EM321 TOPIC 1 - Failure Theories and Fatigue Strength PDF

EM 401 / EM321
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN
Dr. Elango Natarajan

May 2019
Course learning outline
Course Learning Outcome (CLO) *Domain / **BT
Level
CLO1 Estimate failure of ductile and brittle components by C5

applying failure theories at different loading conditions.
CLO2 Estimate the fatigue failure of machine components C5

using appropriate design considerations, design
procedures and standards.
CLO3 Design mechanical components (i.e. Shaft, screw, C6

bearing) under dynamic loading condition.
CLO4 Design various transmission components (i.e., Gears, C6

Belts, Clutches) under dynamic loading condition.
CLO5 Design machine components for sustainability. C6

Assessments – EM321
Type of Assessment Percentage Course Learning Outcomes (CLO)
Assessment Methods (%)
1 2 3 4 5
Test 1 15 √ √
Test Test 2 15 √ √
Final Exam 50 √ √ √ √ √
Assignment Written or 20 √ √ √ √ √
Typed
Assignments
Topic 1
. Failure Theories and Fatigue Strength:
1
Introduction of machine design, general considerations in machine design, machine design

procedure, simple stresses in machine parts, torsional and bending stresses in machine parts,
varying and fluctuating loads, Design Codes and Standards; safety and product liability;
design factor and factor of safety.
Static strength; Stress concentration for static loads; Failure theories, failure of ductile
materials and brittle materials; Endurance limit, Endurance limit modifying factors, Stress
concentration and Notch sensitivity for fatigue loads, Fatigue strength.
Topic 2
2. Failure Resulting from Variable Loading:
Characterizing fluctuating stresses, Mean stress, Alternating stress, Fatigue failure

criteria for fluctuating stress, torsional fatigue strength under fluctuating stresses,
combinations of loading modes, varying, fluctuating stresses, cumulative fatigue
damage
Topic 3
3. Design of Mechanical Components:
Design of mechanical components - Shafts and Shaft Components – Screws -

Mechanical Springs - Bearings – Rolling contact bearings, - Lubrication and Journal
bearings - Design of non-permanent joints.
Topic 4
4. Design of power transmission components
Design of transmission systems - Gears – Spur and Helical Gears; Bevel and
Worm Gears - Clutches, and Brakes - Flexible Mechanical Elements – Belt drives
– Flat belt – V belt - Rope
Topic 5
5. Design of components for sustainability
Introduction to Sustainable Design. Use of sustainable design concept,

Sustainable design application, Design of components for sustainability.
Text book and references
• Richard G. Budynasand Keith Nisbett, “Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering
Design,” 10th Edition in SI Units, McGraw-Hill, 2014.
• M. F. Spotts, T. E. Shoupand L. E. Hornberger, “Design of Machine Elements,”
8th Edition, Prentice-Hall, 2004.
• Robert L. Norton, “Machine Design–An Integrated Approach,” 5th Edition,
Prentice Hall, 2013.
• S. R. Schmid, B. J. Hamrock, and B. Jacobson, “Fundamentals of Machine
Elements,” 3rd Edition, CRC press, 2013.
• Fundamentals of Machine Component Design” Robert C. Juvinall and Kurt M,
Marshek, Wiley; 5th Edition.
Design
• Design is either to formulate a plan for the satisfaction of a
specified need or to solve a specific problem.
• Engineering tools (such as mathematics, statistics,
computers, graphics and languages) are combined to produce
a plan that when carried out, produces a product that is
functional, safe, reliable, competitive, usable,
manufacturable, and marketable regardless of who builds it
or who uses it.
Design
• Designing is the process of making many decisions that

converts an abstract concept into a hardware reality.
Concept Product
Classification
Based upon the rate of technological changes, the
design work can be classified into two categories;
namely
1. Design by evolution
2. Design by innovation
Design by evolution
• Most of the new designs were copies of existing
designs with minor changes to suit the needs of the
local requirements.
• The rate of development was slow.

Design by evolution
• For example:
1. Improvement in performance, quality and appearance.
2. Reduction in overall cost
3. Changed market requirements and trends of competition.
4. Use of new or improved materials and manufacturing
technologies.
5. Improved functionality of the product.
Design by innovation
• In Design by innovation, a new product is developed on
ideas which were never practiced or tried.
• Various analytical tools such as CAD, CADD, FEA are

used to reduce risk of the design.
Mechanical engineering design
• Mechanical engineering design involves all the
disciplines of mechanical engineering.
• Example - Journal bearing:
fluid flow, heat transfer, friction, energy transport,

