Mixture Optimization of Green Reactive Powder

Concrete with Recycled Powder

XinQi Mao 1; Wenjun Qu, Ph.D. 2; and Peng Zhu, Ph.D. 3

Abstract: Recycled powder (RP), generated from construction waste, can be used as supplementary cementitious material. It is promising
to use recycled powder in reactive powder concrete (RPC) to develop a green high-performance mixture with reduced cost. Based on
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previous study, different mixtures were designed and a comprehensive experimental program was developed to investigate the optimization
of green reactive powder concrete (GRPC) mixture proportions systematically. Influences of superplasticizer amount, fine aggregate type,
water:cementitious materials ratio (W:CM), recycled powder amount, silica fume amount, and steel fiber amount on the flowability, com-
pressive strength, and flexural strength of GRPC were investigated. Considering the properties, cost, and environmental savings, superplas-
ticizer ratio of 1.0%, recycled powder replacement of 30%, silica fume amount of 15%, steel fiber proportion of 2.0%, and W:CM of 0.16
are suggested, and natural sand is suggested to replace crushed quartz. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002663. © 2019 American
Society of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Reactive powder concrete; Steel fiber; Recycled powder; High-performance concrete.

Introduction Van Tuan et al. (2011) found it is feasible to produce ultrahigh-

Reactive powder concrete (RPC) was developed with dense micro-
structure and reduced defects, and thus ultrahigh-strength and
superior durability can be ensured (Richard and Cheyrezy 1995;
Bonneau et al. 2000). With the steel fiber, RPC also exhibits re-
markable ductility. Typical compositions of RPC include cement,
silica fume (SF), crushed quartz, superplasticizer (SP), and steel
fiber. Silica fume can produce secondary hydrates by pozzolanic
reaction with the lime from primary hydration. One reason that
the application of RPC is limited is the high cost. The replacement
of the expensive compositions has been studied. Liu et al. (2008)
reported that the early shrinkage of RPC with a high volume fine
mineral mixture [fly ash (FA), limestone powder] is small, and its
performance of carbonation resistance and chloride permeation re-
sistance is also good. Yazıcı et al. (2008, 2009) investigated the use
of ground-granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBFS) and FA in RPC
to replace cement or SF. Test results indicated that RPC with a high
proportion of blends (SF-FA, SF-GGBFS, or SF-FA-GGBFS) has
satisfactory mechanical properties. Peng et al. (2010) suggested
that utilization of high-volume ultrafine fly ash or steel slag powder
in RPC is feasible based on the compressive strength tests, and
microstructure analysis showed that excellent mechanical perfor-
mances result from the filling effect of the compound system.
1
Ph.D. Candidate, Dept. of Structural Engineering, College of Civil
Engineering, Tongji Univ., Shanghai 200092, China; Assistant Professor,
Dept. of Engineering, Qingdao Agricultural Univ., Qingdao 266109, China.
Email: 1310189@tongji.edu.cn
2
Professor, Dept. of Structural Engineering, College of Civil Engineer-
ing, Tongji Univ., Shanghai 200092, China. Email: quwenjun.tj@tongji
.edu.cn
3
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Structural Engineering, College of Civil
Engineering, Tongji Univ., Shanghai 200092, China (corresponding
author). Email: pzhu@tongji.edu.cn
Note. This manuscript was submitted on April 10, 2018; approved on
October 3, 2018; published online on February 26, 2019. Discussion period
open until July 26, 2019; separate discussions must be submitted for
individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Materials in Civil
Engineering, © ASCE, ISSN 0899-1561.
performance concrete (UHPC) using rice husk ash, and rice husk
ash has a larger effect on the compressive strength of UHPC than
that of SF. To further reduce the cost, Zhang et al. (2008), Yang
et al. (2009), and Zhao et al. (2014) prepared RPC using natural
river sand, recycled glass cullet, and iron ore tailings as fine aggre-
gate, respectively. The mechanical performances of the new com-
posites are comparable to conventional RPC.
Large quantities of construction wastes of concrete, clay brick,
and mortar are produced as disaster damage or urban renewal and
expansion. Utilizing these wastes to produce recycled construction
materials is both an environmentally friendly and economical
method of disposal. Recycled powder (RP) has been generated
from construction and demolition wastes and used again to produce
green construction materials. It was made through smashing,
grinding, drying, and grading abandoned clay bricks and concrete.
O’Farrell et al. (2001) found that the pore volume, threshold radius,
pore size distribution, and strength of mortars containing ground
waste brick are close to those of mortar without ground brick at
long curing times (90 days to 1 year). Nigri et al. (2017) reported
a gain of strength and reduced shrinkage of mortars were observed
when cement was partially replaced by ground waste brick. Tests
results by Turanli et al. (2003), Bektas et al. (2008), and Ge et al.
(2015) showed that concrete with ground clay brick has comparable
mechanical properties and better durability than that of reference
concrete without ground clay brick. Zhu et al. (2016) suggested
the utilization of recycled powder from construction wastes in RPC
to develop a high-performance mixture with environmental and
cost savings.
The use of recycled waste materials has been studied and con-
crete mixtures with common performances have been developed.
Environmentally friendly and cost-saving mixtures with high per-
formances were investigated in this study. The feasibility of a large
amount of cement replaced by RP from construction wastes in RPC
and the optimal mixture proportion of green reactive powder con-
crete (GRPC) were studied. For the mixture proportion optimiza-
tion of GRPC with RP, influences of superplasticizer amount, the
fine aggregate type, water:cementitious materials ratio (W:CM), re-
cycled powder amount, silica fume amount, and steel fiber amount

