of the cell (shrinkage)  Result: swelling and lysis of the cell

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LIQUIDS LIQUIDS
Isotonic Solutions Isotonic Solutions
3. Isotonic Solutions
 Solutions for which a living cell does not gain or
lose water
 Solutions with similar osmotic pressure as that
of body fluids
 Similar concentration as 0.9% (w/v) NaCl
solution

LIQUIDS
Methods of Adjusting Isotonicity
Class I: Addition of a tonicity adjusting agent
a. Freezing Point Depression Method/ Cryoscopic
Method
b. Sodium Chloride Equivalent Method/ E Value
METHODS OF Method
Class II. Addition of water and dilution with buffered
ADJUSTING ISOTONICITY isotonic solution
a. White Vincent Method
b. Sprowl’s Method

METHODS OF ADJUSTING ISOTONICITY METHODS OF ADJUSTING ISOTONICITY

Class 1: Addition of a tonicity adjusting agent Class 1: Addition of a tonicity adjusting agent
1. Cryoscopic Method 1. Cryoscopic Method
– Isotonic freezing point depression: 0.52 °C 0.52 − 𝑎
𝑤% =
– Isotonic NaCl concentration: 0.9% (w/v) NaCl 𝑏
0.52 − 𝑎
𝑤% = Sample Problem: How much NaCl is required to
𝑏 render 100 ml of a 1% soln. of apomorphin HCL
Where
W% = conc g/100mL of adjusting substance isotonic? Fpd of 1%NaCl=0.58º, Fpd of 1%drug=0.08º
a = freezing point depression of 1% adjusted substance multiple to
the percentage strength
B = freezing point depression of adjusting substance

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METHODS OF ADJUSTING ISOTONICITY METHODS OF ADJUSTING ISOTONICITY

Class 1: Addition of a tonicity adjusting agent Class 1: Addition of a tonicity adjusting agent
1. Cryoscopic Method 2. E Value Method
0.52 − 𝑎 – E value: gram of NaCl equivalent to 1 gram of
𝑤% = substance
𝑏
– Isotonic NaCl concentration: 0.9% (w/v) NaCl
Sample Problem: How much NaCl is required to
render 100 ml of a 1% soln. of apomorphin HCL
isotonic? Fpd of 1%NaCl=0.58º, Fpd of 1%drug=0.08º

Answer: 0.76%

METHODS OF ADJUSTING ISOTONICITY METHODS OF ADJUSTING ISOTONICITY

Class 1: Addition of a tonicity adjusting agent Class 1: Addition of a tonicity adjusting agent
2. E Value Method 2. E Value Method
Step 1: Calculate the amount of NaCl represented by
Sample Problem #1: How many grams of NaCl should
the ingredients in the prescription
be used in compounding the following prescription?
Step 2: Calculate the amount of NaCl that would make
the volume of solution specified in the prescription Rx Pilocarpine nitrate (E = 0.22) 0.3g
Step 3: Subtract the amount of NaCl represented by the NaCl qs
ingredients in prescription from the amount of NaCl Purified Water qs 30mL
that would make the specific volume in the prescription
isotonic Make isotonic solution
Sig for the eye

METHODS OF ADJUSTING ISOTONICITY METHODS OF ADJUSTING ISOTONICITY

Class 1: Addition of a tonicity adjusting agent Class 2: Addition of a water and dilution with buffered
2. E Value Method isotonic solution
1. White Vincent Method
Sample Problem #2: How many grams of NaCl should
v= 𝑤 𝑋 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑋 111.1
be used in compounding the following prescription to
obtain an isotonic solution?
Sample Problem: Using White Vincent Method,
Rx Cocaine HCl (E = 0.16) 2% compute for the required volume to make 0.3 g of
NaCl qs Atropine sulfate (E=0.13) isotonic.
Purified Water qs 30mL

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METHODS OF ADJUSTING ISOTONICITY METHODS OF ADJUSTING ISOTONICITY

Class 2: Addition of a water and dilution with buffered Sample Problem
isotonic solution Rx
1. Sprowl’s Method Phenacaine hydrochloride 0.1g (E=0.20)
V= 0.3𝑔 𝑋 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑋 111.1 Boric acid 0.50g (E=0.50)
Distilled water q.s. 100mL

Calculate the amount of water needed to make the

solution isotonic.