material selection, thermomechanical treatments,
statistical descriptions, etc.
Mechanical engineering design
There will be three phases:
1. Conceptual design
2. Embodiment design
3. Detailed design
Design process is a collection
of procedures and habits that
help teams design better
products.
Design process
• Iterative in nature
• Requires initial estimation,
followed by continued
refinement
Which of these is design and analysis?
• A. Given that the customer wishes to fasten
together two steel plates, select appropriate sizes
for the bolt, nut and washer.
• B. Given the cross-section geometry of a new

airplane wing we determine the lift it produces by
conducting wind tunnel experiments.
Design considerations
STRENGTH is an
important factor
in the
determination of
the geometry
and dimensions
of the element.
Design tools and resources
Acquiring technical information
A few useful sites.
Design engineer’s professional
responsibilities
Stresses in Design Parts
• Stress is associated with the strength of the material from which the body
is made, while strain is a measure of the deformation of the body.
• Mechanics of materials is a branch of mechanics that studies the internal

effects of stress and strain in a solid body that is subjected to an external
loading.
Answer
• How do you calculate concentrated load for uniformly distributed load?
Location of it?
• How do you calculate concentrated load for uniformly varying load?

Location of it?
Four types of internal resultant loadings used
in three dimensions
Normal force, N. This force acts
perpendicular to the area. It is developed
whenever the external loads tend to push
or pull on the two segments of the body.
Shear force, V. The shear force lies in the
plane of the area and it is developed when
the external loads tend to cause the two
segments of the body to slide over one
another.
Four types of internal resultant loadings used
in three dimensions
Torsional moment or torque, T. This
effect is developed when the external
loads tend to twist one segment of the
body with respect to the other about an
axis perpendicular to the area.
Bending moment, M. The bending
moment is caused by the external loads
that tend to bend the body about an axis
lying within the plane of the area.

Stresses
• Static stress
• Fluctuating or alternating stress
• Direct or normal stress

• Shear stress
• Torsional stress
• Bending stress
• Uniaxial stress, biaxial stress, triaxial stress

Elastic strain, stress and modulus
of elasticity
Fig. 2–1
• Used to obtain material characteristics and
strengths
• Loaded in tension with slowly increasing P
• Load and deflection are recorded
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering
Design
Stress and Strain
The stress is calculated from
where is the original cross-sectional area.
The normal strain is calculated from
where l0 is the original gauge length and l is the current length

corresponding to the current P.

Design
Elastic Relationship of Stress and
Strain
• Slope of linear section is Young’s Modulus, or
modulus of elasticity, E
• Hooke’s law
• E is relatively constant for a given type of material

(e.g. steel, copper, aluminum) Fig. 2–2 (a)
• See Table A-5 for typical values
• Usually independent of heat treatment, carbon
content, or alloying

Design
Young’s Modulus for Various Materials
Fig. 2–15
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design
Elastic Strain
• Hooke’s law
• E is Young’s modulus, or modulus of elasticity

• Tension in on direction produces negative strain
(contraction) in a perpendicular direction.
• For axial stress in x direction,
• The constant of proportionality  is Poisson’s ratio

• See Table A-5 for values for common materials.

Stress-Strain Diagram
• Plot stress vs. normal strain

• Typically linear relation until the proportional limit, pl
• No permanent deformation until the elastic limit, el
• Yield strength, Sy , defined at point where significant plastic
deformation begins, or where permanent set reaches a fixed
amount, usually 0.2% of the original gauge length
• Ultimate strength, Su , defined as the maximum stress on the
diagram

Design
Stress-Strain Diagram – ductile
material
Stress-Strain Diagram – brittle material
True Stress-Strain Diagram
 Engineering stress-strain diagrams
(commonly used) are based on
original area.
 Area typically reduces under load, Engineering
particularly during “necking” after
point u. stress-strain
 True stress is based on actual area

corresponding to current P.
 True strain is the sum of the
incremental elongations divided by
the current gauge length at load P.
(2-4) True Stress-strain

 Note that true stress continually
increases all the way to fracture.
Design
Cartesian Stress Components
• In most cases, “cross shears” are equal
Fig. 3−8

Elastic Strain
• For a stress element undergoing sx, sy, and sz,

simultaneously,

Elastic Strain
• Hooke’s law for shear:
• Shear strain g is the change in a right angle of a

stress element when subjected to pure shear
stress.
• G is the shear modulus of elasticity or modulus
of rigidity.
• For a linear, isotropic, homogeneous material,

Compression Strength
• Compression tests are used to obtain
compressive strengths.
• Buckling and bulging can be problematic.
• For ductile materials, compressive strengths are
usually about the same as tensile strengths,
Suc = Sut .
• For brittle materials, compressive strengths, Suc ,
are often greater than tensile strengths, Sut .