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 Table 1. Main chemical composition and physical properties of recycled
powder
Chemical composition or physical property Value
SiO2 (%) 46.90
Al2 O3 (%) 11.70
Fe2 O3 (%) 5.62
CaO (%) 19.3
MgO (%) 2.17
Na2 O (%) 0.84
K2 O (%) 2.30
SO3 (%) 1.49
Specific surface area (m2 =g) 0.817
Loss on ignition (950°C) (%) 5.9
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Fig. 1. Particle size distribution of the recycled powder, cement, and Fig. 2. Particle size distribution volume of (a) natural sand; and
silica fume. (b) crushed quartz.

on the properties of GRPC were investigated through the designed
experimental program. Suggestions on development of environ-
mentally friendly GRPC mixture with high performances and
reduced cost are presented.
Experiment Preparation
Materials
Ordinary portland cement PO 42.5 and silica fume in conformity
with GB 175 (SAC 2007) and GB/T 27690 (SAC 2011), respec-
tively, were used. The specific surface areas of the cement and silica
fume were 0.346 and 21.658 m2 =g, respectively. Recycled powder
in this study was produced by one construction waste disposal
plant. The ratio of bricks to concrete in raw materials for manufac-
turing was about 7:3. The chemical composition and physical
properties of recycled powder are listed in Table 1. The chemical
compositions of recycled powder were analyzed with X-ray fluo-
rescence (XRF). The specific surface was tested with the Blaine
permeability method. The particle size distributions of cement,
silica fume, and recycled powder are shown in Fig. 1.
As tested following GB/T 18736 (SAC 2002) and GB/T 17671
(SAC 1999), the ratio of water demand was 105%, which was a
little more than that of cement. The ratio of water demand is the
ratio of water needed for the studied mortar (e.g., 30% cement
replacement by RP) to have the flow of 130–140 mm to water
needed for the control mortars (without cement replacement) to
have the same flow. The pozzolanicity of recycled powder was
tested following BS EN 196-5 (BSI 2011), and it was indicated
that the recycled powder had pozzolanic activity.
Crushed quartz (D50 ¼ 300 μm) and natural sand (D50 ¼
400 μm) were used as fine aggregate in different mixtures for com-
parison. The particle size distributions of natural sand and crushed
quartz used were similar, as shown in Fig. 2. The grain size of
recycled powder ranged from 2 to 50 μm mainly, and D50 was
12 μm, which was similar to the particle size distribution of the
cement used.
A polycarboxylate-based SP was used. Brass-coated steel fibers
used had lengths of 13 mm and diameters of 0.22 mm. The aspect
ratio of the fiber was 60 and the tensile strength was 2,850 MPa.
Specimen Preparation
Specimens were prepared following GB/T 17671 (SAC 1999)
modified. The cementitious materials were mixed at low speed
for 2 min. Then 75% water and 75% SP were added to the premixed
composition and the mixture was remixed at low speed for 3 min.
Then the sand was added and mixed at low speed for 3 min.
The remaining 25% water and 25% SP were added and mixed
at low speed for 3 min and then at high speed for 3 min. When
steel fiber was added, an additional 3–5 min of mixing at high