LIQUIDS
Acid-Base Equilibria
Theories on Acids and Bases
1. Arrhenius Theory
 Acids are substances which produce hydrogen
ions in solution
THEORIES ON ACIDS  Bases are substances which produce hydroxide
ions in solution
AND BASES

LIQUIDS LIQUIDS
Acid-Base Equilibria Acid-Base Equilibria
Theories on Acids and Bases Theories on Acids and Bases
2. Bronsted-Lowry Theory 3. Lewis Theory
 An acid is a proton (hydrogen ion) donor  An acid is an electron pair acceptor
 A base is a proton (hydrogen ion) acceptor  A base is an electron pair donor

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LIQUIDS LIQUIDS
Acid-Base Equilibria Acid-Base Equilibria
pH Sorensen’s pH Scale
 The negative logarithm of the H+ concentration  pH > 7 is basic
 Example, [H+] = 5 X 10-6, what is the pH?  pH = 0 is neutral
 pH = 5.3  pH < 7 is acidic

LIQUIDS LIQUIDS
Acid-Base Equilibria Acid-Base Equilibria
Ionization pH Calculations
 The complete separation of ions in a crystal lattice when a
salt is dissolved pH = -log [H+]
Strong Acids
 For weak acids
HA + H2O H3O+ + A- pOH = -log [OH-]
Strong Base pH = pKw - pOH
 For weak bases
B + H2O OH- + BH+
 For the ionization of water
Weak Acids pH = -log ( 𝒌𝒂𝑿 𝑪𝒂)
H20 + H20 H30+ + OH- pOH = log (√𝒌𝒃𝑿 𝑪𝒃)
Weak Base

LIQUIDS LIQUIDS
Acid-Base Equilibria Acid-Base Equilibria
Buffer Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation
• Solutions that have the property of resisting
changes in pH when acids or bases are
added to them pH = pKa + log ([A-]/[HA])
• Consists of either:
 Weak acid and its conjugate base
 Weak base and its conjugate acid pH = pKb + log ([B]/[OH-])

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LIQUIDS LIQUIDS
Acid-Base Equilibria Acid-Base Equilibria
Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation % Ionization
 Acid
Sample Problem: % ionization = 100/ (1+10(pKa - pH))
Calculate the pH of a buffer solution made from 0.20 M  Base
HC2H3O2 and 0.50 M C2H3O2- that has an acid
% ionization = 100/ (1+10(pH - pKa))
dissociation constant for HC2H3O2 of 1.8 x 10-5

LIQUIDS LIQUIDS
Acid-Base Equilibria Acid-Base Equilibria
% Ionization % Ionization

Sample Problem: Sample Problem:

If the pH-pKa=-1, what percentage of weak base is If the pH-pKa=-1, what percentage of weak base is
nonionized? nonionized?

Answer: 9.1%

LIQUIDS
Acid-Base Equilibria
Buffer Capacity
 Buffer Efficiency
 Buffer Index
 Buffer Value
 The ability of a buffer solution to resist changes in
pH upon addition of an acid/alkali
INTERFACIAL
 Bmax (Maximum Buffer Capacity) = 0.567[C] PHENOMENA

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LIQUIDS
Interfacial Phenomena
 Attributed to the effects of molecules found at
the interface (boundary between 2 phases)
 Interfacial tension if its between two liquids and
surface tension between solids and gas and
liquid and gas
LIQUIDS
Interfacial Phenomena
 Capillary action- water “climb” upwards through
thin glass tubes (called capillary tubes) which
depends on the attraction between water
molecules and the glass walls of the tube
(adhesion), as well as on interactions between
water molecules (cohesion)
 Surfactants – “surface active agents”, lower the
interfacial/surface tension