Design
Torsion - torsional Strength
 Torsional strengths are found by twisting solid circular bars.
 Results are plotted as a torque-twist diagram.
 Shear stresses in the specimen are linear with respect to the radial location – zero at
the center and maximum at the outer radius.
 Maximum shear stress is related to the angle of twist by
◦ q is the angle of twist (in radians) 𝜏 𝐺𝜃 𝑇

= =
◦ r is the radius of the bar 𝑟 𝑙 𝐽
◦ l0 is the gauge length
◦ G is the material stiffness property called the shear modulus or modulus of rigidity.

Design
Torsional Strengths
• Maximum shear stress is related to the applied
torque by
– J is the polar second moment of area of the cross section

𝜋 4
– For round cross section, 𝐽 = 𝐷
32
• Torsional yield strength, Ssy corresponds to the
maximum shear stress at the point where the
torque-twist diagram becomes significantly non-
linear
• Modulus of rupture, Ssu corresponds to the torque Tu
at the maximum point on the torque-twist diagram

Design
Exercise – TRY YOURSELF
Exercise – TRY YOURSELF
Design Stress and Strength
• Usually necessary to design components using
published strength values
• Experimental test data is better, but generally only
warranted for large quantities or when failure is very
costly (in time, expense, or life)
• Methods are needed to safely and efficiently use
published strength values for a variety of situations.
For example: if the component is going to encounter
bending load, bending test is to be conducted.
Design
What is called a failure of a
component?
Fracture
Know it? Fracture failure
• Fracture is separation of a body into pieces due to stress, at
temperatures below the melting point.
• Steps in fracture: 1. crack formation 2. crack propagation
• Ductile fracture - Extensive plastic deformation ahead of crack
• Brittle fracture - Relatively little plastic deformation, Crack is

“unstable”, propagates rapidly without increase in applied stress.
Know it? Fracture
Know it? Fatigue failure
• It is a tendency of a material to fracture by means of progressive brittle
cracking under repeated cyclic stresses of intensity normally below the
strength of the material.
• The loading occurring in machine members produce stresses that are
called variable, repeated, alternating, or fluctuating stresses.
• Often, machine members are found to have failed under the action of
repeated or fluctuating stresses;
• The most careful analysis reveals that the actual maximum stresses were
well below the ultimate strength of the material, and quite frequently
even below the yield strength, it is called fatigue failure.
Failure Examples
• Failure of truck driveshaft spline due to

corrosion fatigue

Design
Failure Examples
• Impact failure of a lawn-mower blade driver

hub.
• The blade impacted a surveying pipe marker.

Design
Failure Examples
• Failure of an overhead-pulley retaining bolt on a

weightlifting machine.
• A manufacturing error caused a gap that forced
the bolt to take the entire moment load.
Design
Failure Examples
 Chain test fixture that failed in one cycle.

 To alleviate complaints of excessive wear, the manufacturer
decided to case-harden the material
 (a) Two halves showing brittle fracture initiated by stress
concentration
 (b) Enlarged view showing cracks induced by stress
concentration at the support-pin holes Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering
Design
Failure Examples
• Valve-spring failure caused by spring surge in an

overspeed engine.
• The fractures exhibit the classic 45 degree shear
failure Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering
Design
Standards and Codes
Standards and codes
• A standard can be defined as a set of technical definitions and
guidelines that function as instructions for designers,
manufacturers, operators, or users of equipment.
• Standards are a set of specifications for materials, parts, or
processes.
• Standards, not having the force of law, are considered voluntary and
serve as guidelines.
• It is intended to achieve uniformity, efficiency and performance or
quality.
Standards and codes
• AISC (American Institute of Steel Construction)
• ASTM Standards
• CSA Online Subscription Service (Canadian Standards Association)
• Ex: ASTM Standard E 709, Standard Guide for Magnetic Particle
Testing
Standards and codes
• ASME publishes standards and accredits users of standards to
ensure that they are capable of manufacturing products that meet
those standards.
• Ex: ASME 31.3 is a standard for process piping.
• Ex: ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code or BPVC – is the standard
that regulates the design, development and construction of boilers
and pressure vessels utilized in a variety of industries.
• AWS D1.1 Structural Welding Code – Steel