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 Table 2. Mix design of control mixtures
Water Cement Recycled powder Silica fume Natural sand
Mix ID W:CM (kg=m3 ) (kg=m3 ) (kg=m3 ) (kg=m3 ) (kg=m3 )
Control mix without RP 0.18 207 1,000 0 150 1,000
Control mix with RP 0.18 207 700 300 150 1,000

Table 3. Mix design of GRPC with different amounts of superplasticizer

Water SPb Cement Recycled powder Silica fume Natural sand
Mix ID S:CMa (%) W:CM (kg=m3 ) (kg=m3 ) (kg=m3 ) (kg=m3 ) (kg=m3 ) (kg=m3 )
SCM-1 0.5 0.18 198 14 700 300 150 1,000
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SCM-2 0.7 0.18 195 20 700 300 150 1,000

SCM-3 1.0 0.18 190 29 700 300 150 1,000
SCM-4 1.25 0.18 185 36 700 300 150 1,000
a
S:CM = ratio of solid content in superplasticizer to cementitious materials (cement, recycled powder, and silica fume).
b
Liquid superplasticizer (water included).

speed was required. The mixture was poured into molds that were
40 × 40 × 160 mm and compacted with a vibration table. The
specimens were kept in the standard curing case (temperature 20 
1°C and moisture above 95%) for 24 h. The specimens were im-
mersed in saturated lime water after demolding and kept in the cur-
ing room with a temperature of 20  2°C and moisture above 50%
until the tests.

Test Methods
The flow test was conducted with the flow table method per GB/T
2419 (SAC 2005b). The flexural strength and compressive strength
tests were according to GB/T 17671 (SAC 1999). Center-point
loading was applied on the flexural specimens over a 100-mm span
at a loading rate of 50 N=s. Compressive strength tests were per-
formed on the two broken pieces left from the flexural test at a
loading rate of 2,400 N=s. Three specimens for flexural strength
were tested, and thus there were six specimens for compressive
strength of the mixtures.
Mix Design
Based on the study by Zhu et al. (2016), the mix proportions of
control mixtures were designed as listed in Table 2.
Results and Discussion
Superplasticizer Proportion
Based on the control mixture in Table 2, the mix proportions were
developed to study the influence of superplasticizer proportion, as
shown in Table 3. Different superplasticizer-to-binder ratios—0.5,
0.7, 1.0, and 1.25—were considered. The flow was tested, and
the results are shown in Fig. 3. Water in the superplasticizer was
considered in the water-to-cementitious materials ratio.
As shown in Fig. 3, the flow increased with the increase of
superplasticizer. As superplasticizer ratio increased from 0.5% to
0.7%, the flow increased significantly (20.1%), and the flow in-
crease rate reduced as superplasticizer ratio increased from 0.7%
to 1.0%. As superplasticizer ratio increased from 1.0% to 1.2%, the
flow increase was small. Thus, a superplasticizer ratio of 1.0% was
suggested.
Fig. 3. Flow versus superplasticizer proportion.
Water-to-Cementitious Materials Ratio
Based on the control mixture in Table 2, the mix proportions were
developed, as shown in Table 4, to study the influences of W:CM.
W:CM values of 0.14, 0.16, 0.18, and 0.20 were considered, and
results of the flow, compressive strength, and flexural strength are
shown in Figs. 4–6.
The flow increased as W:CM increased, as shown in Fig. 4.
Normally, flow between 140 and 180 mm is considered acceptable,
and that larger than 180 mm is considered good (SAC 2007,
2005a). For W:CM of 0.14, the flow was less than 140 mm, which
was unacceptable. As W:CM increased to 0.16, the flow increased
to 198 mm, larger than 180 mm.
The compressive strength decreased with the increase of W:CM,
as shown in Fig. 5. The flow was bad for W:CM of 0.14. It was
difficult to fabricate the specimens, and thus only one set of spec-
imens for 28-day strength was prepared. The 28-day compressive
strength increased for 7.9% as W:CM decreased from 0.18 to 0.16,
while the increase was 1.0% as W:CM decreased from 0.16 to 0.14.
The 28-day flexural strength for W:CM of 0.16 was higher than that

