MMC Manual 1

MECHANICS OF MACHINES LAB
ME2031
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Capital University of Science and Technology
Lab manual Mechanics of Machines
Table of contents
Experiment # 01.............................................................................................................................................................6
To study the characteristics of four bar mechanism ..................................................................................................6
Experiment # 02........................................................................................................................................................... 11
To study the motion of crank-connecting rod mechanism ...................................................................................... 11
Experiment # 03........................................................................................................................................................... 15
To study the motion of Whit-worth quick return mechanism ................................................................................. 15
Experiment # 04........................................................................................................................................................... 19
To understand basic solid modeling on CREO-Parametric ..................................................................................... 19
Experiment # 05........................................................................................................................................................... 25
To understand basic Assembly on CREO-Parametric ............................................................................................. 25
Experiment # 06........................................................................................................................................................... 51
To understand mechanism simulation and analysis on CREO-Parametric ............................................................. 51
Experiment # 07........................................................................................................................................................... 59
Study of Cam-follower mechanism ......................................................................................................................... 59
Experiment # 08........................................................................................................................................................... 66
To calculate the mechanical advantage of screw jack ............................................................................................. 66
Experiment # 09........................................................................................................................................................... 71
To calculate the mechanical advantage of wheel and axle ...................................................................................... 71
Experiment # 10........................................................................................................................................................... 76
To calculate the mechanical advantage of a winch crab.......................................................................................... 76
Experiment # 11........................................................................................................................................................... 81
To calculate the mechanical advantage of compound spurs gear ............................................................................ 81
Experiment # 12........................................................................................................................................................... 86
To investigate the behavior of flat clutch plates ...................................................................................................... 86
Experiment #13 ........................................................................................................................................................... 92
To show the working of different components in a car with the help of a cutaway model ..................................... 92
Experiment #14 ........................................................................................................................................................... 98
To demonstrate the types, working, advantages and disadvantages of Constant velocity joint, Oldham coupling
and Bevel gear ........................................................................................................................................................ 98
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering Capital University of Science & Technology

(Mechanics of Machines Lab)

Course Designation: Core
Credits: 1
No. of Sessions per week: 1
Session Duration: 180 min
Semester: Spring 2016
LAB Coordinator
Mr. Shahwar Yaseen

Faculty Office 2nd Floor E-Block
E-mail: shahwar.yaseen@cust.edu.pk
LAB Instructor
Mr. Sami Ur Rehman

E-mail :sami.rehman@cust.edu.pk
Textbook
Mechanics of Machines Manual

MECHANICS OF MACHINES

Course Learning Objective

ME2031 - Mechanics of Machines
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Capital University of Science and Technology
S. No Outcomes Level of PLO

Learning
1 Use CREO-Parametric software to apply the knowledge of C3 PLO5

mechanics of machines in simulating a mechanism.
2 Help the team to present the performance of designed A2 PLO9
mechanism.
3 To measure key variables of interest such as degree of
freedom, displacement, velocity, acceleration, mechanical
advantage and efficiency of various mechanisms.
Rubric 1
Marks CLO1 – Level C3 mapped to PLO5 (Modern Tool Usage)
0-2 He/ She can set up but cannot simulate the mechanism.
3-7 He/ She can run the mechanism without inferring the results.
8-10 He/ She can proficiently design and analyze the mechanism using CREO-
Parametric and able to relate the results with theory.

Rubric 2
Marks CLO2 – Level A2 mapped to PLO9 (Individual and Team work)
0-2 He/ She show less interest in explaining the mechanism.
03-07 He/ She explains the working and fabrication of project without explaining the
theoretical model.
08-10 He/ She effectively explains the development of project from theoretical model
to fabricated project
Rubric 3
Marks CLO3
02 Set up of equipment is not carried out accurately; help is required with several
major details. Consequently, measurements of key variable of interest are also
not accurate
05 Set up of equipment is carried out accurately; help is required with minor

details for measurements of key variable of interest.
07 Set up of equipment is carried out accurately; no major help is required with

measurements of key variable of interest. Student is however hesitant and
makes few attempts before measuring accurately.
10 Set up of equipment is carried out accurately, measurements of key variable of

interest is carried out confidently and proficiently.

CLO3: To measure key variables of interest such as degree of freedom, displacement, velocity,
acceleration, mechanical advantage and efficiency of various mechanisms.
Rubric 3
Marks CLO3
not accurate



Experiment # 01
To study the characteristics of four bar mechanism.
Objective:
 To find the degree of freedom of four bar mechanism
 To find the Grashof conditions for four bar mechanism
Apparatus
 Four bar mechanism apparatus
 Measuring tape
Theory:
Link and mechanism:
The word link is used to designate a machine part or a component of a mechanism. Each rigid body of a
machine which has motion relative to some other rigid body is termed as kinematic link or element.
Whereas a mechanism is a combination of different links assembled in such a way that the motion of one
causes predictable motion to others.
Kinematic pair and kinematic chain:

The links of mechanism must be connected together in such a manner that these transmit motion from the
driver link to the follower link. Two links which are connected together in such a way that their relative
motion is completely constrained forms a kinematic pair.
A kinematic chain is a combination of kinematic pairs in which each element or link forms part of two
pairs and the relative motion is completely constrained
Some important terms used in link mechanisms are
1. Crank: A slide link which revolves relative to the frame is called crank
2. Rocker: Any link which does not revolve but oscillates but a certain range is called rocker.
3. Coupler: A link which connects crank and rocker is called coupler.
4. Ground: A link which remains fixed is called ground link.
(a) Three links (b) Four links
(c) Five links

Fig: 8.1Different types of mechanisms

Degree of freedom:
One of the first concerns in either design or mechanism is its degree of freedom, also called mobility of
the device. The mobility of a mechanism is the number of input parameters which must be controlled
independently in order to bring the device into a particular position.
Gruebler condition:
The degree of freedom of any mechanism can be predicted using the Gruebler condition which is given
by the formula:
𝑀 = 3𝐿 − 2𝐽 − 3𝐺
Where:
𝑀= Degree of freedom or mobility
𝐿= Total number of links
𝐽= Total number of joints
𝐺=total number of grounded links
Four link mechanism:

In a four-bar linkage, we refer to the line segment between the hinges on a given link as a bar where:
 s = length of shortest bar

 l = length of longest bar
 p, q = lengths of intermediate bar
Grashof conditions:
The Grashof condition is a very simple relationship which predicts the rotation behavior or rotatabilityof a
four bar linkage's inversions based only on the link lengths.
Then if: 𝑆+𝐿 ≤𝑃+𝑄
The linkage is Grashof and at least one link will be capable of making a full revolution with respect
to the ground plane. This is called a Class 1 kinematic chain. If the inequality is not true, then the
linkage is non-Grashof and no link will be capable of a complete revolution relative to any other link.
This is a Class II kinematic chain.
The motions possible from a four bar linkage will depend on both the Grashof condition and the
inversion chosen. The inversions will be defined with respect to the shortest link. The motions are:
For the Class-I case:
𝑆+𝐿 <𝑃+𝑄
Ground either link adjacent to the shortest and you get a crank-rocker, in which the shortest link will
fully rotate and the other link pivoted to ground will oscillate. Ground the shortest link and you will
get a double-crank, in which both links pivoted to ground make complete revolutions as does the

coupler. Ground the link opposite the shortest and you will get a Grashof double-rocker, in which
both links pivoted to ground oscillate and only the coupler makes a full revolution.
For the class-II case:
𝑆+𝐿 >𝑃+𝑄
All inversions will be triple-rockers in which no link can fully rotate
For the class-III case:
𝑆+𝐿 = 𝑃+𝑄
Referred to as special-case Grashof and also as a Class III kinematic chain, all inversions will be
either double-cranks or crank-rockers but will have "change points" twice per revolution of the input
crank when the links all become collinear. At these change points the output behavior will become
indeterminate.
Procedure:
1. Count the total number of links.
2. Count the total number of joints.
3. Use eq. 1 to tell whether it is a kinematic chain or not.
4. Using the Gruebler's equation 𝑀 = 3𝐿 − 2𝐽 − 3𝐺 calculate the degree of freedom.
5. Now measure length of each link using measuring tape.
6. Place the stopper in the corresponding slot for which mechanism becomes Grashof’s class I, and
take the readings.
7. Repeat the experiment for class II and class III and take the readings.
8. If any one of the cases cannot be satisfied, then mention the difficulty and discuss the solution for
this problem.
Observation and calculations:

Number of links:……………………………………………
Number of joints:…………………………………………...
Kinematic chain equation:………………………………….
Geubler’s equation………………………………………….
Degree of freedom:…………………………………………

For class-I
Sr. No Link 1 Link 2 Link 3 Link 4 Crank Rocker
Length Length Length Length Rotation Rotation
(Crank) (Coupler) (Rocker) (Ground) (degrees) (degrees)
For class II
For class III

Discussion:

Rubric 3
Marks CLO3
not accurate



Experiment # 02
To study the motion of crank-connecting rod mechanism
Objective:
To study the relationship between motion of crank and the connecting rod in a crank-connecting rod
mechanism.
Apparatus
 Crank-connecting rod apparatus
 Measuring tape
 Angular scale
Theory:
Slider-crank mechanism is an arrangement of mechanical parts designed to convert straight-line motion to
rotary motion and vice versa. In simple slider-crank mechanism the slider moves in x-direction only
whereas, an oscillating cylinder mechanism is a simple arrangement in which slider undergoes angular
movement as shown in the figure.

Piston rod (link 1)
Cylinder (link 4) Crank
(link 2)
Connecting rod (link 3)
Fig 9.1: Crank-connecting rod mechanism
An oscillating cylinder mechanism is used in steam engines which do not require valves to direct steam
into and out of the cylinder. Instead of valves, the entire cylinder oscillates, such that cylinder becomes in
line with intake and exhaust ports alternatively as it oscillates between the two extreme positions. They
have the advantage of simplicity and, therefore, low manufacturing costs. They also tend to be more
compact than other types of cylinder of the same capacity, which makes them advantageous for use in
ships.