Standards and codes
• Code is a set of specifications for analysis, design, manufacture and
construction of something.
• A standard becomes code when it has been adopted by one or

more governmental bodies and is enforceable by law, or when it
has been incorporated into a business contract.
• It is intended to achieve a degree of safety, efficiency, performance

or quality,
Standards and codes
Standards and codes
Table A-17 preferred sizes
Table A-17
Preferred sizes and Renard (R series) numbers for shaft design
1st choice, R5 1, 1.6, 2.5, 4, 6.3, 10
2nd choice, R10 1.25, 2, 3.15, 5, 8
3rd choice, R20 1.12, 1.4, 1.8, 2.24, 2.8, 3.55, 4.5, 5.6, 7.1, 9
4th choice, R40 1.06, 1.18, 1.32, 1.5, 1.7, 1.9, 2.12, 2.36, 2.65, 3, 3.35,
3.75, 4.25, 4.75, 5.3, 6, 6.7, 7.5, 8.5, 9.5
Factor of Safety
Sources of uncertainty
Uncertainty
• Engineers must accommodate uncertainty.
• Uncertainty always accompanies change.
• Material properties, load variability, fabrication
fidelity, and validity of mathematical models are
among concerns to designers.
• There are mathematical models to address
uncertainties.
Uncertainty
• The primary techniques are;
1. Deterministic method
2. Stochastic method
Uncertainty
Also called Factor of Safety

Factor of safety
• The factor of safety (F.S.) is a ratio of the failure load to the
allowable load.
• It is selected based on experience so that the uncertainties are
accounted for when the member is used under similar conditions of
loading and geometry.
• It is mostly more than 1. For Air craft or space components –
FOS≥1, For Nuclear components – FOS≥3

Example- Do it yourself
A solid circular rod of diameter d undergoes a bending
moment M=100 N-m inducing a stress 16 M/d3. Using
a material strength of 170 MPa and a design factor of
2.5, determine the minimum diameter of the rod.
Select a preferred fractional diameter and determine

the resulting factor of safety.
Static Stress Concentration
Stress concentration
In almost engineering components and machine have to
incorporate design features which introduce changes in thin
cross-section.
Changes in cross section causes localized stress concentrations
and severity depends on the geometry of the discontinuity and
nature of the material.
Applies to brittle & notch sensitive materials.
It should be considered when using high-strength, low ductility,
case-hardened & / or heavily cold work materials.
Stress concentration
Stress Concentration for static load condition
• It is caused by localized increase of stress near

discontinuities
• Kt or Kts is called Theoretical (Geometric) Stress
Concentration Factor
Kt is the ratio of actual maximum stress at the discontinuity to

nominal normal stress.
Kts is the ratio of actual maximum shear stress at the
discontinuity to nominal shear stress.

Theoretical Stress Concentration Factor

Stress Concentration for Static and Ductile Conditions
• With static loads and ductile materials

– Highest stressed fibers yield (cold work)
– Load is shared with next fibers
– Cold working is localized
– Overall part does not see damage unless ultimate
strength is exceeded
– Stress concentration effect is commonly ignored for
static loads on ductile materials
Techniques to Reduce Stress Concentration
• Increase radius
• Reduce disruption
• Allow “dead zones” to shape flowlines more gradually

Example 1

Example 1 - solution
Fig. A−15 −1


Fig. A−15−5

Failure theories
Need for Static Failure Theories
• Uniaxial stress element (e.g. tension test)
Strength S
n 
Stress s
Multi-axial stress element
– One strength, multiple stresses
– How to compare stress state to single strength?

Design
Need for Static Failure Theories
• Failure theories propose appropriate means of
comparing multi-axial stress states to single strength
• Unfortunately, there is no universal theory of failure for

the general case of material properties and stress state.
• Usually based on some hypothesis of what aspect of
the stress state is critical
• Some failure theories have gained recognition of
usefulness for various situations.
Design
Generally accepted theories
Ductile material (Yield criteria)
Maximum shear stress (MSS) theory
Distortion theory (DE)
Ductile-Coulomb-Mohr theory (DCM)
Brittle materials (fracture criteria)

Maximum normal stress (MNS)
Brittle Coulomb-Mohr (BCM)
Modified Mohr (MM)
Maximum Shear Stress Theory (MSS)
• Theory: Yielding begins when the maximum shear stress in a
stress element exceeds the maximum shear stress in a
tension test specimen of the same material when that
specimen begins to yield.
• For a tension test specimen, the maximum shear stress is
s1 /2.
• At yielding, when s1 = Sy, the maximum shear stress is Sy /2 .
• Could restate the theory as follows:
– Theory: Yielding begins when the maximum shear stress in a
stress element exceeds Sy/2.