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 Table 4. Mix design of GRPC with different W:CM values
Water SPa Cement Recycled powder Silica fume Natural sand
Mix ID W:CM (kg=m3 ) (kg=m3 ) (kg=m3 ) (kg=m3 ) (kg=m3 ) (kg=m3 )
WCM-1 0.14 144 29 700 300 150 1,000
WCM-2 0.16 167 29 700 300 150 1,000
WCM-3 0.18 190 29 700 300 150 1,000
WCM-4 0.20 213 29 700 300 150 1,000
a
Liquid superplasticizer (water included).
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Fig. 6. Flexural strength versus W:CM.

Fig. 4. Flow versus W:CM.

1. The flow decreased as the recycled powder increased, as shown

Fig. 5. Compressive strength versus W:CM.
for W:CM of 0.14 and 0.18, as shown in Fig. 6. The bad flow and
workability due to low W:CM can impact the density and thus the
strength. According to the flow, compressive strength, and flexural
strength, a W:CM of 0.16 was suggested.
Recycled Powder Proportion
The cement in the RPC mixture was replaced with recycled powder
by 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40% by weight, and the mix proportions of
GRPC studied are shown in Table 5. The flow, compressive
strength, and flexural strength of different mixtures were tested and
compared as shown in Figs. 7–9, respectively.
in Fig. 7, because the recycled powder has a little larger water
demand than cement. For the replacement rate of 40%, the flow
was 187 mm, which was still good.
2. The compressive strength decreased as the recycled powder
increased, as shown in Fig. 8. The decrease rate reduced as
the age increased due to the contribution by pozzolanic activity
of recycled powder to the development of the later strength. The
flexural strength decreased as the recycled powder increased, as
shown in Fig. 9. Compared with the compressive strength, the
early development of flexural strength was slower and the later
gain was faster. This may be because the porosity has more
influence on the flexural strength and the porosity at early age
is large.
3. Flexural strength to compressive strength ratio (f:c) of GRPC
with different recycled powder replacement was calculated,
as shown in Fig. 10. The high brittleness is one of the biggest
disadvantages of concretes, especially of high-strength concrete.
For recycled powder replacement less than 30%, the f:c in-
creased as recycled powder increased, which indicated recycled
powder can improve toughness. As recycled powder replace-
ment increased from 30% to 40%, the f:c decreased except that
of 7 days. Considering the toughness, recycled powder replace-
ment of 30% is suggested.
4. The contribution of recycled powder to the strength can be ana-
lyzed quantitatively. According to Pu (1998), relative strength
(S 0 in megapascals) is defined as strength contribution by the
cement of 1% of binder materials in the mixture, as shown
in Eq. (1)
S
S0 ¼ ð1Þ
q
where S = strength of concrete (MPa); and q = percentage of
cement in binder materials. In this study, the silica fume amount