LIQUIDS
Interfacial Phenomena
 Wetting phenomenon- determined by
measuring the contact angle, which the liquid
forms in contact with the solids or liquids
 Wetting Agent – angle which the liquid makes
with the solid surface

WETTABILITY CHANGE

COLLOIDAL
DISPERSION

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LIQUIDS LIQUIDS
Colloidal Dispersions Colloidal Dispersions
LYOPHILIC LYOPHOBIC ASSOCIATION Properties of Colloids
(SOLVENT- (SOLVENT-HATING) (AMPHOPHILIC) 1. Optical
LOVING)
DISPERSED Large organic Inorganic particles Aggregates  Tyndall Effect
PHASE molecules (micelles) - ability to scatter light
SOLVATION Solvated Little Hydro or lipo
portion is
2. Kinetic
solvated  Brownian Motion
depending on
the medium
- molecules in random constant motion
EFFECT OF STABLE UNSTABLE Salting out may  Diffusion
ELECTROLYTES occur at high - governed by Fick’s Law of Diffusion
salt conc.

LIQUIDS
Colloidal Dispersions
Properties of Colloids
3. Electric
 Nernst Potential
- electrothermodynamic potential


- relate cell potentials
Zeta potential
RHEOLOGY
- Electrokinetic potential
- results to flocculation

LIQUIDS LIQUIDS
Rheology Rheology
 Study of the deformation and flow properties of
matter Absolute Viscosity 𝜼=
𝑭
𝑮
 Viscosity- Measure of resistance to gradual 𝜂
deformation by shear stress or tensile stress Kinematic Viscosity 𝜅=
𝑝
1. Absolute Viscosity Relative Viscosity Ratio of viscosity of
2. Kinematic Viscosity solutions to viscosity of
solvent
 Elasticity-measure of stickiness or structure
 Viscoelasticity- materials exhibit both elastic
behavior and viscous flow

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LIQUIDS LIQUIDS
Rheology Rheology
1. Newtonian Flow 2. Non-Newtonian Flow
 Constant viscosity with increasing rate A. Shear-dependent Viscosity
 Has a linear relationship between shear rate and shear stress 1. Plastic
2. Pseudoplastic
3. Dilatant
B. Time-dependent Viscosity
1. Thixotropy
2. Rheopexy

LIQUIDS LIQUIDS
Rheology Rheology
Non-Newtonian Non-Newtonian
A. Shear-dependent Viscosity A. Shear-dependent Viscosity
1. Plastic 2. Dilatant
 Bingham bodies  Viscosity of the fluid increases when shear is
 Require a yield stress before they begin to flow, applied
i.e., the shear stress-strain curve doesn’t pass  Shear-thickening
through origin 3. Pseudoplastic
 the more shear applied, the less viscous it becomes
 Shear-thinning

LIQUIDS LIQUIDS
Rheology
Non-Newtonian
B. Time-dependent Viscosity
1. Thixotropy
 show a time-dependent change in viscosity; the longer the
fluid undergoes shear stress, the lower its viscosity
(Reversible)
 Time-dependent shear thinning
2. Rheopexy
 the longer the fluid undergoes shear stress, the higher its
viscosity
 Time-dependent shear thickening

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LIQUIDS LIQUIDS
Determination of Viscosity

1. Ostwald Glass Capillary Viscometer

2. Rotational Viscometers

LIQUIDS LIQUIDS
Determination of Viscosity Determination of Viscosity
A. Single Point A. Multipoint
1. Capillary Viscometer 1. Cup & Bob Viscometer
2. Falling Sphere Viscometer a. Searle Type
B. Multipoint
1. Cup & Bob Viscometer b. Couette Type
2. Cone & Plate
C. Others
1. Penetrometers

1. The process whereby solute molecules move from the region

of higher to lower concentration until equilibrium is reached:
a. Osmosis
b. Diffusion
c. Dissolution
d. Distribution