Procedure:
1. Count the total number of links.
2. Count the total number of joints.
3. Using the Gruebler's equation 𝑀 = 3𝐿 − 2𝐽 − 3𝐺 calculate the degree of freedom.
4. Now measure length of each link using measuring tape.
5. Now starting with zero, with the help of the angular scale available on the crank, position the
crank with an increment of every 30°and observe the corresponding position of the slider. Do
this procedure for complete 360° and note down the values in the table.
6. Assuming an angular velocity of 30°/𝑠, calculate the velocities at each of the positions of
fifteen degrees with the help of the formula:
(𝑃2 − 𝑃1 )
⁄(𝑡 − 𝑡 )
2 1
P2= Final position of the slider.
P1= Initial Position of the slider.
t2 –t1 = 1 second
7. After calculating the velocities of the slider at different points, calculate the acceleration at
the same points with the help of the formula:
(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
⁄(𝑡 − 𝑡 )
2 1
V2= Final velocity of the slider.

V1= Initial velocity of the slider.
t2 –t1= 1 second
8. Finally draw graphs of position, velocity and acceleration of the slider with respect to the
position of the crank.

Observations and calculations:
Sr. Crank Angle Slider Position Slider Velocity Slider Acceleration

No (Degrees) (mm) (mm/sec) (mm/sec2)
1 0°
2 30°
3 60°
4 90°
5 120°
6 150°
7 180°
8 210°
9 240°
10 270°
11 300°
12 330°
13 360°
Conclusion:

Rubric 3
Marks CLO3
not accurate



Experiment # 03
To study the motion of Whit-worth quick return mechanism
Objective:
 To find out the displacement, velocity and acceleration of With-worth quick return mechanism.
 To calculate the time ratio of Whit-worth quick return mechanism
Apparatus
 Whit-worth quick return mechanism
 Measuring tape
 Angular scale
Theory:
The Whitworth quick return mechanism converts rotary motion into reciprocating motion, but unlike the
crank and slider, the forward reciprocating motion is at a different rate than the backward stroke. At the
bottom of the drive arm, the peg only has to move through a few degrees to sweep the arm from left to

right, but it takes the remainder of the revolution to bring the arm back. This mechanism is most
commonly seen as the drive for a shaping
E machine.
𝜔
B C
Fig 10.1: Schematics of quick return mechanism
In every quick return mechanism, unequal angles will be swept by the crank between the toggle positions.
Unequal angles will give unequal time, when the crank rotates at constant velocity. These angles are
labeled 𝛼and𝛽, their ratio is called the time ratio which defines the degree of quick return of the linkage.
Therefore, time ratio can be written as
Procedure:
1.
Count the total number of links.
2.
Count the total number of joints.
Using the Gruebler's equation 𝑀 = 3𝐿 − 2𝐽 − 3𝐺 calculate the degree of freedom.
3.
4.
Now measure length of each link using measuring tape.
5.
Starting from zero, note down the angle required for the slider to move on to the next extreme.
Now starting with zero, with the help of the angular scale available on the crank, position the
crank with an increment of every 30° and observe the corresponding position of the slider.
Do this procedure for complete 360° and note down the values in the table
6. Assuming an angular velocity of 30°/𝑠, calculate the velocities at each of the positions of fifteen
degrees with the help of the formula:
(𝑃2 − 𝑃1 )
⁄(𝑡 − 𝑡 )
2 1

P2 = Final position of the slider.

P1 = Initial Position of the slider.
t2 –t1 = 1 second
7. After calculating the velocities of the slider at different points, calculate the acceleration at
the same points with the help of the formula:
(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
⁄(𝑡 − 𝑡 )
2 1
V2 = Final velocity of the slider.

V1 = Initial velocity of the slider.
t2 –t1 = 1 second
8. Finally draw graphs of position, velocity and acceleration of the slider with respect to the
position of the crank.
Sr. Crank Angle Slider Position Slider Velocity Slider Acceleration

No (Degrees) (mm) (mm/sec) (mm/sec2)
1 0°
2 30°
3 60°
4 90°
5 120°
6 150°
7 180°
8 210°
9 240°
10 270°
11 300°
12 330°
13 360°

Conclusion:

CLO1: Use CREO-Parametric software to apply the knowledge of mechanics of machines in simulating a
mechanism.
Rubric 1
Experiment # 04
To understand basic solid modeling on CREO-Parametric
Objective:
 To understand basic solid modeling tools of CREO-Parametric
 To use CREO for Part Modeling and Modeling some Solid models on CREO.
Apparatus
 Computer
 CREO-Parametric software.
 Getting started with CREO
1. First of all, select your working directory. Working directory can be any folder in which you
want to save your
part or from which you want to open previously modeled part.
[MENU BAR] > [FILE] > [SET WORKING DIRECTORY]
2. The system of units can have changed by following the below mentioned path.
[MENU BAR] > [EDIT] > [SETUP]>[UNITS]
Different icons and their description in CREO



 Different part modeling using some basic commands like simple sketching and Extrude
& revolve commands.
Exercise
 Click New-Part-In model tree select Front-select Sketch-Select circle-Draw a circle of radius 100-
Click Done-click Extrude-Enter value 60-Click Done-Now Select surface of circle-Draw a circle
of radius 40- Click Done-click Extrude-Enter value 50-Click Done-Now Select surface of circle-
Draw a circle of radius 25- Click Done-click Extrude-Enter value 40.-Click Done.

Exercises


mechanism.
Rubric 1
Experiment # 05
To understand basic Assembly on CREO-Parametric
Objective:
 To use CREO for Part Modeling and assembling different components in to
single entity.
.
Apparatus
 Computer
Objectives
Scope the design parameters of an existing part.
Create a new part model using required design parameters.
Create a new assembly by assembling part models.
Create a new drawing of the new part model.
Before you can begin modeling the key handle, you need to scope the design on the adjoining key base
model. You know from experience that the hole in the key base is not large enough in diameter for a
strong key handle, and the key base does not provide enough clearance to use the tool.

Once you have properly scoped the design, you can create the key handle part and assemble it with the
key base. Finally, you can document the key handle design by creating a 2-D drawing.
1. Step 1. Preparing for part model design – Open and edit the dimensions of an existing part model to
watch the geometry update automatically.
1. To open the KEY_BASE.PRT part model, do the following:
 Click Open from the ribbon at the top of the interface.

 In the File Open dialog box, click Working Directory .
 Double-click the Process folder to view its contents.
 Right-click the Basic-Modeling folder and select Set Working Directory.
 Double-click the Basic-Modeling folder to view its contents.
 Select KEY_BASE.PRT.
 Click Open.
Figure 1
2. In the In Graphics toolbar at the top of the graphics window, clear the check boxes for Axis Display
, Point Display , Csys Display , andPlane Display to disable their display.

Figure 2
3. To edit the hole diameter from 3.5 to 5, do the following:
 Click the hole in the model to select it. Notice that it highlights in green.
 Right-click and hold, and then select Edit.

 Double-click the 3.5 value to edit it.
 Edit the value from 3.5 to 5 and press ENTER.
 Click twice in the graphics window to update the model geometry to the new diameter value.

Figure 3
4. Click Named Views from the In Graphics toolbar at the top of the graphics window and select
FRONT.
5. To edit the shaft height from 25 to 35, do the following:
 Click the shaft in the model to select it. Notice that it highlights in green.
 In the graphics window containing the model, right-click and hold, and then select Edit.
 Double-click the 25 value to edit it.
 Edit the value from 25 to 35 and press ENTER.
 Click twice in the graphics window to update the model geometry to the longer shaft value.

Figure 4
6. Click Named Views from the In Graphics toolbar at the top of the graphics window and
select Standard Orientation.

Figure 5
7. From the In Graphics toolbar at the top of the graphics window, select the check boxes for Plane
Display and Axis Display to enable their display.

Figure 6
8. To save the KEY_BASE.PRT part model and close the window, do the following:
 Click Save from the Quick Access toolbar near the top of the interface.
 In the Save Object dialog box, click OK.
 Click Close from the Quick Access toolbar to close the window containing KEY_BASE.PRT.
1. Step 2. Creating a new part model – Create a new part model named KEY_HANDLE.PRT and
model its geometry.
1. To create a new part model, do the following:
 Click New from the Quick Access toolbar near the top of the interface.
 In the New dialog box, select Part as the Type and Solid as the Sub-type.
 Type key_handle in the Name field.
 Clear the Use default template check box and click OK.

Figure 7
2. In the New File Options dialog box, select mmns_part_solid as the template and click OK.
Figure 8
3. To start a new Sketch feature, do the following:
 Click Sketch from the Datum group in the ribbon at the top of the interface.
 In the model tree located on the left side of the interface, click datum plane FRONT to select it.
 Click Sketch in the Sketch dialog box.

Figure 9
4. To sketch a circle and edit its diameter to 5, do the following:
 Select Center and Point from the Circle types drop-down menu in the Sketching group in the
ribbon.
 In the graphics window, cursor over the intersection of the vertical and horizontal lines. The cursor
snaps to the center. Click to place the circle at the intersection, drag your mouse outward to start
sketching the circle, and click again to complete the circle.
 Click One-by-One from the Operations group in the ribbon. A diameter dimension appears for
the circle.
 Double-click the diameter dimension, edit its value to 5, and press ENTER.

Figure 10
5. Click OK from the dashboard at the top of the interface.
Figure 11

6. To create an Extrude feature using the sketch you just created, do the following:
 Ensure that the Sketch feature is still selected. If it is not highlighted in green, you must click it to
select it.
 Click Extrude from the Shapes group in the ribbon at the top of the interface.
 In the dashboard at the top of the interface, edit the depth from Blind to Symmetric .
 In the dashboard, edit the depth value to 12 and press ENTER. The orange geometry depth increases.
Orange geometry is preview geometry and is representative of how the feature should appear when it
is completed.
 Click Complete Feature from the dashboard.


Figure 12
7. To start a second new Sketch feature, do the following:
 Click Sketch from the Datum group in the ribbon at the top of the interface.
 In the graphics window, click the front surface of the cylinder geometry to select it as the sketching
plane for the new Sketch feature.
 Click Sketch in the Sketch dialog box.
Figure 13
8. To sketch a circle and edit its diameter to 7, do the following:
 Select Center and Point from the Circle types drop-down menu in the Sketching group in the
ribbon.
 In the graphics window, cursor over the intersection of the vertical and horizontal lines. The cursor
snaps to the center. Click to place the circle at the intersection, drag your mouse outward to start
sketching the circle, and click again to complete the circle.
 Click One-by-One from the Operations group in the ribbon. A diameter dimension appears for
the circle.
 Click Refit from the In Graphics toolbar at the top of the graphics window.
 Double-click the diameter dimension, edit its value to 7, and press ENTER.

Figure 14
9. Click OK from the dashboard.