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 Table 5. Mix design of GRPC with cement replaced by recycled powder
RP Water SPa Cement RP Silica fume Natural sand
Mix ID replacement (%) W:CM (kg=m3 ) (kg=m3 ) (kg=m3 ) (kg=m3 ) (kg=m3 ) (kg=m3 )
RP-0 0 0.16 167 29 1,000 0 150 1,000
RP-1 10 0.16 167 29 900 100 150 1,000
RP-2 20 0.16 167 29 800 200 150 1,000
RP-3 30 0.16 167 29 700 300 150 1,000
RP-4 40 0.16 167 29 600 400 150 1,000
a
Liquid superplasticizer (water included).
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Fig. 7. Flow versus recycled powder replacement percentage. Fig. 9. Flexural strength versus recycled powder replacement
percentage.

Fig. 8. Compressive strength versus recycled powder replacement Fig. 10. Flexural strength to compressive strength ratio (f:c) versus RP
percentage. replacement percentage.

was the same for all the mixtures, and proportions for the ce- Sc
ment and recycled powder varied, with the total amount of the Sc0 ¼ ð2Þ
100
cement and recycled powder unchanged. And the cement and
recycled powder were considered for the binder materials The relative strength varied with the recycled powder replace-
in the calculation without the silica fume. ment percentage, as shown in Fig. 11. The relative strength in-
For concrete with only cement as binder, q is 100, and thus the creased as the recycled powder increased, although the strength
relative strength (Sc0 ) is calculated as Eq. (2) decreased as the recycled powder increased, which indicated that

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Fig. 13. Flow of GRPC with natural sand and crushed quartz.
Fig. 11. Relative strength versus RP replacement percentage.

comprehensive contribution rate for compressive strength of re-

cycled powder was calculated, as shown in Fig. 12. Except 10%
replacement at 3 days, the comprehensive contribution rate for
different replacement was larger than 0, and it increased as the re-
cycled powder replacement increased. Also, the comprehensive
contribution rate increased as the age increased. For 28 days, the
comprehensive contribution rate increased significantly as the
replacement of recycled powder increased. This indicated that re-
cycled powder can enhance the effect of cement on strength, and
the enhancement effect of recycled powder increased as the re-
cycled powder replacement or the age increased

S 0 − Sc0
Rs ¼ × 100 ð3Þ
S0

Fine Aggregate Types

Fig. 12. Comprehensive contribution rate for compressive strength
versus RP replacement percentage.
recycled powder can enhance the effect of cement on strength.
Also, the relative strength increased as the age increased, which
meant the enhancement effect of recycled powder increased as
the age increased.
To analyze the comprehensive effect of the cementitious
materials other than cement on the strength, the comprehensive
strength contribution rate, Rs (%), was defined as Eq. (3). The
GRPCs with different fine aggregates were investigated. Based
on the results of previous tests, the mixture was designed as shown
in Table 6. The flow, 28-day compressive strength, and flexural
strength of GRPC with natural sand and crushed quartz for differ-
ent recycled powder replacements were compared as shown in
Figs. 13–15, respectively.
According to Fig. 13, the natural sand mixtures demonstrated
better flow than crushed quartz mixtures, which was irrelevant to
the replacement percentage of recycled powder. The particle size
distribution of crushed quartz and natural sand used was similar,
as shown in Fig. 2. The size distribution of natural sand is more
even than that of crushed quartz, and thus the natural sand mixture
can be more dense than the crushed quartz mixture, which can re-
sult in more free water and better flow for the natural sand mixture.