2. E value is defined as

CHECKPOINT
a. Equivalent NaCl enough to make a normal solution
b. Equivalent of NaCl to resemble the isotonicity of blood
c. Amount of NaCl theoretically equivalent to 1 gram of a
specific chemical
d. Amount of the chemical theoretically equivalent to 0.9
grams of NaCl

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3. Shear-thickening
a. Dilatant
5. A solution with less solutes compared to cell
b. Pseudoplastic
concentrations will result into
c. Plastic
a. Lysis
d. Newtonian
b. Swelling
c. Shrinkage
4. Ability of colloids to scatter light
d. A and B
a. Brownian Movement
b. Diffusion
c. Adsorption
d. Tyndall Effect

SOLIDS
 Fixed shapes
 Nearly incompressible
 With strong intermolecular forces
 With little kinetic energy

SOLIDS

SOLIDS SOLIDS
Crystalline solids Crystalline solids
 Molecules are arranged in repetitious 3D lattice 6 Common Crystalline Structures
units 1. Cubic (Sodium Chloride)
 Have sharp melting points 2. Tetragonal (Urea)
 Have definite geometric forms 3. Hexagonal (Iodoform)
Amorphous solids 4. Rhombic (Iodine)
 aka Glasses or supercooled liquids 5. Monoclinic (Sucrose)
 No definite order of molecules 6. Triclinic (Boric acid)
 No definite and sharp melting points

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SOLIDS SOLIDS
Polymorphism Polymorphism
 Ability of crystalline solids to exist in more than 1  Enantiotropic
crystalline form  The polymorph which can be changed from
 Polymorphs are solids that have more than 1 one form into another by varying temperature
crystalline form having different physical or pressure (REVERSIBLE)
characteristics (melting points and solubilities)  Monotropic
 The polymorph which can not be changed
from one form into another (IRREVERSIBLE)

SOLIDS
Polymorphism
 Isotropic
 The properties of the different polymorphs
are identical
 Anisotropic
 The properties of the different polymorphs
are different
MICROMETICS

SOLIDS SOLIDS
Micromeritics Micromeritics
 Study of small particles Fundamental Properties
 Fundamental VS Derived properties  Particle Size
 Includes: Coarse > 1000 um
 Particle Size Conventional 50 to 1000 um
 Particle Distribution Fine 1 to 50 um
 Particle Shape Very Fine 0.1 to 1 um
 Surface Area Ultra Fine <0.1 um
 Derived Properties

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SOLIDS SOLIDS
Methods of Particle Size Determination Methods of Particle Size Determination
1. Optical Microscopy 1. Use of microscope to measure individual particles
2. Sieving  3 Measurements
3. Sedimentation Two tangents separated by the
Ferret Diameter
4. Particle Surface Area longest distance
Distance that will bisect the
Martin Diameter
particles into halves
Diameter of the circle that will
Projected Area of the Circle
enclose the particle

SOLIDS SOLIDS
Methods of Particle Size Determination Methods of Particle Size Determination
1. Use of microscope to measure individual particles 2. Sieve Analysis
- USP Method
- Mesh (Number of openings per linear inch)
Sample Problem:
20 10 g
40 20 g
60 40 g
80 25 g
Collecting pan 5 g
Solve for the % of particles with size > mesh 40

SOLIDS SOLIDS
Methods of Particle Size Determination Methods of Particle Size Determination
3. Sedimentation Method 4. Automatic Particle Counters
 Based on the sedimentation rate of particles
 Principle is Stokes’ Law Type of Counter Principle Involved

v = rate of settling Coulter Counter Electronic resistance

d = diameter
HIAV/ Royco Light
ρs = density of the particles Light blockage
Blockage Instrument
ρ0 = density of the dispersion
Photon correlation
medium Beckman Coulter Model
Spectroscopy
g = acceleration due to gravity
η = viscosity of the medium Microcomputerized
Adsorption
mercury porosimetry

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SOLIDS SOLIDS
Derived Properties Derived Properties
Porosity Particle Volume