Design
Maximum Shear Stress Theory (MSS)
• For any stress element, use Mohr’s circle to find the
maximum shear stress. Compare the maximum shear
stress to Sy/2.
• Ordering the principal stresses such that s1 ≥ s2 ≥ s3,
• Incorporating a design factor n
• Or solving for factor of safety

Sy / 2
n
 max Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering
Design
Distortion Energy (DE) Failure Theory
• Originated from observation that ductile materials stressed
hydrostatically (equal principal stresses) exhibited yield
strengths greatly in excess of expected values.
Fig. 5–8
Design
• Also known as:

– Octahedral Shear Stress
– Shear Energy
– Von Mises
– Von Mises – Hencky

• Theory: Yielding occurs when the distortion
strain energy per unit volume reaches the
distortion strain energy per unit volume for
yield in simple tension or compression of the
same material.
Fig. 5–8
Design
Deriving the Distortion Energy
• Hydrostatic stress is average of principal stresses
• Strain energy per unit volume,
• Substituting Eq. (3–19) for principal strains into strain energy

equation,

Design
• Strain energy for producing only volume change is obtained by
substituting sav for s1, s2, and s3
• Substituting sav from Eq. (a),
• Obtain distortion energy by subtracting volume changing

energy, Eq. (5–7), from total strain energy, Eq. (b)

Design
• Tension test specimen at yield has s1 = Sy and s2 = s3 =0

• Applying to Eq. (5–8), distortion energy for tension test
specimen is
• DE theory predicts failure when distortion energy, Eq. (5–8),

exceeds distortion energy of tension test specimen, Eq. (5–9)

Design
Von Mises Stress
• Left hand side is defined as von Mises stress (equivalent stress)
• For plane stress, simplifies to

Design
Von Mises Stress
• In terms of xyz components, in three
dimensions
• In terms of xyz components, for plane stress

Distortion Energy Theory With Von Mises Stress
• Von Mises Stress can be thought of as a single, equivalent, or

effective stress for the entire general state of stress in a stress
element.
• Distortion Energy failure theory simply compares von Mises
stress to yield strength.
• Introducing a design factor,
• Expressing as factor of safety,
Sy
n
s
Design
Exercise
• A hot-rolled steel has a yield strength of
Syt = Syc = 700 MPa and a true strain at fracture

of εf=0.55. Estimate the factor of safety for the
following principal stress states: 490, 490, 0 MPa
using DE theory
Exercise - solution
• DE equation for plane stress is,
• Substituting values,
1ൗ
𝜎 ′ = 4902 − 490𝑥490 + 4902 2 = 490 MPa
𝑆𝑦 700
Factor of safety 𝑛 = = = 1.43
𝜎′ 490
Mohr Theory
• Some materials have compressive strengths
different from tensile strengths
• Mohr theory is based on three simple tests:
tension, compression, and shear
• Plotting Mohr’s circle for each, bounding curve
defines failure envelope
Fig. 5−12
Shigley’s Mechanical
Engineering Design
Coulomb-Mohr Theory
• Curved failure curve is difficult to determine
analytically
• Coulomb-Mohr theory simplifies to linear failure
envelope using only tension and compression
tests (dashed circles)
Fig. 5−13
Engineering Design
Ductile Coulomb-Mohr Theory
• Incorporating factor of safety
• For ductile material, use tensile and

compressive yield strengths
• For brittle material, use tensile and compressive
ultimate strengths
Engineering Design
Ductile Coulomb-Mohr Theory
• To plot on principal stress axes, consider three cases

• Case 1: sA ≥ sB ≥ 0 For this case, s1 = sA and s3 = 0
– Eq. (5−22) reduces to
• Case 2: sA ≥ 0 ≥ sB For this case, s1 = sA and

s 3 = sB
– Eq. (5-22) reduces to
• Case 3: 0 ≥ sA ≥ sB For this case, s1 = 0 and

s 3 = sB
– Eq. (5−22) reduces to
Engineering Design
Coulomb-Mohr Theory
• Plot three cases on principal stress axes
• Similar to MSS theory, except with different
strengths for compression and tension
Fig. 5−14
Engineering Design
Coulomb-Mohr Theory
• Intersect the pure shear load line with the failure line to
determine the shear strength
• Since failure line is a function of tensile and compressive
strengths, shear strength is also a function of these terms.
For pure shear τ, 𝜎1 = −𝜎3 = 𝜏

The torsional shear strength 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑆𝑠𝑦 ,
Substituting 𝜎1 = −𝜎3 = 𝑆𝑠𝑦
Engineering Design
Example 5-2