Table 6. Mix design of GRPC with different fine aggregates

RP Water SPa Cement RP Silica fume Natural sand Crushed quartz
Mix ID replacement (%) W:CM (kg=m3 ) (kg=m3 ) (kg=m3 ) (kg=m3 ) (kg=m3 ) (kg=m3 ) (kg=m3 )
NS-1 (RP-1) 10 0.16 167 29 900 100 150 1,000 —
CQ-1 10 0.16 167 29 900 100 150 — 1,000
NS-2 (RP-2) 20 0.16 167 29 800 200 150 1,000 —
CQ-2 20 0.16 167 29 800 200 150 — 1,000
NS-3 (RP-3) 30 0.16 167 29 700 300 150 1,000 —
CQ-3 30 0.16 167 29 700 300 150 — 1,000
a
Liquid superplasticizer (water included).

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Fig. 14. 28-day compressive strength of GRPC with natural sand or Fig. 16. Flow versus silica fume content of GRPC.
crushed quartz.

from the compressive strength. This is because the particle size of

natural sand is relatively larger than that of crushed quartz, as
shown in Fig. 2.
Considering the flow, compressive strength, flexural strength,
and cost, natural sand is suggested as the fine aggregate in GRPC
instead of crushed quartz.

Silica Fume Amount

Fig. 15. 28-day flexural strength of GRPC with natural sand or crushed
quartz.
The 28-day compressive strength of GRPC with crushed quartz
was higher than that of natural sand by 9%–14% for different re-
cycled powder replacements due to the greater hardness and higher
SiO2 proportion of the crushed quartz than natural sand.
The 28-day flexural strength of GRPC with crushed quartz was
close to or even lower than that of natural sand, which was different
The mixture with different amounts of silica fume was designed
as shown in Table 7. The flow, compressive strength, and flexural
strength were compared as shown in Figs. 16–18.
The flow increased with the increase of the silica fume, as
shown in Fig. 16. Compared to the mixture without silica fume,
the flow increase was 80%–101%. This may be due to the smaller
particle size of silica fume than that of recycled powder and cement.
As a result, gaps of cement particles can be filled by silica fume and
free water in these gaps can be released. And thus the flow of the
mixture can be improved with the increase of free water. As 10% of
silica fume was added, the flow increased significantly, and the in-
crease was smaller as more silica fume was used, which indicated
that the filling effect of silica fume is limited by the number of gaps
in the concrete.
The compressive strength tended to increase with the increase of
the silica fume, as shown in Fig. 17. Because of bad workability of
the mixture without silica fume, only 28-day strength was tested.
Compared to the mixture without silica fume, the 28-day compres-
sive strength increase was 15%–23%.
The influence of silica fume on flexural strength was different
from that on compressive strength, as shown in Fig. 18. Because
the silica fume amount was not larger than 15%, the 28-day flexural

Table 7. Mix design of GRPC with different amounts of silica fume

SF:(C&RP)a Water SPb Cement Recycled powder Silica fume Natural sand
Mix ID (%) W:CM (kg=m3 ) (kg=m3 ) (kg=m3 ) (kg=m3 ) (kg=m3 ) (kg=m3 )
SF-0 0 0.16 167 29 700 300 0 1,000
SF-1 10 0.16 167 29 700 300 100 1,000
SF2 (RP-3) 15 0.16 167 29 700 300 150 1,000
SF-3 20 0.16 167 29 700 300 200 1,000
a
SF:(C&RP) = ratio of silica fume to cement and recycled power.
b
Liquid superplasticizer (water included).

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Fig. 17. Compressive strength versus silica fume content of GRPC. Fig. 19. Flow versus steel fiber content of GRPC.