• Measure of total voids present in a particle True/ Particle Volume Vp Volume of particle
Granule Volume Vg Vp + intraparticle
pores/spaces/voids
Bulk Volume Vb Vg + interparticle
pores/spaces/voids
Void Volume v Volume of the spaces

SOLIDS SOLIDS
Derived Properties Porosity
Density of Particles • ∈ 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆 = (Vb – Vg)/Vb X 100
• ∈ 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆 = (Vg – Vp)/Vg X 100
• ∈ 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = (Vb – Vp)/Vb X 100
True Density ρ M/Vp
Sample Problem
Granule Density ρg M/Vg
Given: volume of particles = 0.3
intraparticle spaces = 0.1
Bulk Density ρb M/Vb spaces between particles = 1.6

Solve: Vg, Vb, ∈ 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆 , ∈ 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆 , ∈ 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍

SOLIDS SOLIDS
Properties of Powders for Granulation Methods for Testing Flowability and Compressibility
 Fluidity or flowability 1. Angle of Repose
 Compressibility - The angle assumed by a cone-like pile of powder
Methods for Testing Flowability and Compressibility relative to the horizontal base
1. Angle of Repose Angle= Arc tan (H/R)
• The angle assumed by a cone-like pile of powder
relative to the horizontal base Sample Problem: 100g of powdered sample was made to
Angle= Arc tan (H/R) flow from a funnel suspended at a height of of 15cm. A
powder cone 12cm tall from the surface with a diameter
of 5cm was made. Determine the angle of repose.

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SOLIDS SOLIDS
Methods for Testing Flowability and Compressibility
1. Carr’s Index or Compressibility Index
CI = (Vi- Vf) / Vi x 100

2. Hausner’s Ratio
HR= Vi / Vf

*Vi= Initial Volume or Untapped Volume

*Vf= Tapped Volume

1. Size and shape are examples of what type of particle

properties:
a. Derived
b. Fundamental
c. Both
d. None

2. Measurement of particle size through optical microscopy

CHECKPOINT
which is the distance that will bisect the particle into halves
a. Ferret Diameter
b. Martin Diameter
c. Projected Area of the Circle
d. AOTA

3. Triclinic
5. The angle assumed by a cone-like pile of powder
a. NaCl
relative to the horizontal base
b. Urea
a. Angle of Repose
c. Sucrose
b. Carr’s Compressibility Index
d. Boric Acid
c. Hausner’s Ratio
d. NOTA
4. Properties are of polymorphs are identical
a. Enantiotropic
b. Monotropic
c. Isotropic
d. Anisotropic