Figure 15
10. To create a second Extrude feature using the second sketch you just created, do the following:
 Ensure that the Sketch feature is still selected. If it is not highlighted in green, you must click it to
select it.
 Click Extrude from the Shapes group in the ribbon at the top of the interface.
 In the dashboard at the top of the interface, click Change Depth Direction to flip the orange
preview geometry into the existing geometry.
 In the graphics window, click and drag the small white, square drag handle to edit the depth to 5.

Figure 16
11. In the In Graphics toolbar at the top of the graphics window, clear the check boxes for Plane
Display and Axis Display to disable their display.
12. To round two edges of the geometry, do the following:
 Select Round from the Round types drop-down menu in the ribbon at the top of the interface.
 In the graphics window, press CTRL and click the two edges to be rounded to select them.
Figure 17
 In the dashboard, edit the round radius to 0.5 and press ENTER.
13. Click in the background of the graphics window to de-select the completed round feature.

Figure 18
14. To mirror the part, do the following:
 In the model tree located on the left side of the interface, press CTRL and click the Extrude
2 and Round 1 features to select them.
Figure 19
 Click Mirror from the Editing group in the ribbon at the top of the interface.

 In the model tree, click the FRONT datum plane to select it as the datum from which you mirror the
geometry.
Figure 20
15. To modify geometry dimensions to their proper length and regenerate the model, do the following:
 In the model tree located on the left side of the interface, right-click the Extrude 1 feature and hold,
and then select Edit.
 In the graphics window, double-click the 12 dimension, edit it to 60, and press ENTER.
 Click twice in the graphics window to update the geometry. Notice that the model geometry grows
long.

Figure 21
16. To save the KEY_HANDLE.PRT part model, do the following:
 Click Save from the Quick Access toolbar near the top of the interface.
 In the Save Object dialog box, click OK.
1. Step 3. Creating a new assembly by assembling the part models – Create a new assembly
CHUCK_KEY.ASM and assemble the KEY_HANDLE.PRT and KEY_BASE.PRT.
1. In the In Graphics toolbar at the top of the graphics window, select the check box for Plane
Display to enable their display.
2. To create the CHUCK_KEY.ASM assembly model, do the following:
 Click New from the Quick Access toolbar near the top of the interface.
 In the New dialog box, select Assembly as the Type and verify that Design is the Sub-type.
 Edit the Name to chuck key.
 Clear the Use default template check box and click OK.
 Select mmns_asm_design as the template and click OK.

Figure 22
 You must resize the new assembly window that appears.
3. To assemble the KEY_BASE.PRT, do the following:
 Select Assemble from the Assemble types drop-down menu in the Component group at the top
of the interface.
 In the Open dialog box, select component KEY_BASE.PRT and click Open.
 In the dashboard, edit the constraint in the drop-down list from Automatic to Default .
 Click Complete Component from the dashboard.

Figure 23
4. In the In Graphics toolbar at the top of the graphics window, clear the check box for Plane
Display to disable their display.
5. To start assembling KEY_HANDLE.PRT by creating the Coincident constraint, do the following:
 Select Assemble from the Assemble types drop-down menu in the Component group at the top
of the interface.
 In the Open dialog box, click the component KEY_HANDLE.PRT to select it and click Open.
 In the graphics window, click the inside hole surface on KEY_BASE.PRT to select it as the
assembly reference.
 Click the shaft surface on KEY_HANDLE.PRT to select it as the component reference. The
KEY_HANDLE.PRT repositions itself through the hole in KEY_BASE.PRT, and the Coincident
constraint is created.

Figure 24
6. To continue assembling KEY_HANDLE.PRT by creating the Distance constraint, do the following:
 In the graphics window, click the flat surface on KEY_HANDLE.PRT to select it as the component
reference.
 Cursor over the upper left of the top surface of KEY_BASE.PRT to pre-highlight it. Right-click to
query the back, flat surface of KEY_BASE.PRT and click to select it as the assembly reference. The
Distance constraint is created.

Figure 25
7. To edit the Distance constraint value and complete the assembly of KEY_HANDLE.PRT, do the
following:
 In the graphics window, click and drag the small white, square drag handle to edit the offset value of
the Distance constraint to 6.
 Click Complete Component from the dashboard.

Figure 26
8. To edit the shaft length of KEY_HANDLE.PRT within the assembly, do the following:
 In the model tree, right-click KEY_HANDLE.PRT and select Activate.

 In the graphics window, select the rounded shaft of the KEY_HANDLE.PRT, right-click and hold,
and then select Edit.
 In the graphics window, double-click the 60 dimension to edit it.
 Edit the 60 dimension value to 45 and press ENTER.
 Click Regenerate from the Operations group in the ribbon to update the geometry to the new
length.
 In the model tree, right-click CHUCK_KEY.ASM and select Activate.
Figure 27
Figure 34

1. To save the KEY_HANDLE.PRT and close the window, do the following:
Click Save from the Quick Access toolbar.

Click OK in the Save Object dialog box.
In the Quick Access toolbar, click Close to close the KEY_HANDLE.PRT window.
2. To activate the CHUCK_KEY.ASM assembly, save it, and close the window, do the following:
 Click Windows from the Quick Access toolbar and select CHUCK_KEY.ASM to switch to the
assembly and activate it.
 Click Regenerate from the Operations group.
 Click Save from the Quick Access toolbar.
 Click OK in the Save Object dialog box.
 In the Quick Access toolbar, click Close to close the CHUCK_KEY.ASM window.
Figure 35
 Note that the geometry and dimension in the drawing have both updated.
3. To save the KEY_HANDLE.DRW drawing, close the window, and erase all files from session memory,
do the following:
 Click Save from the Quick Access toolbar.

 Click OK in the Save Object dialog box.
 In the Quick Access toolbar, click Close to close the KEY_HANDLE.DRW window.
 Click File > Manage Session > Erase Not Displayed.
 Click OK in the Erase Not Displayed dialog box.

mechanism.
Rubric 1
Experiment # 06
To understand mechanism simulation and analysis on CREO-Parametric
Objective:
 To use CREO for mechanism simulation and analysis.
.
Apparatus
 Computer
Creating Mechanism Bodies

A body is a component or group of components placed in a mechanism using a predefined connection set.
The component or group of components moves within the mechanism as a single body.

Figure 1 – Four Bodies and a Ground

Mechanism Bodies
Creo Parametric automatically defines mechanism bodies based on the constraints used when positioning
components in an assembly. For example, two parts that are assembled together using constraints (such as
Mate and Insert) and have no remaining degrees of freedom, are each grouped as a single body. If there is
a degree of freedom remaining or the parts are assembled using predefined connection sets such as Pin,
Slider, and so on, they are each identified as a unique body and they each move as such within the
mechanism.
In Mechanism mode, you can expand each connection listed in the Mechanism tree to view the identified
bodies of the connection. If you select a body from the Mechanism tree, the part or group of parts that
make up that body are highlighted in the graphics area. If you right-click and select Info > Details, an
information window opens and provides information regarding the contents of the selected body.
Placement Constraints
There are two types of constraints in the Component Placement dashboard. You can use standard user-
defined constraints such as Coincident, Distance, and Angle Offset, or you can use predefined connection
sets to define connections such as Pin and Slider. If you assemble two components using user-defined
constraints, but they are only partially constrained, a connection is assumed.
When assembling components using predefined connection sets, you can only reference a single body in
the assembly and a single body in the component being placed. When you select the first assembly entity
for a predefined constraint set, you can select reference entities only from the same body for the
remaining constraints of that connection. This is also true when selecting the component references.
Grounded Components
Ground bodies in a mechanism do not move with respect to the assembly. You can include several parts
or sub-assemblies in the ground body. To define a ground body, you fully constrain a component with

constraints that reference the default assembly datum or a part or assembly already in the ground. If you
under-constrain the component, it is not placed in the ground body and is considered a new body.
Features belonging to a mechanism body, but with references to a grounded component, remain in
position on the body as it is dragged. However, the feature position may change if the body is dragged to
a new location and regenerated at that location.
Steps for mechanism simulation and analysis Pictorial procedure

1: Importing the model

2: Preparing for mechanism.

3: Adding servo motor

Defining analysis type i.e. Kinematic

Simulating the mechanism and plot of graph.


Rubric 3
Marks CLO3
not accurate



Experiment # 07
Study of Cam-follower mechanism

Objective:
 To analyze the variation of displacement of oscillating follower in relationship with Cam
profile &draw graph between follower displacement &Cam rotation.
 To calculate the Velocity of follower from its displacement &draw graph of
Velocity versus Time.
 To investigate the variation of acceleration of follower &draw its graph.
Apparatus
 Cam apparatus
 Dial gauge

Theory:
A cam may be defined as a machine element having a curved outline or a curved groove, which, by its
oscillation or rotation motion, gives a predetermined specified motion to another element called the
follower Cam and follower mechanisms are simple and inexpensive, have few moving parts, and occupy
a very small space. In any class of machinery in which automatic control and accurate timing are
paramount, the cam is an indispensable part of mechanism. In all the cam systems, the designer must
ensure that the follower maintains contact with the cam at all times. This can be done by gravity, by
inclusion of a suitable spring or any other mechanical constraint.
Terminologies:
The various terms used in cams are
1. Cam profile:
It is the actual working contour or profile of the cam. Cam profile is the surface having contact
with the follower
2. Base circle:
It is the smallest circle drawn on the cam profile from the center of rotation. Cam size depends
upon the size of base circle.
3. Trace point:
It is the reference point located on the follower for the purpose of tracing cam profile.
4. Pitch curve:
It is the path traced out by the trace point.
5. Prime curve:
It is the smallest circle drawn to the pitch curve from center of rotation.
6. Pressure angle:
It is the angle at any point on the pitch curve between the normal to that point on the curve and
the line of motion of the follower at that instant. It indicates the steepness of the cam profile.
7. Cam angle:
It is the angle of rotation of the cam for a definite displacement of the follower.