Steel Fibers
Steel fibers can increase the strength and ductility of RPC (Richard
and Cheyrezy 1995). However, too many steel fibers can impact the
density and thus reduce the strength of RPC. Richard and Cheyrezy
(1995) investigated the mechanical properties of RPC with different
proportions of steel fibers and recommended a steel fiber propor-
tion of 2.0%. Dugat et al. (1996) suggested a steel fiber proportion
of 2.0%–3.0% based on the study on fracture energy. A steel fiber
proportion of 1.0%–2.5% was investigated in this study. The mix
proportions were developed as shown in Table 8. The flow, com-
pressive strength, and flexural strength of different mixtures were
tested, and compared as shown in Figs. 19–21, respectively.
1. Steel fiber proportion has no significant influence on the flow of
the mixture. Because the steel fiber proportion is not larger than
2.0%, the flow fluctuated. Abbas et al. (2015) found that the
flow decreased marginally with increased fiber. This may be be-
cause the component materials of GRPC have good particle size
distribution, and especially because silica fume can fill the gaps
around steel fibers and large particles, which can result in more
Fig. 18. Flexural strength versus silica fume content of GRPC. free water released. And too many fibers can result in clusters
and a poor distribution, as shown in Fig. 22(d), and internal fric-
tion increases and thus the flow reduced. It was found that when
strength increased with the increase of the silica fume. Compared to steel fibers were added into the mixer before the remaining 25%
the mixture without silica fume, the 28-day flexural strength increase water and superplasticizer were added, the mixing time for mix-
was 17%–22%. The 28-day flexural strength increased and then tures with steel fibers not larger than 1.5% can be reduced by
decreased with the increase of the silica fume, which is consistent 2–4 min compared with mixtures without steel fibers. The dis-
with the finding by Carette and Malhotra (1982). The extra silica persed steel fibers may work like a large number of tiny vibra-
fume failed to initiate the pozzolanic reaction, and the large specific tors during mixing and helped the dispersion of other particles.
surface area of the remaining silica fume can impact the strength. A more powerful mixer is needed for this. In summary, the flow
Considering the flow, compressive strength, and flexural strength, is not impacted by steel fibers, as long as the steel fiber propor-
a silica fume amount of 15% is suggested. tion is not larger than 2.0%.

Table 8. Mix design of GRPC with different amounts of steel fibers

Steel fiber Water SPa Cement Recycled powder Silica fume Natural sand
Mix ID volume (%) W:CM (kg=m3 ) (kg=m3 ) (kg=m3 ) (kg=m3 ) (kg=m3 ) (kg=m3 )
SF-0 (RP-3) 0 0.16 167 29 700 300 150 1,000
SF-1 1 0.16 167 29 700 300 150 1,000
SF-2 1.5 0.16 167 29 700 300 150 1,000
SF-3 2 0.16 167 29 700 300 150 1,000
SF-4 2.5 0.16 167 29 700 300 150 1,000
a
Liquid superplasticizer (water included).