40

THERMODYNAMICS
THERMODYNAMICS
Phase Diagram
• Represents the states of matter that exist as
temperature and pressure are varied
THERMODYNAMICS
GIBB’s PHASE RULE
 Used to determine the number of
independent variables that must be set in
order to define a system
 Degree of Freedom
F = C-P + 2 (One-Component System)
F = C-P + 1 (Two-Component System)
F = C-P (Three-Component System)
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THERMODYNAMICS
THREE LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
1. Law of Conservation of Energy, states that
energy cannot be created or destroyed
2. The second law states that the entropy of any
isolated system always increases
3. The third law of thermodynamics states that the
entropy of a system approaches zero as
the temperature approaches absolute zero
THERMODYNAMICS
Latent Heat or Molar Heat
• Heat necessary for 1 mole of gas, solid or liquid
to change to another phase
Amount of energy that must be added to a mole of
solid at constant pressure to turn it directly into a
Heat of Fusion liquid (melting) or Amount of energy that must be
added to a mole of liquid at constant pressure to turn
it directly into a solid (freezing)
Amount of energy that must be added to a mole of
Heat of Vaporization
liquid at constant pressure to turn it directly into a gas
Amount of energy that must be added to a mole of
Heat of Sublimation
solid at constant pressure to turn it directly into a gas
THERMODYNAMICS
GIBB’s PHASE RULE
 Example: A system comprising of liquid, water,
in equilibrium with its vapor. Determine the
degree of freedom.
 Then we cool the liquid water and its vapor
until a third phase (ice) separates out.
Compute for the dree of freedom.
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THERMODYNAMICS
One-Component System
THERMODYNAMICS
Two-Component System containing Liquid Phases
THERMODYNAMICS
Two-Component System containing Liquid Phases
• The line bc drawn across the region
containing two phases is termed a tie line;
• All systems prepared on a tie line, at
equilibrium, will separate into phases of
constant composition.
• These phases are termed conjugate
phases.
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THERMODYNAMICS
One-Component System
THERMODYNAMICS
Two-Component System containing Liquid Phases
• The maximum temperature at which the two-
phase region exists is termed the critical
solution, or upper consolute temperature.
• In the case of the phenol–water system, this is
66.8°C (point h ).
• All combinations of phenol and water above this
temperature are completely miscible and yield
one-phase liquid systems.
THERMODYNAMICS
Two-Component System containing Liquid Phases
Lever rule is a tool used to determine mole
fraction of each phase of a binary equilibrium
phase diagram.
Problem: Prepare a 50-g of mixture of 24%
phenol in water solution. Determine the
proportion of component A (water) and
component B (phenol) at 50 degrees celsius.
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THERMODYNAMICS THERMODYNAMICS
Two-Component System containing Eutectic Mixtures Two-Component System containing Eutectic Mixtures
• solid–liquid mixtures in which the two
components are completely miscible in the
liquid state and completely immiscible as
solids.

• Examples of such systems are:

salol–thymol,
salol–camphor,
acetaminophen–propyphenazone.

THERMODYNAMICS
Two-Component System

CHECKPOINT

1. Maximum temperature at which the two-phase region exists 3. Represents the states of matter that exists as
a. Critical solution temperature temperature and pressure varied
b. Tie Line
a. Thermodynamics
c. Conjugate phase
d. Lever arm b. Chemical Kinetics
c. Phase Diagram
2. Amount of energy that must be added to a mole of liquid at d. NOTA
constant pressure to turn it directly into a gas
a. Heat of Fusion
4. Point where 3 distinct phases co-exist
b. Heat of Vaporization
c. Heat of Sublimation a. Triple
d. NOTA b. Eutectic
c. Critical
d. Polymorphic

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CHEMICAL KINETICS
- Study of the rates of reactions and the mechanism of
which these reactions occur
Order of Reaction
- the way in which the concentration of the drug or
reactant in a chemical reaction affects the rate

CHEMICAL KINETICS

CHEMICAL KINETICS CHEMICAL KINETICS

1. Zero order Reaction 2. First Order Reaction
- Constant amount of drug is eliminated from the - Constant percentage of drug is eliminated from the
body (independent of the concentration in the body (dependent of the concentration in the
body) body)

C= -kt + Co ln C= -kt + ln Co

CHEMICAL KINETICS CHEMICAL KINETICS

Example Problem: Half-life
Initially a drug has concentration of 50mg/mL and after -period of time required for the amount or
20 days, the drug concentration became 24mg/mL. concentration of a drug to decrease by 50%
Compute for 1st order rate constant.
Zero order:
Half life = 0.5 C
First order
Half life= 0.693/K

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CHEMICAL KINETICS
Sample Problem:
A drug has a biological half-life of 2 hours. At the end of
eight hours, what percentage of the drug’s original activity
will remain?