8. Pitch point:
It is the point on the cam pitch curve having the maximum pressure angle.
9. Lift or Stroke:
It is the maximum displacement of the follower from the base of the cam.
10. Pitch circle:

It is the circle with center as the center of the cam axis and radius such that it passes through the
pitch point.
Follower
Follower travel Pressure angle
Prime circle Cam profile
Pitch circle
Pitch point
Base circle
Fig 11.1: Terminologies
Motion analysis:
The displacement, velocity and acceleration of the follower are expressed mathematically depending upon
motion required as a function of cam angle and time.
Displacement:
In general, the displacement of the follower is represented S in meters (m) as a function of the cam
rotation varying from 0° to 360° . The displacement is expressed as 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝜃) . The maximum
displacement y is equal to stroke of the follower S, i.e. 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑆

Velocity:
The velocity of the follower (v) is represented by
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑦
𝑣= = ( )( ) = ∙𝜔
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝜃
Since 𝜔 = 𝑑𝑡
Acceleration:
The acceleration (a) of the follower is represented by
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑣
= ( )( ) = ∙𝜔
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝜃
𝑑 𝑑𝑦
= [( ) ∙ 𝜔] ∙ 𝜔
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑑 𝑑𝑦
= ( ) ∙ 𝜔2
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
Classification of cams:
Cams available in our lab are classified on the basis of configuration of cam and follower. Complete
classification chart is shown in the figure below.

Rocker arm
follower
Follower
Cup follower
Convex cam
Cams
Tangent cam
Cam design
Concave cam
Unsymmetrical
cam
Fig 11.2: Classification of cams
Procedure:
1. Adjust the follower according to cam.
2. Take the 0 point on the graduated disc in front of the pointer.
1. Now turn the cam shaft and observe value of displacement for each 30° revolution.
2. The dial gauge is in pre stressed so subtract its initial value from the values displayed on dial at
any instant.
3. Enter data in the table and draw the displacement curve.

4. Consider 𝜔 = 15°/𝑠 and draw velocity curves.

5. Now using the velocity diagrams draw acceleration curves.
6. Compare all the cams available, and draw conclusion.
Cam A Cam B
Displacement Displacement
Angle(degree) (mm) Angle(degree) (mm)
0 0
30 30
60 60
90 90
120 120
150 150
180 180
210 210
240 240
270 270
300 300
330 330
360 360

Cam C Cam D
Displacement Displacement
Angle(degree) (mm) Angle(degree) (mm)
0 0
30 30
60 60
90 90
120 120
150 150
180 180
210 210
240 240
270 270
300 300
330 330
360 360
Conclusion:

Rubric 3
Marks CLO3
not accurate



Experiment # 08
To calculate the mechanical advantage of screw jack
Objective:
 To find out the mechanical advantage, velocity ratio and efficiency of a simple screw jack.
Apparatus
 Screw jack
 Measuring tape
Theory:
A lifting device utilizing the mechanical advantage of a screw thread, the effort being applied through a
bevel drive is known as screw jack. It is used to raise heavy loads. A simple screw jack comprises a thick
solid rod in which a screw thread has been cut, a base plate in which it can rotate, and a block or nut
through which the screw threads run. When the screw is rotated with the help of Tommy bar, which
passes through a hole in the screw, the block is slowly raised or lowered.

Pitch:
A screw thread is a spiral cut made in the rod so that the screw may be regarded as a spiral
inclined plane. For each complete turn of the screw, it advances by a distance equal to the pitch of the
screw. Pitch of the screw is the distance between any two adjacent ridges of the thread. The screw of a
screw jack whose diameter is ¾ inch may have six threads per inch, so the pitch of the thread is 1/6 inch.
Thus, for every one complete revolution of the Tommy bar, the lifting block moves 1/6 of an inch up or
down.
A screw jack consists of the following parts:
1. Screw threads: It consists of threads that may be square or V in shape. However square
threads are more efficient than V threads and are used for power transmission.
2. Head: The screw has a head on its upper end on which the load W rests.
3. Nut: In the case of a screw jack, the threads of the screw will slide around upon the fixed
threads of the nut fixed in the frame and which generally forms a part of the body of the screw
jack.
D Load
W
Pulley 2
Pulley 1
String
Effort
P2
Effort P1
Square threads
Fig 12.1: Screw jack apparatus

Mechanical advantage:
The ratio of load applied on the machine to the effort applied for carrying that load is known as
mechanical advantage.
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 =
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
In an ideal machine there is no friction and the ratio 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑⁄𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 is called the ideal mechanical
advantage. In practice actual mechanical advantage obtained from experiment is always less than the ideal
Friction effort:
The effort required at any particular load to overcome the friction alone is called the friction effort.
The actual effort E required at any load is made up of two parts
1. The effort required to move the load if the machine was ideal.
2. The effort to overcome the friction.
Therefore, the 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 − 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
𝑊
=𝐸−
𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
Usually the friction factor increases linearly with the load, but the increase in friction factor is not as great
as corresponding increase in the load.
Velocity ratio:
In order to obtain mechanical advantage greater than unity, the effort must move through a greater
distance than that through which the load moves. Since the distance moved by the load and effort takes
place at same time, the ratio of this distance is same as the ratio of velocities. The velocity ratio of the
machine is therefore defined as,
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡

𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
The velocity ratio of a machine usually remains constant for all loads
Using the work principle, it can be shown that for an ideal machine the velocity ratio is equal to the ideal
mechanical advantage. But note that for a real machine the velocity ratio is not the same as the
mechanical advantage due to friction effects, therefore actual mechanical advantage is always less than
the ideal mechanical advantage.

Efficiency:
The efficiency of a machine is defined as the ratio of useful work done by the machine to the actual work
put into the machine. Therefore, it can be shown that
𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝜂 =
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
For a simple machine, efficiency usually increases with the load until it reaches a limiting value.
Screw jack is used to raise heavy loads. The apparatus works on simple principle of screw and nut. The
axial distance between the corresponding threads is known as pitch. Let this pitch be p & D is the
diameter of the flanged table on which the load W is to be placed and lifted. Let the table turns through
one revolution.
𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤 = 𝐿
𝐿 = 2×𝑝
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝜋 × 𝐷
𝜋𝐷
𝐿
𝜋𝐷
2𝑝
𝑊
𝑃
Where as
Diameter of base = D = 150 mm.
Pitch of screw jack = p = 6 mm.
Procedure:
1. Wrap the string round the circumference of the flanged table and pass it over the pulley.
Similarly, wrap another string over the circumference of the flanged table and take it over the
second pulley. The free ends of both the strings be tied to the two hangers where the weights are
to be hanged.
2. Measure the pitch of the thread with the help of the Vernier Caliper.
3. Place the load W on the screw head and some weight on hangers so that the load W is just lifted.
The effort P is equal to the sum of the weights hanged in the two hangers
4. Increase the loads and find the corresponding efforts applied for the consecutive readings.
5. Calculate mechanical advantage, velocity ratio and efficiency in each case.

Load Effort M.A 𝜂 = 𝑀. 𝐴⁄𝑉. 𝑅

(N) P1+P2
(N)
Conclusion:

Rubric 3
Marks CLO3
not accurate



Experiment # 09
To calculate the mechanical advantage of wheel and axle
Objective:
 To find out the displacement, velocity and acceleration of wheel and axle apparatus.
Apparatus
 Wheel and axle apparatus
Theory:
The wheel and axle is a simple machine developed in ancient times. In its simplest form it consists of a
rod attached to a wheel so that their movements are coupled when one of the parts is turned. The wheel
and axle is used either as a force multiplier (e.g.: Doorknob, steering wheel, fishing reel etc.) or as a
distance multiplier such as driven wheels on cars. In the first kind of application, the larger wheel is used
to create more torque (in the axle) with less force. In the second kind of application, when the axle is
turned, the outside of the wheel turns at a greater linear speed that is proportional tothe ratio of the radii of
the wheel and axle. The simple machine called wheel and axle consists of a large wheel through which a
smaller-radius shaft or axle passes through. When the wheel turns, it forces the axle to turn; or if the axle
is turned, the wheel also turns. One full turn of the large wheel results in one full turn of the smaller one
and vice versa.
Fig 13.1: Wheel and axle
Wheel and axle is fundamentally a form of lever, the center common to both the wheel and the axle
corresponds to the fulcrum, the radii of the two parts to the arms. A small amount of effort is needed to
overcome the resistance (acting upon the axle) is relatively small. Therefore, wheel and axle is not as
efficient as the lever, since a part of the effort must be used to overcome the resistance of friction. In
common use, a crank or handle often takes the place of the wheel.
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
Friction effort:

Therefore, the friction factor = actual effort – ideal effort
𝑊
=𝐸−
Velocity ratio:

Efficiency:
TECHNICAL DATA
D= Diameter of the effort wheel = 150mm
d = Diameter of the load axle (drum)= 75mm

Whee
l Drum
R1
R2
F1 F2
F1 F2
Fig 13.2: Side view and front view of wheel and axle
Procedure:
1. Wrap the string around the wheel and the axle as shown in figure.
2. Put same weight on the hanger attached with wheel (denoted as load) and for each value of load put
weights on the effort hanger such that it starts moving.
3. Change the value of load and repeat step -2.
4. Note down the diameters of wheel and axle and calculate the velocity ratio.
5. Calculate the mechanical advantage.
6. A plot of Load Versus Effort and Effort Versus Efficiency is drawn
𝑉. 𝑅 = 𝐷⁄𝑑=………………………………

(N) (N)

Conclusions:

Rubric 3
Marks CLO3
not accurate



Experiment # 10
To calculate the mechanical advantage of a winch crab
Objective:
 To find out the displacement, velocity and acceleration of With-worth quick return mechanism.
Apparatus
 Winch crab apparatus
 Measuring tape
Theory:
Winches are lifting, hauling or holding devices in which a tensioned rope is wound round a rotating drum.
They are extensively used for transporting goods, and they can be found especially in mines and in marine
applications. Winches are the fundamental elements, in crane and mooring systems, for activating cable
cars, lifts and as a matter of fact, whenever a dynamic pull is required from a flexible rope.

Fundamentally the term “winch” describes the whole machine which consists of a drum or pulley
carrying rope and driven by some form of power unit. The choice of drum/rope configuration, drive
transmission and power unit depends upon the designed application. There is also a brake system to lock
the drum from rotating for holding load and safety reasons. The drum can be manually driven by electric,
hydraulic or steam power depending on the application, and the driving device is coupled to the drum
directly or indirectly according to the availability of torque and the torque requirements. An indirect
coupling would be to use a clutch or gear and the intermediate of both components. Most systems are gear
coupled when the power source is not capable of producing adequate torque, but when it can be used, the
direct coupling system is mechanically better. It eliminates gearing, reduces the number of bearings and
simplifies the overall design.
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
Friction effort:
Therefore, the friction factor = actual effort – ideal effort
𝑊
=𝐸−
Velocity ratio:


Efficiency:
Technical data:
𝑇1 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 12
𝑇2 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑢𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 60
𝐷 = 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 220𝑚𝑚
𝑑 = 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑟𝑢𝑚 = 110𝑚𝑚

Effort wheel
Pinion
Load drum
Spur wheel
Fig 14.1: Winch crab
Procedure
1. Stabilize the crab machine and wrap the cord around the load drum and the effort wheel.
2. Put some weight on the load drum and add some effort to the effort wheel via hanger.
3. Stop adding effort until both the load and effort got stabilized.
4. Write down the reading in the observation table.
5. Repeat step 2 and 3 four to five times with gradually increasing the load as well as effort to the
load drum and effort wheel respectively.
6. Measure the Diameter of load drum and effort wheel.
7. Calculate M.A, V.R and Efficiency of machine.