Example 5-2

Exercise – try yourself
A 52 mm diameter shaft is statically torqued to
935 N-m. It is made of Gray Cast Iron 30, with
the yield strength in tension of 213.73 MPa, and
a yield strength in compression of 751.52 MPa.
It is machined to final diameter. Estimate the
factor of safety of the shaft.
Failure Theories for Brittle Materials
• Experimental data indicates some differences in
failure for brittle materials.
• Failure criteria is generally ultimate fracture
rather than yielding
• Compressive strengths are usually larger than
tensile strengths
Engineering Design Fig. 5−19
Maximum Normal Stress Theory
• Theory: Failure occurs when the maximum
principal stress in a stress element exceeds the
strength.
• Predicts failure when
• For plane stress, Incorporating design factor,
Engineering Design
Brittle Coulomb-Mohr
• Same as previously derived, using ultimate strengths for failure
• Failure equations dependent on quadrant
Quadrant condition Failure criteria
Fig. 5−14
Engineering Design
Modified-Mohr
Quadrant condition Failure criteria
Engineering Design
Fatigue
Introduction to Fatigue in Metals
• The stresses vary with time or fluctuate between different levels.
• Ex. A fiber on the rotating shaft subjected to the action of bending

loads undergoes both tension and compression for each revolution of
the shaft.
• Hence, loading produces stresses that are variable, repeated,

alternating, or fluctuating.
• The actual maximum stresses are well below yield strength, but failure
occurs after many stress cycles. This is called fatigue failure.
• Fatigue failure is by sudden ultimate fracture.
• No visible warning in advance of failure is found.

Stages of Fatigue Failure
• Stage I – Initiation of
micro-crack due to cyclic
plastic deformation
• Stage II – Progresses to
macro-crack that
repeatedly opens and
closes, creating bands
called beach marks.
• Stage III – Crack has

propagated far enough
that remaining material is
insufficient to carry the
load, and fails by simple
ultimate failure Fig. 6–1
Schematics of Fatigue Fracture Surfaces



Fatigue Fracture Examples
 AISI 4320 drive

shaft
 B– crack initiation at
stress concentration
in keyway
 C– Final brittle
failure

 Fatigue failure
initiating at
mismatched grease
holes.
 Sharp corners (at

arrows) provided
stress concentrations

 Fatigue failure of
forged connecting rod.
 Crack initiated at flash

line of the forging at the
left edge of picture.
 Beach marks show

crack propagation
halfway around the hole
before ultimate fracture

 Fatigue failure of a
200-mm diameter
piston rod of an alloy
steel steam hammer
loaded axially.
 Crack initiated at a
forging flake internal to
the part.
 Internal crack grew

outward symmetrically

 Double-flange trailer wheel
 Cracks initiated at stamp marks

 Aluminum allow landing-gear torque-arm assembly redesign to
eliminate fatigue fracture at lubrication hole

Fatigue-Life Methods
• Three major fatigue life models:
1. Stress life method
2. Stain life method
3. Linear elastic fracture mechanics method.
• These methods attempt to predict life in number of

cycles to failure, N, for a specific level of loading.
• Life of 1  N  103 cycles is generally considered as

low cycle fatigue, where as high cycle fatigue is
considered to be N  103 cycles.
S-N diagram plotted from the results of completely
reversed axial fatigue tests.
S-N diagram plotted from the
results of completely reversed axial
fatigue tests.
 Number of cycles to failure at varying stress
levels is plotted on log-log scale
 For steels, a knee occurs near 106 cycles
 Strength corresponding to the knee is called
endurance limit Se or fatigue limit.
 Nonferrous metals often do not have an
endurance limit.
ENDURANCE LIMIT
The Endurance Limit
• The determination of endurance limits by fatigue testing is now routine,
though a lengthy procedure.
• Simplified estimate of endurance limit for steels for the rotating-beam

specimen, S'e.
Sut is minimum tensile strength.
• The unprimed symbol Se is reserved for the endurance limit of an actual

machine element subjected to any kind of loading.

The Endurance Limit
Endurance Limit Modifying Factors
• Endurance limit S'e is for carefully prepared and tested

under a closely controlled conditions.
• It is unrealistic to expect the endurance limit of a
mechanical member to match values obtained in the
laboratory.
• If warranted, Se is obtained from testing of actual parts.
• Testing of actual parts is not practical, hence, a set of
Marin factors are used to adjust the endurance limit

Endurance limit modifying factors
• It is unrealistic to expect the endurance limit of a
mechanical or structural member to match the values
obtained in the laboratory.
• Some differences include:
• Marin identified factors to quantify these effects.

Marin equation
Surface Factor ka
• Stresses tend to be high at the surface.
• Surface finish has an impact on initiation of cracks at
localized stress concentrations.
• Surface factor is a function of ultimate strength.
• Higher strengths are more sensitive to rough surfaces.