FINAL
CHECKPOINT

1. Atoms of the same element with the same number 3. Mixing a hypertonic solution with red blood cell will
of protons, but differing numbers of neutrons cause _________ of the red blood cell
a. Isotopes a. Bursting
b. Isobars b. Crenation
c. Isotones c. Chelation
d. AOTA d. Hemolysis

2. Crystal system of sucrose. 4. Dispersed system possess this property

a. Cubic a. Optical activity
b. Tetragonal b. Solubility
c. Monoclinic c. Thixotropy
d. Triclinic d. Tonicity

For nos. 7-8. 6.3 mg of a boron hydride is contained in a flask of 385

5. Second type of liquid crystals mL at 25.0° C and a pressure of 11 torr.
a. Smectic
7. Determine the molar mass of the hydride.
b.Nematic a. 27.70
c. Cholesteric b. 27660.50
d.NOTA c. 14.70
d. 47.70

6. Forces between molecules of similar phases 8. Which of the following hydrides is contained in the flask?
a. Adhesion Given: MW B= 10.8110 g/mol
b.Cohesion a. BH3
c. Both b. B2H6
d.None c. B4H10
d. None

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9. Buffer solution is composed of:

11.States that an acid is a proton donor and base is a
a. Strong acid and strong base
proton acceptor
b. Strong electrolyte and strong base
a. Arrhenius
c. Weak acid and its salt
b. Bronsted-Lowry
d. Strong acid and its salt
c. Lewis
d. AOTA
10.Process whereby solvent moves from higher to lower
concentration until equilibrium is reached
12.USP method for adjusting isotonicity
a. Osmosis
a. E value
b. Diffusion
b. D value
c. Adsorption
c. White Vincent Method
d. Absroption
d. Sprowl Method

13. How much NaCl is needed to adjust the following prescription to 15. A solution of ferrous sulfate was prepared by adding
isotonicity? 50 grams of FeSO4 (MW= 151.9g/mol) to enough water to
Rx make 1000mL of solution. Compute for M.
Zinc Sulfate 1% E = 0.15 a. 0.453
NaCl
Purified Water q.s. 50mL
b. 0.329
a. 0.5g c. 0.555
b. 0.375g d. 0.378
c. 0.450g
d. 0.245g 16. Weakest force of attraction
a. Keesom
14. Vant’ Hoff factor of non-electrolyte
a. 0
b. Debye
b. 1 c. London
c. 1.8 d. NOTA
d. 2.6

17. Reversible formation of one form of polymorph to

17. Formula for intraspace porosity
a. (Vb-Vg/Vb) X 100
another
b. (Vb + Vp/Vb) X 100 a. Enantiotropic
c. (Vg-Vp/Vg) X 100 b. Monotropic
d. (Vb-Vp/Vb) X 100 c. Isotropic
d. Anisotropic
18. The initial plasma concentration of a drug given IV at
9:00am is 250mg/mL. If the half-life of the drug is 6 hours, 18. The drug has biological half –life of 2 hours. At the end
perform a calculation to predict the plasma concentration of eight hours, what percentage of the drug’s original
will be at 9:00pm that same day. activity will remain?
a. 125mg/mL a. 50%
b. 62.5mg/mL b. 25%
c. 31.25mg/mL c. 6.25%
d. 15.62mg/mL
d. 12.5%

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For nos. 19-20. 100g powder

Mesh # Grams of powder that did not pass
20 15g 21.Using White-Vincent Method, compute for
40 25g the required volume to make 0.2g of
60 10g
80 35g
atropine sulfate (E=0.13) isotonic. Answer
Collecting Pan 15g is in 2 decimal places.
19. What is the % of powder smaller than mesh 40 and larger than mesh 80? a. 2.88
a. 70% b. 2.89
b. 45%
c. 35% c. 3.00
d. 15% d. NOTA
20. What is the % powder larger than mesh 40?
a. 10%
b. 25%
c. 35%
d. 40%

24. Period of time where 90% of the original concentration

22.Solvent loving is left
a. Lyophobic a. Half-life
b. Lyophilic b. Shelf-life
c. Amphiphilic c. Both
d. NOTA d. None

23. Density is a derived quantity from 25.322 L of hydrogen occupies a volume of 197 L at STP. If
a. Mass and Volume the initial temperature of the hydrogen was 37° C, what
b. Mass and Length was its initial pressure?
c. Mass and Weight a. 0.69
d. NOTA b. 1
c. 2
d. 2.5

END OF PHYSICAL PHARMACY REVIEW

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