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝜋𝐷
𝑉. 𝑅 = =
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝜋𝑑⁄𝑇1 ⁄𝑇2 )
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑀. 𝐴 =
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
𝑀. 𝐴
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
𝑉. 𝑅


(N) (N)
Conclusions:

Rubric 3
Marks CLO3
not accurate



Experiment # 11
To calculate the mechanical advantage of compound spurs gear
Objective:
To find out the mechanical advantage, velocity ratio and efficiency of a compound spur gear.
Apparatus
Compound spur gear apparatus
Measuring tape
Theory:
Spur gears or straight-cut gears are the simplest type of gear. They consist of a cylinder or disk with the
teeth projecting radially, and although they are not straight-sided in form, the edge of each tooth is
straight and aligned parallel to the axis of rotation. These gears can be meshed together correctly only if
they are fitted to parallel shafts.

Simple gear train:

The simple gear train is used where there is a large distance to be covered between the input shaft and the
output shaft. Each gear in a simple gear train is mounted on its own shaft.
The circumference of the gears will determine relative gear speeds. If the circumference of input gears
larger than the circumference of output gear, then the output gear will turn faster than the input gear. On
the other hand, the input gear's circumference could be smaller than the output gear's circumference. In
this case the output gear would turn more slowly than the input gear. If the input and output gears are
exactly the same size, they will turn at the same speed.
In many simple gear trains there are several gears between the input gear and the output gear. These
middle gears are called idler gears. Idler gears do not affect the speed of the output gear.
Fig 15.1: Simple gear train
Compound gear train:

In a compound gear train at least one of the shafts in the train must hold two gears. Compound gear trains
are used when large changes in speed or power output are needed and there is only a small space between
the input and output shafts.
The number of shafts and direction of rotation of the input gear determine the direction of rotation of the
output gear in a compound gear train. The train in Figure has two gears in between the input and output
gears. These two gears are on one shaft. They rotate in the same direction and act like one gear. There are
an odd number of gear shafts in this figure. As a result, the input gear and output gear rotate in the same
direction.

Fig 15.2: Compound gear train
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
Velocity ratio:

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
the ideal mechanical advantage.For all gears other than worm and wheel, the velocity ratio of a gear pair
is the ratio of the number of teeth in each gear. In the case of compound gear train, the overall velocity
ratio is the multiplication of the velocity ratio of each gear pair.

𝑇2 𝑇4
𝑉. 𝑅 = ×
𝑇1 𝑇3
Efficiency:
Technical data
T1 = Number of teeth on the driver pinion = 28
T2 = Number of teeth on the driven wheel = 84
T3= Number of teeth on the 2nd driver pinion = 28
T4 = Number of teeth on the 2nd driven wheel = 84
Procedure:
1. Firstly, stabilize the machine and wrap the cord around the load drum and the effort wheel.
2. Put some weight on the load drum and add some effort to the effort wheel via hanger.
3. Stop adding effort until the load hanger begins to move from ground level and effort just nearly
touch ground.
4. Write down the reading in the observation table.
5. After this apply the above procedure, four to five times with gradually increasing the load as well
as effort to the load drum and effort wheel respectively.
6. Write down all the readings in the given observation table.
7. Calculate M.A, V.R and Efficiency of machine.

Driven wheel Driver pinion
2nd Driven wheel 2ndDriver pinion

Fig 15.3: Compound spur gear
Load Effort Mechanical Velocity Ratio % Efficiency

Advantage
W (N) P (N)
Discussion:

Rubric 3
Marks CLO3
not accurate



Experiment # 12
To investigate the behavior of flat clutch plates
Objective:
Using two different methods of calculations investigate the behavior of different clutch plates.
Apparatus
Clutch plate apparatus
Theory:
Clutches are devices which enable the driven part of a machine to be temporarily disconnected from the
driving part. Clutches are useful in devices that have two rotating shafts. In these devices, one of the
shafts is typically driven by a motor or pulley, and the other shaft drives another device. The clutch
connects the two shafts so that they can either be locked together and spin at the same speed, or be
decoupled and spin at different speeds.

In a car, a clutch plate is needed because the engine spins all the time, but wheels of the car do not. In
order for a car to stop without killing the engine, the wheels need to be disconnected from the engine
somehow. The clutch allows us to smoothly engage a spinning engine to a non-spinning transmission by
controlling the slippage between them.
Motion analysis:
To analyze a clutch, we can assume one of two things may happen:
a) Uniform Pressure Distribution.
b) Uniform Rate of Wear.
We would rub the experiment and calculate torque transmission from both of the approaches. The
approach which would give least torque transmission will be more suitable for our case because the less
the torque will be the more power transmission via clutch plate will occur.
R2
W
R1
Fig 16.1: Side view and top view of clutch plates
Uniform pressure distribution:

Consider the clutch shown above. A small element of the surface at radius R has an area of
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 2𝜋𝑅 × 𝛿𝑟
Now force on any element is
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
= 𝑃 × 2𝜋𝑅 × 𝛿𝑟
Now the frictional force is given by
𝐹 = 𝜇𝑁
𝐹 = 𝜇𝑃2𝜋𝑅𝛿𝑟
Now take moment about the shaft axis
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝜇𝑃2𝜋𝑅𝛿𝑟 × 𝑅
= 𝜇𝑃2𝜋𝑅 2 𝛿𝑟
Summating all such elements from the inner to outer radius will yield the friction torque.
𝑅1
𝑇 = 2𝜋𝜇𝑃 ∫ 𝑅 2 𝑑𝑅
𝑅2
2𝜋𝜇𝑃 3
= (𝑅 1 − 𝑅 3 2 )
3
But pressure P is given by
𝑊
𝑃=
𝜋(𝑅 2 2
1 − 𝑅 2)
Combining above equation, we get
2𝜋𝜇𝑊(𝑅 31 − 𝑅 3 2 )
𝑇=
3𝜋(𝑅 21 − 𝑅 2 2 )
This equation is named as equation (1), used for the calculation of torque considering uniform pressure
approach.
Uniform rate of wear:

For uniform rate of deformation, we assume that
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 × 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Surface area of the clutch plate is same as shown above
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 2𝜋𝑅 × 𝛿𝑟
Similarly force on any element is
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
= 𝑃 × 2𝜋𝑅 × 𝛿𝑟
= 2𝜋𝑐 × 𝛿𝑟
Thus axial load is given by

𝑅1
𝑊 = 2𝜋𝑐 ∫ 𝑑𝑅
𝑅2

= 2𝜋𝑐(𝑅2 − 𝑅1 )
𝑊
∴𝑐=
2𝜋(𝑅2 − 𝑅1 )
Now the frictional force is given by
𝐹 = 𝜇𝑁
𝐹 = 𝜇𝑃2𝜋𝑅𝛿𝑟
𝐹 = 𝜇𝑐2𝜋𝛿𝑟
Now take moment about the shaft axis
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝜇𝑐2𝜋𝛿𝑟 × 𝑅
= 𝜇𝑐2𝜋𝑅𝛿𝑟
Summating all such elements from the inner to outer radius will yield the friction torque.
𝑅1
𝑇 = 2𝜋𝜇𝑐 ∫ 𝑅𝑑𝑅
𝑅2
𝑇 = 𝜋𝜇𝑐(𝑅 2 2 − 𝑅 21 )
Putting the value of c we will get
𝑅2 + 𝑅1
𝑇 = 𝜇𝑊 ( )
2
Thus
𝑇 = 𝜇𝑊 × 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
This equation is named as equation (2), used for the calculation of torque considering uniform wear rate
approach.
Note:
The assumption of constant pressure yields a higher value for torque in all cases. It is generally found that
when a clutch is new the conditions approximate to uniform pressure distribution. After some use the
conditions approximate more closely to uniform rate of wear.
Apparatus:
It consists of flat disc of leather against which a clutch plate is loaded. The clutch plate is secured by
screws to the effort pulley. A torque is applied to the effort pulley by dead weight using a spreader beam
and two load cords. The main load on the effort pulley and thus the clutch plate is applied by a loading

arm system via a thrust bearing. The thrust bearing allows the clutch plate and friction disc to mate
properly. The clutch plates are interchangeable and the set has clutch faces in a range of sizes.
The clutch plate set consists of three plates with the following nominal dimensions.
Inner diameter = 178mm
Outer diameter = 100mm
Spreader load = 177N (approx.)
Lever ratio = 5:1
Procedure:
1. Clean the clutch plate and align it with the lining of the apparatus.
2. After fitting a plate and closing the clutch lift the load cord over the idler pulleys. Then by hand
lightly lift the load arm and rotate the effort pulley to wind the load cords around the effort
pulley.
3. Now add two load hangers
4. Place a load on the loading arm hanger and in the spreader hanger in order to determine the load
required to just make the clutch slip.
5. The effective weight of the loading arm system without hanger may be checked by using a spring
balance hooked around the hanger position
Observations and calculations

Wapplied Wactual Fapplied Factual T μ (eqn1) μ (eqn2)

Note that
𝑊𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 = load on the hanger + hanger
𝑊𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝑊𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 × 5 + 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑟𝑚
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 + ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟 + 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑟
𝑇𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 × 0.49
Where 0.49 = 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑦 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
Conclusion

Experiment #13
To show the working of different components in a car with the help of a
cutaway model
1) Engine Components:
Cylinder Block:
Body of engine containing the cylinders, made of cast iron or aluminum. Cylinders may be
machined directly in the engine block, or a hard metal (drawn steel) sleeve may be pressed into
the softer metal block
In many older engines, the valves and valve ports were contained in the block. The block of
water-cooled engines includes a water jacket cast around the cylinders. On air-cooled engines,
the exterior surface of the block has cooling fins.