Parameters for Marin surface
modification factor
Example

Size Factor kb
• Larger parts have greater surface area at high
stress levels
• Likelihood of crack initiation is higher
• Size factor is obtained from experimental data with
wide scatter
• For bending and torsion loads, the trend of the size
factor data is given by
• Applies only for round, rotating diameter

• For axial load, there is no size effect, so kb = 1
Size Factor kb
• For parts that are not round and rotating, an

equivalent round rotating diameter is obtained.
• It is obtained by equating the volume of
material stressed at and above 95% of the
maximum stress to the same volume in the
rotating-beam specimen.
• When these two volumes are equated, lengths
cancel, we need only consider the areas.
• For a rotating round section, the 95% stress
area is the area of a ring, having an outside
diameter d and inside diameter 0.95d
Size Factor kb
• For non-rotating round, the 95% stress area is twice the
area outside of two parallel chords having the space of
0.95d.
• Equating to Eq. (6-22) and (6-23) and solving for

equivalent diameter,
• Similarly, for rectangular section h x b, A95s = 0.05 hb.

Equating to Eq. (6–22),
• Other common cross sections are given in Table 6–3

Size Factor kb
Table 6–3
A95s for
common non-
rotating
structural
shapes

Example

Loading Factor kc
• Endurance limit estimated in Eq (6-8) is typically obtained from

testing with completely reversed bending.
• Load factor accounts for changes in endurance limit for different

types of fatigue loading.

Temperature Factor kd
• When operating temperatures are below room

temperature, brittle fracture is a strong
possibility.
• When it is higher than room temperature,

yielding should be investigated because yield
strength drops off so rapidly with temperature.
• Endurance limit appears to maintain same relation to ultimate

strength for elevated temperatures as at room temperature
• This relation is summarized in Table 6–4

• If ultimate strength is known for operating

temperature, then just use that strength. Let kd
= 1 and proceed as usual.
• If ultimate strength is known only at room
temperature, then use Table 6–4 to estimate
ultimate strength at operating temperature.
With that strength, let kd = 1 and proceed as
usual.
• Alternatively, use ultimate strength at room temperature and

apply temperature factor from Table 6–4 to the endurance
limit.
• A fourth-order polynomial curve fit of the underlying data of

Table 6–4 can be used in place of the table, if desired.
Reliability Factor ke
• From Fig. 6–17, S'e = 0.5 Sut is typical of the data and represents
50% reliability.
• Reliability factor adjusts to other reliabilities.
• Only adjusts Fig. 6–17 assumption. Does not imply overall
reliability.
Fig. 6–17

Reliability Factor ke
• Simply obtain ke for desired reliability from Table

6–5.
Table 6–5

Miscellaneous-Effects Factor kf
• Reminder to consider other possible factors.

– Residual stresses
– Directional characteristics from cold working
– Case hardening
– Corrosion
– Surface conditioning, e.g. electrolytic plating and metal spraying
– Cyclic Frequency
– Frettage Corrosion
• Limited data is available.
• May require research or testing. Use Kf = 1 in all problems.

Fatigue strength estimation (Sf)
• Fatigue strength of the component is

estimated by conducting experiments and
plotting S-N curve.
• If endurance strength is known, the following

empirical formula can be used:
𝑆𝑓 = 𝑎 𝑁 𝑏
Fatigue strength estimation (Sf)
Fatigue strength estimation (Sf) –
fraction of Sut
Exercise
Given a 1050 HR steel (Sut = 630 MPa) , estimate
a) The rotating-beam endurance limit at 106 cycles.
b) The endurance strength of a polished rotating-beam
specimen corresponding to 104 cycles to failure.
c) The expected life of a polished rotating-beam
specimen under a completely reversed stress of 385
MPa.
Exercise - solution
a) Endurance limit of the given steel is,
𝑆𝑒′ = 0.5 630 = 315 𝑀𝑃𝑎
b) Referring Figure 6-18, fraction factor f=0.86 for Sut=630

MPa.
(0.86 𝑥 630)2
𝑎= = 931.896 MPa.
315
1 0.86(630)
𝑏= − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 = -0.0785
3 315
Thus,
𝑆𝑓′ = 931.896 𝑁 −0.0785
For N = 104 cycles, 𝑆𝑓′ = 931.86(104 )−0.0785 = 452.22 MPa
Exercise - solution
c) For completely reversed stress 𝜎𝑎 =
385 𝑀𝑃𝑎,
The expected life is,

1Τ
385 −0.0785
𝑁= =7.7 (104) cycles.
931.86
Exercise – Do it yourself
A 1015 hot-rolled steel bar has been machined to a diameter
of 25 mm. It is to be placed in reversed axial loading for 70000
cycles to failure in an operating environment of 300°C.
Using ASTM minimum properties, and a reliability of 99%,
estimate the endurance limit and fatigue strength at 70000
cycles.
Sut = 340 MPa @ 20°C.
A company would like to manufacture pad locks
(as shown in Figure Q(c)) with AISI 1040 steel for
infinite life (106). The diameter of the shackle is
considered to be 10 mm for high security. The
shackle has a machined finish and heat treated
to a tensile strength of 710 MPa. Consider
fatigue strength fraction f=0.84 and answer the
following;
i. As a design engineer, say which part of the pad lock is a critical component?
i. Estimate endurance strength of the padlock.