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Fig. 20. Compressive strength versus steel fiber content of GRPC.
Fig. 21. Flexural strength versus steel fiber content of GRPC.
2. The influence of steel fiber proportion on the compressive
strength was different for different ages, as shown in Fig. 20.
For early ages (3 and 7 days), the compressive strength in-
creased with the increase of steel fibers. As the steel fiber pro-
portion exceeded 1.5%, the strength increase rate reduced. For
28 days, the strength decreased as the steel fiber proportion
exceeded 2.0%, which indicated that extra steel fibers can im-
pact the compressive strength. Too many fibers can result in
clusters and a poor distribution, as shown in Fig. 22(d).
The failure of concrete specimens by compression resulted from
local tension, or from a combination of tension and shear. Fibers
can bridge the cracks that develop in the matrix when the strain of
the composite exceeded the ultimate strain capacity. The bond be-
tween the steel fiber and matrix is provided by a combination of
chemical adhesion, mechanical interlock, and friction. For GRPC
at early ages, the bond is mainly provided by chemical adhesion
due to the lower strength of the matrix. Under loading, relative slip-
page between fibers and matrix is generated as the chemical adhe-
sion is overcome. The mechanical interlock and friction are so
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J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2019, 31(5): 04019033
Fig. 22. Fracture faces of GRPC specimens with different steel fiber
proportions: steel fiber volume percentage of (a) 1.0%; (b) 1.5%;
(c) 2.0%; and (d) 2.5%.
weak that cracking occurs and the propagation cannot be effec-
tively prevented. Fibers can be easily pulled out and then the
specimen is broken. The reinforcing effect of the fiber is mainly
determined by the amount of steel fibers. For the older GRPC, the
strength of the matrix is higher, and the mechanical interlock and
the friction are significantly enhanced. After crack initiation, the
fiber bridging mechanism can effectively prevent and delay the
expansion of the cracks. As the load increases, the friction contin-
ues to provide the bond until the fibers are completely pulled out
even after the mechanical interlock is overcome for slippage. The
material exhibits high strength and high toughness. If the fiber vol-
ume content is too high, the matrix material that prevents the indi-
vidual fiber from pulling out is relatively reduced. At the same
time, local clustering of fibers and worse workability (V f ¼ 2.5%)
causes more primary fissures in the matrix, resulting in a reduction
of the fiber-reinforcing effect.
For early ages (3 days), the flexural strength increased with the
increase of steel fibers, as shown in Fig. 21. For 7 and 28 days, the
flexural strength increased as the steel fiber proportion increased to
2.0%, and the strength reduced as more steel fibers were added.
The compressive and flexural strength increase of GRPC with
different proportions of steel fibers compared with GRPC without
steel fibers at 28 days is shown in Fig. 23. The enhancement of steel
fibers on flexural strength is much higher than that on the compres-
sive strength, and the difference increased significantly as the steel
fiber proportion increased to 2.0%. Steel fibers have more effect on
the flexural strength than the compressive strength.
Because the main effects of steel fibers include crack resistance,
strength enhancement, and toughness improvement, f:c was ana-
lyzed to evaluate the toughness improvement. The use of steel
fibers reduced the f:c of GRPC significantly, as shown in Fig. 24.
As the steel fiber proportion reduced to 2.0%, f:c increased, and
after 2.0%, f:c decreased.
J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

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Fig. 23. Strength increase versus steel fiber content.
Fig. 24. 28-day f:c versus steel fiber content.
Conclusions
The influences of different materials on the properties of GRPC
were investigated. Conclusions can be drawn based on the exper-
imental results and analysis.
1. A superplasticizer ratio of 1.0% and W:CM of 0.16 are
suggested.
2. The flow, flexural strength, and compressive strength of GRPC
decreased as the recycled powder increased. For 30% replace-
ment, the flow was very good, the strength reduction was not
large, and the toughness improvement was the largest. The
analysis of relative strength and the comprehensive strength
contribution rate indicated that recycled powder can enhance
the effect of cement on strength, and the enhancement effect of
recycled powder increased as the recycled powder replacement
or the age increased. Based on the comprehensive analysis,
recycled powder replacement of 30% is suggested.
3. Comparing GRPC with crushed quartz and with natural sand,
the flow of the latter was better, the compressive strength of
the latter was reduced about 10%, and the flexural strength
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J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2019, 31(5): 04019033
was not impacted. Natural sand is suggested as the fine aggre-
gate in GRPC instead of crushed quartz.
4. The flow and compressive strength of GRPC increased with the
increase of the silica fume, and the 28-day flexural strength in-
creased with the increase of the silica fume to 15%. Considering
the flow, compressive strength, and flexural strength, a silica
fume amount of 15% is suggested.
5. The steel fiber proportion has no significant influence on the
flow of the mixture. Because the steel fiber proportion was with-
in 2.0%, the flow of GRPC was good, the compressive and
flexural strengths increased with the increase of steel fibers,
and the toughness improved. A steel fiber proportion of 2.0%
is suggested.
Acknowledgments
The research was supported by the National Key Research and
Development Program of China (2017YFC0703000) and the
National Natural Science Foundation of China (51678430 and
51208373).
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