Cylinder Head:
This casting encloses the combustion end of the cylinder block and houses both the inlet and
exhaust poppet-valves and their ports to admit air–fuel mixture and to exhaust the combustion
products
Crank Case:
Part of the engine block surrounding the rotating crankshaft. In many engines, the oil pan makes
up part of the crankcase housing.
Oil Pan/Oil Sump:
This is a pressed-steel or cast-aluminum alloy container which encloses the bottom of the
crankcase and provides a reservoir for the engine’s lubricant.
Piston:
The cylindrical-shaped mass that reciprocates back and forth in the cylinder, transmitting the
pressure forces in the combustion chamber to the rotating crankshaft. The top of the piston is
called the crown and the sides are called the skirt. The face on the crown makes up one wall of
the combustion chamber and may be a flat or highly contoured surface. Some pistons contain an
indented bowl in the crown, which makes up a large percent of the clearance volume.
Piston rings:
Metal rings that fit into circumferential grooves around the piston and form a sliding surface
against the cylinder walls. Near the top of the piston are usually two or more compression rings
made of highly polished hard chrome steel. The purpose of these is to form a seal between the
piston and cylinder walls and to restrict the high-pressure gases in the combustion chamber from
leaking past the piston into the crankcase (blow by). Below the compression rings on the piston
is at least one oil ring, which assists in lubricating the cylinder walls and scrapes away excess oil
to reduce oil consumption.
Spark Plug:
Electrical device used to initiate combustion in an spark ignition engine by creating a high-
voltage discharge across an electrode gap. Spark plugs are usually made of metal surrounded
with ceramic insulation.

Connecting Rod:
Rod connecting the piston with the rotating crankshaft, usually made of steel or alloy forging in
most engines but may be aluminum in some small engines.
Crankshaft:
Rotating shaft through which engine work output is supplied to external systems. The crankshaft
is connected to the engine block with the main bearings. It is rotated by the reciprocating pistons
through connecting rods connected to the crankshaft.
Camshaft:
Rotating shaft used to push open valves at the proper time in the engine cycle, either directly or
through mechanical or hydraulic linkage (push rods, rocker arms, tappets). Most modern
automobile engines have one or more camshafts mounted in the engine head (overhead cam).
Older engines had camshafts in the crankcase. Camshafts are generally made of forged steel or
cast iron and are driven off the crankshaft by means of a belt or chain (timing chain).In four-
stroke cycle engines; the camshaft rotates at half engine speed.
Flywheel:
Rotating mass with a large moment of inertia connected to the crankshaft of the engine. The
purpose of the flywheel is to store energy and furnish a large angular momentum that keeps the
engine rotating between power strokes and smooth out engine operation.
2)Intake Manifold:
Piping system which delivers incoming air to the cylinders, usually made of cast metal, plastic,
or composite material. In most SI (spark ignition) engines, fuel is added to the air in the intake
manifold system either by fuel injectors or with a carburetor.
3)Exhaust Manifold:
Piping system which carries exhaust gases away from the engine cylinders, usually made of cast
iron.

4)Radiator:
Liquid-to-air heat exchanger of honeycomb construction used to remove heat from the engine
coolant. The radiator is usually mounted in front of the engine in the flow of air as the
automobile moves forward. An engine-driven or electric fan is often used to increase air flow
through the radiator.
5)Oil Pump:
Pump used to distribute oil from the oil sump to required lubrication points. The oil pump can
be electrically driven, but is most commonly mechanically driven by the engine.
6)Oil Filter:
An oil filter is used to remove contaminants from engine oil
7)Starter:
Several methods are used to start IC engines. Most are started by use of an electric motor
(starter) geared to the engine flywheel. Energy is supplied from an electric battery.
8)Carburetor:
A carburetor is that part of a gasoline engine which provides the mixture of gasoline and air that
the engine burns. The carburetor must mix the gasoline with about 15 times its weight in air for
the engine to run smoothly at all speeds. A driver controls the engine speed by increasing or
reduction the flow of the fuel mixture.
Air and gasoline are mixed in the Venturi, which sits in the carburetor throat area. The Venturi is
a tube, which narrows to a small size and then widens out again, which increases the speed of the
air rushing through the carburetor, and lowers its pressure. This forces gasoline through the jets
into the Venturi. The air picks up the gasoline and turns it into a vapor. Vacuum from the engines
intake manifold draws the air and gasoline vapor into the engine. The throttle plate valve controls
the engine speed by letting more or less of the air and gasoline vapor to enter the intake
manifold. The driver presses the accelerator pedal to open the throttle valve and lets up on the
accelerator to close it.
9)Distributor
A distributor is a device in the ignition system of an internal combustion engine that routes high
voltage from the ignition coil to the spark plugs in the correct firing order

10)Clutch:
In a car's clutch, a flywheel connects to the engine, and a clutch plate connects to the transmission. When
your foot is off the pedal, the diaphragm spring pushes the pressure plate against the clutch disc, which in
turn presses against the flywheel. This locks the engine to the transmission input shaft, causing them to
spin at the same speed.
When the clutch pedal is pressed, a cable or hydraulic piston pushes on the release fork, which presses the
throw-out bearing against the middle of the diaphragm spring. As the middle of the diaphragm spring is
pushed in, a series of pins near the outside of the spring causes the spring to pull the pressure plate away
from the clutch disc. This releases the clutch from the spinning engine

11)Transmission:
A four speed transmission applies one of four different gear ratios to the input shaft to produce a
different rpm value at the output shaft.
12)Differential:
A vehicle's wheels rotate at different speeds, mainly when turning corners. The differential is
designed to drive a pair of wheels while allowing them to rotate at different speeds
13)McPherson Strut Front Suspension
Widely used system for independent front suspension, in which a single lower wishbone locates
the wheel in the fore and aft plane, and springing and damping are accommodated by a combined
coil spring/damper unit attached between wheel hub and chassis.
14) Leaf Spring Rear Suspension
A leaf spring takes the form of a slender arc-shaped length of spring steel of rectangular cross-
section. The center of the arc provides location for the axle, while tie holes are provided at either
end for attaching to the vehicle body
15)Drum Brake:
A drum brake is a brake that uses friction caused by a set of shoes or pads that press against a
rotating drum-shaped part called a brake drum.
16)Disc Brake:
A disc brake is a wheel brake which slows rotation of the wheel by the friction caused by
pushing brake pads against a brake disc with a set of calipers

Experiment #14
To demonstrate the types, working, advantages and disadvantages of the
following
a) Constant velocity joint
b) Oldham coupling
c) Bevel gear
d) Bevel helical gear
To study the transmission system and gear box in a car model (Reverted
gear train)
To study the following in detail
1. Epicyclic gears
2. Differentials
3. Rack and pinion
Constant velocity joint

Constant velocity joint is a type of mechanism that connects two intersecting rotating shafts making an
angle with one another, especially when this angle varies in service, power is transmitted between these
shafts at constant velocity. Constant velocity joints are very widely used in front-wheel drive cars at the
connection of a half-axle with a wheel. They transmit torque evenly when the wheel moves in steering or
suspension.
Fig 17.1: Constant velocity joint

As the picture shows shaft which is at some angle has grooves containing spherical balls, during the
power transmission these balls change their position constantly with respect to one another and that’s how
the power is transmitted between the shafts.
Oldham coupling
It is used to join two shafts which have lateral mis-alignment. Oldham coupling has three discs, one
coupled to the input, one coupled to the output, and a middle disc that is joined to the first two by tongue
and groove. The tongue and groove on one side is perpendicular to the tongue and groove on the other.
The middle disc rotates around its center at the same speed as the input and output shafts. Its center traces
a circular orbit, twice per rotation, around the midpoint between input and output shafts. Often springs are
used to reduce backlash of the mechanism. An advantage to this type of coupling, as compared to two
universal joints, is its compact size.
Intermediate disc
1st tongue and
groove
2nd tongue and
Driving shaft groove
Driven shaft
Fig 17.4: Schematics of Oldham coupling
Applications:
Oldham coupling is mainly used to transfer torque between two parallel but not collinear shafts. But the
special advantage gained by using Oldham coupling instead of straight jaw coupling is, their zero-
backlash performance.
Bevel gear
Bevel gears are the gears where the axes of the two shafts intersect and the tooth-bearing faces of the
gears themselves are conically shaped. Bevel gears are most often mounted on shafts that are 90 degrees
apart, but can be designed to work at other angles as well. The pitch surface of bevel gears is a cone.

Two important concepts in gearing are pitch surface and pitch angle. The pitch surface of a gear is
the imaginary toothless surface that you would have by averaging out the peaks and valleys of the
individual teeth. The pitch surface of an ordinary gear is the shape of a cylinder. The pitch angle of a
gear is the angle between the face of the pitch surface and the axis.
The most familiar kinds of bevel gears have pitch angles of less than 90 degrees and therefore are
cone-shaped. This type of bevel gear is called external because the gear teeth point outward. The
pitch surfaces of meshed external bevel gears are coaxial with the gear shafts; the apexes of the two
surfaces are at the point of intersection of the shaft axes.
Bevel gears that have pitch angles of greater than ninety degrees have teeth that point inward and are
called internal bevel gears. Bevel gears that have pitch angles of exactly 90 degrees have teeth that
point outward parallel with the axis and resemble the points on a crown. That's why this type of bevel
gear is called a crown gear. Miter gears are mating bevel gears with equal numbers of teeth and with
axes at right angles. Skew bevel gears are those for which the corresponding crown gear has teeth
that are straight and oblique.
Fig 17.2: Bevel gears
Teeth:
There are two issues regarding tooth shape. One is the cross-sectional profile of the individual tooth.
The other is the line or curve on which the tooth is set on the face of the gear: in other words, the line
or curve along which the cross-sectional profile is projected to form the actual three-dimensional
shape of the tooth. The primary effect of both the cross-sectional profile and the tooth line or curve is
on the smoothness of operation of the gears. Some result in a smoother gear action than others.
Tooth line:
The teeth on bevel gears can be straight, spiral or "zero".
Straight tooth lines:
In straight bevel gears the teeth are straight and parallel to the generators of the cone. This is the
simplest form of bevel gear. It resembles a spur gear, only conical rather than cylindrical. The gears

in the floodgate picture are straight bevel gears. In straight, when each tooth engages it impacts the
corresponding tooth and simply curving the gear teeth can solve the problem.
Spiral toothed lines

Spiral bevel gears have their teeth formed along spiral lines. They are somewhat analogous to
cylindrical type helical gears in that the teeth are angled; however, with spiral gears the teeth are also
curved.
The advantage of the spiral tooth over the straight tooth is that they engage more gradually. The
contact between the teeth starts at one end of the gear and then spreads across the whole tooth. This
results in a less abrupt transfer of force when new pair of teeth comes in to play. With straight bevel
gears, the abrupt tooth engagement causes noise, especially at high speeds, and impact stress on the
teeth which makes them unable to take heavy loads at high speeds without breaking. For these
reasons straight bevel gears are generally limited to use at linear speeds less than 1000 feet/min; or,
for small gears, under 1000 r.p.m.
Definition of Transmission System:

The mechanism that transmits the power developed by the engine of automobile to the engine to the
driving wheels is called the
TRANSMISSION SYSTEM (or POWER TRAIN).It is composed of –
 Clutch
 The gear box
 Propeller shaft
 Universal joints
 Rear axle
 Wheel
 Tires
Requirements of Transmission System: -

 Provide means of connection and disconnection of engine with rest of power train without shock
and smoothly.
 Provide a varied leverage between the engine and the drive wheels
 Provide means to transfer power in opposite direction.
 Enable power transmission at varied angles and varied lengths.
 Enable speed reduction between engine and the drive wheels in the ratio of 5:1.
 Enable diversion of power flow at right angles.
 Provide means to drive the driving wheels at different speeds when required.
 Bear the effect of torque reaction, driving thrust and braking effort effectively.