Fatigue Stress Concentration & Notch
Senstivity
Stress concentration factors (Kf and Kfs)
• Existence of irregularities or discontinuities, such as holes,
grooves, notches, in a part increases the theoretical
stresses significantly in the immediate vicinity of the
discontinuity.
• For dynamic loading, stress concentration effects must be
applied.
• For fatigue, some materials are not fully sensitive to Kt , so a
reduced value can be used.
Stress Concentration and Notch Sensitivity
• Obtain Kt or Kts as usual (e.g. Appendix A–15)

• Kf as the fatigue stress-concentration factor, is the reduced
value of Kt.
• Define q as notch sensitivity, ranging from 0 (not sensitive)
to 1 (fully sensitive).
• For q=0, Kf=1,
• for q=1, Kf=Kt
• Stress concentration factor for bending Kf = 1 + q( Kt – 1)
• Stress concentration factor for shear Kfs = 1 + qs( Kts – 1)

Stress Concentration and Notch Sensitivity
• In analysis or design,
Find Kt first, from the geometry of the part.
Then specify the material, obtain q for

bending or axial loading from Fig. 6–20.
Then get Kf from Eq. (6–32):
Kf = 1 + q(Kt – 1) or
Kfs = 1 + qs( Kts – 1)

Notch Sensitivity (q)
Fig. 6–20

Notch Sensitivity (qs)
Fig. 6–21 Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Table for Kt
Table for Kts
Notch Sensitivity
• Alternatively, can use curve fit equations for Figs. 6–20 and 6–21 to get notch sensitivity, or go directly to
Kf .
Bending or axial:
Torsion:

Notch Sensitivity for Cast Irons
• Cast irons are already full of discontinuities,

which are included in the strengths.
• Additional notches do not add much additional

harm.
• Recommended to use q = 0.2 for cast irons.

Exercise

Exercise - solution
Topic 1 completed.

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EM 401 / EM321

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN

Dr. Elango Natarajan

CLO1 Estimate failure of ductile and brittle components by C5

CLO2 Estimate the fatigue failure of machine components C5

CLO3 Design mechanical components (i.e. Shaft, screw, C6

CLO4 Design various transmission components (i.e., Gears, C6

CLO5 Design machine components for sustainability. C6

Introduction of machine design, general considerations in machine design, machine design

Characterizing fluctuating stresses, Mean stress, Alternating stress, Fatigue failure

Design of mechanical components - Shafts and Shaft Components – Screws -

Introduction to Sustainable Design. Use of sustainable design concept,

• Designing is the process of making many decisions that

• The rate of development was slow.

• Various analytical tools such as CAD, CADD, FEA are

• Example - Journal bearing:

fluid flow, heat transfer, friction, energy transport,

• B. Given the cross-section geometry of a new

• Mechanics of materials is a branch of mechanics that studies the internal

• How do you calculate concentrated load for uniformly varying load?

perpendicular to the area. It is developed

whenever the external loads tend to push

or pull on the two segments of the body.

Shear force, V. The shear force lies in the

plane of the area and it is developed when

the external loads tend to cause the two

segments of the body to slide over one

Bending moment, M. The bending

moment is caused by the external loads

that tend to bend the body about an axis

lying within the plane of the area.

• Direct or normal stress

• Uniaxial stress, biaxial stress, triaxial stress

where is the original cross-sectional area.

The normal strain is calculated from

where l0 is the original gauge length and l is the current length

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering

• E is relatively constant for a given type of material

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering

• E is Young’s modulus, or modulus of elasticity

• The constant of proportionality  is Poisson’s ratio

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

• Plot stress vs. normal strain

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering

 True stress is based on actual area

(2-4) True Stress-strain

• In most cases, “cross shears” are equal

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

• For a stress element undergoing sx, sy, and sz,

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

• Hooke’s law for shear:

• Shear strain g is the change in a right angle of a

• For a linear, isotropic, homogeneous material,

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering

 Results are plotted as a torque-twist diagram.

 Maximum shear stress is related to the angle of twist by

◦ q is the angle of twist (in radians) 𝜏 𝐺𝜃 𝑇

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering

– J is the polar second moment of area of the cross section

Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering

• Steps in fracture: 1. crack formation 2. crack propagation

• Ductile fracture - Extensive plastic deformation ahead of crack