The above requirements are fulfilled by the following main units of

transmission system: -
 Clutch
 Gear Box
 Transfer Case
 Propeller Shaft and Universal Joints.
 Final Drive
 Differential
 Torque Tube
 Road Wheel
Difference between tire and wheel: -

Wheel &Tire
A wheel is a device that allows heavy objects to be moved easily through rotating on an axle through its
center, facilitating movement or transportation while supporting a load (mass), or performing labor in
machine.
While tyre is the outer part of the wheel made up with rubber and mostly use in vehicles for smooth
movement.
Types of Transmission System
1. Hydraulic transmission system

2. Mechanical transmission system
Fluid coupling, Torque transmission, Automatic transmission system, Manual transmission system,
Clutch, gear box and line axle transmission, Clutch, gear box and dead axle transmission, Clutch, gear
box and axle less transmission,
Hydraulic transmission system: -

Fluid coupling -: A fluid coupling is a hydrodynamic device used to transmit rotating
mechanical power. It has been used in automobile transmissions as an alternative to mechanical clutch

How fluid coupling can be act as a mechanical clutch?

In automotive applications, the pump typically is connected to the flywheel of the engine The turbine is
connected to the input shaft of the transmission. While the transmission is in gear, as engine speed
increases torque is transferred from the engine to the input shaft by the motion of the fluid, propelling the
vehicle. So, the behavior of the fluid coupling strongly resembles that of a mechanical clutch driving a
manual transmission.
Construction of a Fluid Coupling: -

It consists of a pump-generally known as impeller and turbine generally known as rotor, both enclosed
suitably in a casing. They face each other with an air gap. The impeller is suitably connected to the prime
mover while the rotor has a shaft bolted to it. This shaft is further connected to the driven machine
through a suitable arrangement. Oil is filled in the fluid coupling from the filling plug provided on its
body.
Operating principle of fluid coupling: -

There is no mechanical interconnection between the impeller and the rotor and the power is transmitted
by virtue of the fluid filled in the coupling. The impeller when rotated by the prime mover imparts
velocity and energy to the fluid, which is converted into mechanical energy in the rotor thus rotating it.
The fluid follows a closed circuit of flow from impeller to rotor through the air gap at the outer periphery
and from rotor to impeller again through the air gap at thinner periphery. To enable the fluid to flow from
impeller to rotor it is essential that there is difference in the "heat" between the two and thus it is essential
that there is difference in R.P.M., known as slip between the two. As the slip increases more and more
fluid can be transferred from the impeller to the rotor and more torque is transmitted.

Torque Converter: -Torque converter is a hydraulic transmission which increases the

torque of the vehicle reducing its speed. It provides a continuous variation of ratio from low to high. The
key characteristic of a torque converter is its ability to multiply torque when there is a substantial
difference between input and output rotational speed, thus providing the equivalent of a reduction gear.
Cars with an automatic transmission have no clutch that disconnects the transmission from
the engine. So, they use an amazing device called a torque converter.
What’s inside the Torque Converter?

There are four components inside the very strong housing of the torque converter:
 Pump
 Turbine
 Stator
 Transmission fluid
These are the parts in the figure turbine, stator, and pump
(left to right).
The housing of the torque converter is bolted to the flywheel of the engine, so it turns at
whatever speed the engine is running at. The pump inside a torque converter is a type of
centrifugal pump. As it spins, fluid is flung to the outside. As fluid is flung to the outside, a
vacuum is created that draws more fluid in at the center. The fluid then enters the blades of
the turbine, which is connected to the transmission. The turbine causes the transmission to spin,
which basically moves your car. The blades of the turbine are curved. This means that the fluid,
which enters the turbine from the outside, has to change direction before it exits the center of
the turbine. It is this directional change that causes the turbine to spin.

I n order to change the direction of a moving object, you must apply a force to that object -- it doesn't
matter if the object is a car or a drop of fluid. And whatever applies the force that causes the object to turn
must also feel that force, but in the opposite direction. So as the turbine causes the fluid to change
direction, the fluid causes the turbine to spin.
The fluid exits the turbine at the center, moving in a different direction than when it entered. The fluid
exits the turbine moving opposite the direction that the pump (and engine) is turning. If the fluid were
allowed to hit the pump, it would slow the engine down, wasting power. This is why a torque converter
has a stator. The stator resides in the very center of the torque converter. Its job is to redirect the fluid
returning from the turbine before it hits the pump again. This dramatically increases the efficiency of the
torque converter. The stator has a very aggressive blade design that almost completely reverses the
direction of the fluid. A one-way clutch (inside the stator) connects the stator to a fixed shaft in the
transmission (the direction that the clutch allows the stator to spin is noted in the figure above). Because
of this arrangement, the stator cannot spin with the fluid -- it can spin only in the opposite direction,
forcing the fluid to change direction as it hits the stator blades.
The figure (top to bottom) shows the pump, turbine and the stator, sending the fluid in their respective
direction.

Manual transmission system: -

In this type of transmission system, the driver has to manually select and engage the gear ratios -:
Stages of Manual transmission
Clutch fully depressed

The clutch is fully disengaged when the pedal is fully depressed. There will be no torque being transferred
from the engine to the transmission and wheels. Fully depressing the clutch allows the driver to change
gears or stop the vehicle.

Clutch slips
The clutch slips are the point that varies between being fully depressed and released. The clutch slip is
used to start the vehicle from a stand still. It then allows the engine rotation to adjust to the newly selected
gear ratio gradually. It is recommended not to slip the clutch for a long time because a lot of heat is
generated resulting in energy wastage.

Clutch fully released
The clutch is fully engaged when the pedal is fully released. All the engine torque will be transmitted to
the transmission. This results in the power being transmitted to the wheels with minimum loss.
Automatic transmission: -
Automatic transmission system is the most advanced system in which drives mechanical efforts are
reduced very much and different speeds are obtained automatically. This system is generally also called
hydromantic transmission. It contains epicyclic gear arrangement, fluid coupling and torque converter. In
these planetary gears sets are placed in series to provide transmission. This type of transmission is used
by Skoda, Toyota, Lexus, etc.

Epicyclic gearing (planetary gearing):-

It is a gear system consisting of one or more outer gears, or planet gears, revolving about a central gear.
By using epicyclic gear, different torque speed ratio can be obtained. It also compacts the size of gear
box.
Stages of automatic transmission: -

Park (P): -selecting the park mode will lock the transmission, thus restricting the vehicle from moving.
Reverse(R): -selecting the reverse mode puts the car into reverse gear, allowing the vehicle to move
backward.
Neutral (N): - selecting neutral mode disconnects the transmission from the wheel.
Low (L): -selecting the low mode will allow you to lower the speed to move on hilly and middy areas.
Drive (D): -selecting drive mode allows the vehicle to move and accelerate through a range of gears.
Comparison between manual transmission and automatic

transmission: -
Manual transmission Automatic Transmission Vehicles with manual transmission are usually cheaper.
Vehicles with automatic transmission are costlier than those of manual transmission.
Manual transmission has better fuel economy. This is because manual transmission has better
mechanical and gear train efficiency.
Automatic transmission has not better fuel economy. This is because automatic transmission has not
better mechanical and gear train efficiency as compare to those of manual transmission.
Manual transmission offers the driver more control of the vehicle.
Automatic transmission does not offer the driver more control of the vehicle as compare to that of
manual transmission system.

Clutch
 A clutch is a mechanism which enables the rotary motion of one shaft to be transmitted at will to
second shaft, whose axis is coincident with that of first.
 Clutch is located between engine and gear box. When the clutch is engaged, the power flows
from the engine to the rear wheels through the transmission system and the vehicle moves .when
the clutch is disengaged ,the power is not transmitted to the rear wheels and the vehicle stops,
while the engine is still running.
Clutch is disengaged when

a) Starting the engine,
b) Shifting the gears,
c) Idling the engine
Clutch is engaged only when the vehicle is to move and is kept engaged when the vehicle is moving.
Function of a Clutch: -
a) To permit engagement or disengagement of a gear when the vehicle is stationary and the engine is
running
b) To transmit the engine power to the road wheels smoothly without shock to the transmission system
while setting the wheel in motion.
c) To permit the engaging of gears when the vehicle is in motion without damaging the gearwheels.
Principle of Operation of a Clutch: -

The clutch principle is based on friction. When two friction surfaces are brought in contact With each
other and pressed they are united due to friction between them. If one is revolved the other will also
revolve. The friction between the two surfaces depends upon
i. Area of the surface,
ii. Pressure applied upon them,
iii. Coefficient of friction of the surface materials
Here, one surface is considered as driving member and the other as driven member
The driving member of a clutch is the flywheel mounted on the crankshaft, the driven member is the
pressure plate mounted on the transmission shaft. Friction surfaces (clutch plates) are between the two
members (driving and driven). On the engagement of the clutch, the engine is connected to the
transmission (gear box) and the power flows from the engine to the rear wheels through the transmission
system. When the clutch is disengaged by pressing clutch pedal, the engine is disconnected from the
transmission and consequently the power does not flow to the rear wheels while the engine is still
running.

Epicyclic gears:
Allen Gears epicyclical units have been developed with over 60 years of continuous product
improvement and are utilized across a wide range of applications.
Operational requirements for epicyclic gears range from low speed high torque applications such
as hydroelectric power production through to very high speed gas turbine driven applications in
industrial power generation and marine propulsion.
Allen Gears epicyclic units provide a power-dense solution with co-axial input and output shaft
lines. This arrangement allows for a more compact and lightweight solution to be produced
eliminating the need for shaft offsets between driving and driven machinery which can result in
smaller and lighter drive train package arrangements.
The ability for the Allen Gears epicyclic gear to provide more power-dense solutions is provided
through the capability to share the load between an increased number gear meshes and the use of
the patented Allen Gears AEG annulus coupling arrangement. This result in lower volume gears,
with lower pitch line and bearing journal velocities which can result in an epicyclic gear having
significantly lower losses than an equivalent parallel shaft gear.
Epicyclic Gearbox Configuration
Allen Gears epicyclic gear units can be configured in three principle arrangements to allow
different ratio, torque transmission and shaft rotation characteristics. These three arrangements
are;
Star where the planet carrier is fixed and the sun and annulus gear rotate.
 Fixed carrier assembly

 Input and output shaft rotate in opposite directions
 Ratios from 2:1 to 11:1
Planetary where the annulus ring gear is the fixed component and the sun gear and planet carrier
rotate
 Fixed annulus system

 Input and output shaft rotate in same directions
 Ratios from 3:1 to 12:1
Solar gear where the sun gear is the fixed component and the annulus gear and planet carrier
rotate.
 Fixed sunwheel
 Input and output shafts rotate is same direction
 Ratios from 1.1:1 to 1.7:1
In addition where higher ratios are required, two-stage or compound units can be developed to
provide ratios up to # 1.
Epicyclic Gearbox Flexibility
Allen Gears epicyclics can be used to provide drive between a wide range
of prime movers and driven equipment. Typical driving machinery would
be Gas turbines, Steam turbines, Electric Motors, Diesel Engines or Hydro
turbines. Driven machinery could be pumps, compressors (radial or
reciprocating), electrical generators, ship propellers or water jets.
Allen Gears experience has provided epicyclic solutions covering power

ranges between 0.5 MW to 37 MW, transmitted torques up to 0.5 Mw to
37 MW, transmitted torques up to 4.35 MN.m and operating at speeds from as low as 19 rpm up

to input shaft speeds of 40,000 rpm. Design features available within our range of epicyclic
solutions are:
 Generator Mounted Gear Boxes

 Turbine Mounted Gearboxes
 Lubrication Pump, Fuel Pump etc. PTO drives
 Starter drive PTI’s
 Integrated Barring Drive Gear
 Instrumentation Packages for Condition Monitoring
Allen gears have invested many years in perfecting the manufacturing technology that is critical
for the successful operation of high integrity transmissions, to meet the ever increasing demands of
the high speed and high power applications.
Our ability to provide high quality and reliable transmission is facilitated by the design and
manufacture of all of the critical components in-house, for example gears, bearings, casings and
couplings.
Differentials:
A differential is a particular type of simple planetary gear train that has the property that the
angular velocity of its carrier is the average of the angular velocities of its sun and annular gears.
This is accomplished by packaging the gear train so it has a fixed carrier train ratio R = -1, which
means the gears corresponding to the sun and annular gears are the same size. This can be done
by engaging the planet gears of two identical and coaxial epicyclic gear trains to form a spur gear
differential. Another approach is to use bevel gears for the sun and annular gears and a bevel
gear as the planet, which is known as a bevel gear differential.
Fig: Differential

In automobiles and other wheeled vehicles, the differential allows the outer drive wheel to rotate
faster than the inner drive wheel during a turn. This is necessary when the vehicle turns, making
the wheel that is traveling around the outside of the turning curve roll farther and faster than the
other. The average of the rotational speed of the two driving wheels equals the input rotational
speed of the drive shaft. An increase in the speed of one wheel is balanced by a decrease in the
speed of the other.
A differential consists of one input, the drive shaft, and two outputs which are the two drive
wheels, however the rotation of the drive wheels are coupled by their connection to the roadway.
Non-automotive uses of differentials include performing analog arithmetic. Two of the
differential's three shafts are made to rotate through angles that represent (are proportional to)
two numbers, and the angle of the third shaft's rotation represents the sum or difference of the
two input numbers.
Application to Vehicles:
A vehicle with two drive wheels has the problem that when it turns a corner the drive wheels
must rotate at different speeds to maintain traction. The automotive differential is designed to
drive a pair of wheels while allowing them to rotate at different speeds. In vehicles without a
differential, such as karts, both driving wheels are forced to rotate at the same speed, usually on a
common axle driven by a simple chain-drive mechanism.
When cornering the inner wheel travels a shorter distance than the outer wheel, so without a
differential either the inner wheel rotates too fast or the outer wheel drags, which results in
difficult and unpredictable handling, damage to tires and roads, and strain on (or possible failure
of) the entire drivetrain.
In rear-wheel drive automobiles the central drive shaft (or prop shaft) engages the differential
through a hypoid gear(crown-wheel and pinion) the crown-wheel is mounted on the carrier of the

planetary chain that forms the differential. This hypoid gear is a bevel gear that changes the
direction of the drive rotation.
Functional Description:
The following description of a differential applies to a "traditional" rear-wheel-drive car or truck
with an "open" or limited slip differential combined with a reduction gear set using bevel gears
(these are not strictly necessary - see spur-gear differential):
Thus, for example, if the car is making a turn to the right, the main crown wheel may make 10
full rotations. During that time, the left wheel will make more rotations because it has further to
travel, and the right wheel will make fewer rotations as it has less distance to travel. The sun
gears (which drive the axle half-shafts) will rotate in opposite directions relative to the ring gear
by, say, 2 full turns each (4 full turns relative to each other), resulting in the left wheel making 12
rotations, and the right wheel making 8 rotations.
The rotation of the crown wheel gear is always the average of the rotations of the side sun gears.
This is why, if the driven road wheels are lifted clear of the ground with the engine off, and the
drive shaft is held (say leaving the transmission 'in gear', preventing the ring gear from turning
inside the differential), manually rotating one driven road wheel causes the opposite road wheel
to rotate in the opposite direction by the same amount.
When the vehicle is traveling in a straight line, there will be no differential movement of the
planetary system of gears other than the minute movements necessary to compensate for slight
differences in wheel diameter, undulations in the road (which make for a longer or shorter wheel
path), etc.
Rack and pinion:

A rack and pinion is a type of linear actuator that comprises a pair of gears which convert rotational
motion into linear motion. A circular gear is called pinion which engages teeth on a linear gear bar known
as rack. Rotational motion applied to the pinion causes the rack to move, thereby translating the rotational
motion of the pinion into the linear motion of the rack.

Rack
Fig 17.3: Rack and pinion
Applications:
The rack and pinion arrangement is commonly found in the steering mechanism of cars. This
arrangement provides a lesser mechanical advantage than other mechanisms such as recirculating
ball, but much less backlash and greater feedback. The use of a variable rack with a normal
pinion is used to improve vehicle response and especially at high speeds, and that has been fitted
to many new vehicles.

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MECHANICS OF MACHINES LAB

Department of Mechanical Engineering

1 Department of Mechanical Engineering Capital University of Science & Technology

(Mechanics of Machines Lab)

Mr. Shahwar Yaseen

Mr. Sami Ur Rehman

Mechanics of Machines Manual

2 Department of Mechanical Engineering Capital University of Science & Technology

3 Department of Mechanical Engineering Capital University of Science & Technology

Course Learning Objective

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Capital University of Science and Technology

S. No Outcomes Level of PLO

1 Use CREO-Parametric software to apply the knowledge of C3 PLO5

Marks CLO1 – Level C3 mapped to PLO5 (Modern Tool Usage)

4 Department of Mechanical Engineering Capital University of Science & Technology

Marks CLO2 – Level A2 mapped to PLO9 (Individual and Team work)

0-2 He/ She show less interest in explaining the mechanism.

05 Set up of equipment is carried out accurately; help is required with minor

07 Set up of equipment is carried out accurately; no major help is required with

10 Set up of equipment is carried out accurately, measurements of key variable of

5 Department of Mechanical Engineering Capital University of Science & Technology

05 Set up of equipment is carried out accurately; help is required with minor

07 Set up of equipment is carried out accurately; no major help is required with

10 Set up of equipment is carried out accurately, measurements of key variable of

Kinematic pair and kinematic chain:

(a) Three links (b) Four links

(c) Five links

7 Department of Mechanical Engineering Capital University of Science & Technology

Four link mechanism:

 s = length of shortest bar

Then if: 𝑆+𝐿 ≤𝑃+𝑄

For the Class-I case:

8 Department of Mechanical Engineering Capital University of Science & Technology

For the class-II case:

All inversions will be triple-rockers in which no link can fully rotate

For the class-III case:

Observation and calculations:

9 Department of Mechanical Engineering Capital University of Science & Technology

For class III

10 Department of Mechanical Engineering Capital University of Science & Technology

05 Set up of equipment is carried out accurately; help is required with minor

07 Set up of equipment is carried out accurately; no major help is required with

10 Set up of equipment is carried out accurately, measurements of key variable of

11 Department of Mechanical Engineering Capital University of Science & Technology

Piston rod (link 1)

Cylinder (link 4) Crank

Connecting rod (link 3)

Fig 9.1: Crank-connecting rod mechanism

12 Department of Mechanical Engineering Capital University of Science & Technology

V2= Final velocity of the slider.

13 Department of Mechanical Engineering Capital University of Science & Technology

Observations and calculations:

Sr. Crank Angle Slider Position Slider Velocity Slider Acceleration

14 Department of Mechanical Engineering Capital University of Science & Technology

05 Set up of equipment is carried out accurately; help is required with minor

07 Set up of equipment is carried out accurately; no major help is required with

10 Set up of equipment is carried out accurately, measurements of key variable of

15 Department of Mechanical Engineering Capital University of Science & Technology

Fig 10.1: Schematics of quick return mechanism

16 Department of Mechanical Engineering Capital University of Science & Technology

P2 = Final position of the slider.

V2 = Final velocity of the slider.

Observations and calculations: